\r\n\tEssential information about the cell is derived from the light scattering features of the cells using dyes or monoclonal antibodies targeting either extracellular molecules on the cell surface or intracellular molecules. In biomedical research, the flow cytometer is the key tool used for analysis of complex cell populations such as immunological markers, in a very short timeframe. Today, flow cytometry applications are expanding in research and proved essential in clinical diagnosis. The diagnosis of many hematologic malignancies has now shifted from being based on morphology and clinical data to include comprehensive flow cytometry studies. This book provides insight into the basic flow cytometry principles and details the ever expanding applications of this powerful tool such as cell sorting, refined analysis of immunocompetent cells, phenotyping of peripheral blood cells and genomic analysis of single cells. \r\n\tThe importance of this technology in research and medical diagnosis as well as emerging applications is discussed in the last part of the book.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6e0b28ea4d69a61c9ba5d164fa7bd430",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Christine Rasetti-Escargueil",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8651.jpg",keywords:"Cell Fluorescence, Light Scattering, Biomarkers, Interleukins, Protein Expression, Cell Differentiation, Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting, Antibodies, Leukemia, Cancer, Multiplex Analysis, Diagnosis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 14th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 5th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 3rd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 24th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 23rd 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"249447",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christine",middleName:null,surname:"Rasetti-Escargueil",slug:"christine-rasetti-escargueil",fullName:"Christine Rasetti-Escargueil",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/249447/images/system/249447.jpg",biography:"Christine Rasetti-Escargueil, PharmD, PhD, is a senior scientist at the Bacterial Toxins Unit at Pasteur Institute, Paris. 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1. Introduction
Quasicrystals (QCs) are a well-defined ordered phase of solid matter with long-range quasiperiodic translational order and an orientational order [1], but no three dimensional translational periodicity [2]. In 1984, Shechtman et al [3] first reported these structures in a rapidly solidified Al–Mn alloy. It brings about a paradigm shift in solid-state physics for these atomic arrangements are forbidden for conventional crystallography [4] and have long been thought forbidden in nature. The unexpected discovery of QCs presents scientists with a new, puzzling class of materials and involves hundreds of researchers in this realm. During the beginning period for QC study, many QCs were fabricated in Al-based alloys [5]. Luo et al [6] discovered first Mg-based QCs in Mg-Zn-(Y, RE) system in 1993 which extend the alloy system of QCs.
So far, QCs in various systems have been synthesized in laboratories [2] and have also been discovered in a natural mineral [7] which comes from extraterrestrials. Many noticeable results were disclosed. The reported evidence [8] indicates that QCs can form naturally under astrophysical conditions and remain stable over cosmic timescales, giving unique insights on their existence in nature and stability. In 2011, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Daniel Shechtman for “the discovery of quasicrystals”. Nowadays, scientists all over the world refocus these amazing materials and their promising applications.
As is well-known, QCs possess a host of unusual mechanical and physical properties [9] such as high strength, high thermal conductivity, and low friction coefficient [10]. Though they cannot be applied directly as structural materials for their innate brittleness, they can be used as good strengthening phases for some flexible matrix. Moreover, QCs have good corrosion resistance and were introduced into compounds which have been applied in some medical fields [11,12]. In this chapter, QC morphology evolution, its influence factors, QC-strengthened alloys and QC corrosion resistance are discussed. These basic researches are very useful for further development of QCs.
2. Morphologies of quasicrystals
QCs present fascinating three dimensional morphologies such as dodecahedral and icosahedral shapes (Fig.1). In different alloy systems, QC can be produced by slow-cooling method or rapidly solidified method. Mg-Zn-Y QCs possess a broad QC forming range. They can be synthesized in a common casting process [10].
2.1. Morphology evolutions of Mg-Zn-Y quasicrystals [14]
The Mg72Zn26.5Y1.5 (at.%) alloys were produced by a reformed crucible electric resistance furnace (SG2-5-10A, as shown in Fig.2), melted under the mixture of SF6/CO2 protective atmosphere. Stirring for 2 min by impellor at 1073K and holding for 5 min above 1053K, the melt was poured and cooled by different cooling media (as shown in Fig.3 and Table 1). The cooling curves (as shown in Fig.4) of the alloys were monitored by multichannel data acquisition cards. The results showed that, the cooling rate was sequentially decreased from cooling media 1 to 5. The SEM images of Alloy 1 ~ Alloy 5 were shown in Fig.5.
Figure 2.
Schematic diagram of apparatus for making QC alloys
Figure 3.
Schematic diagram of cooling media
Alloy no.
Cooling
1
Be extracted by sample collector and cooled in water
2
Copper mould
3
Cast iron mould
4
Cement mould
5
Be poured into a graphite crucible and cooled in air
Table 1.
Cooling media of the alloys
Figure 4.
Cooling curves of the Alloys
The QC size gradually increased and the QC morphology changed with decreasing cooling rate. Decahedral quasicrystals (DQCs) were formed in Alloy 1 under cooling media 1, while icosahedral quasicrystals (IQCs) were formed in Alloy 2 ~ Alloy 5 under other cooling media. Moreover, the microhardness was larger for the smaller-sized QCs (Table 2). IQCs are quasiperiodic in three dimensions, while DQCs are quasiperiodic in two dimensions [2]. The DQCs formed in Alloy 1 presented flat bacilliform morphology and 10-fold symmetry characteristic. With decreasing cooling rate, the IQCs in Alloy 2 and Alloy 3 exhibited petal-like morphology under metal mould casting condition. Furthermore, the slower cooling rate induced larger IQC petals. With the further decrease of the cooling rate, the IQC petals showed nearly circular morphology. Finally, the IQCs grew up to large polygons in the slow cooling conditions.
Figure 5.
SEM images of Alloy 1~5 a) Alloy 1 (b) Alloy 2 (c) Alloy 3 (d) Alloy 4 (e) Alloy 5
Alloy no.
QC size / μm
QC morphology
QC microhardness / HV
1
10~12 in length
Flat X-shape
287
2
4~6
Petal-like
272
3
10~15
Petal-like
157
4
18~22
Near circular petal-like
182
5
300~400
Polygon
195
Table 2.
Comparisons of the quasicrystals
In order to clarify how the IQCs transformed from morphology of Alloy 1 to Alloy 2, the Mg72Zn26Y1.5Cu0.5 alloys were synthesized under a water-cooled copper mold with pouring gate diameter of 2 mm and 4 mm. Such cooling rates were just between the cooling media 1 and 2. The cooling rate of water-cooled copper mold with pouring gate diameter of 2mm was faster than that of 4mm. Flat DQCs like Alloy 1, and spherical IQCs were formed respectively in Fig.6 (a) and (b), and pouring gate diameter was 2mm and 4mm correspondingly. We can see from Fig.6, a plane branch grew out in one of two-dimensional (2D) prior growth directions of the flat DQCs (marked by a red arrow in Fig.6 (a)). And then more branches grew out in three-dimensional (3D) directions (marked by a red arrow in Fig.6 (b)). These branches increasingly became dense and agglomerate, and finally created a cluster for the primary IQC morphology.
Figure 6.
SEM images of Mg72Zn26Y1.5Cu0.5 alloys (a) Flat DQC (b) Spherical IQC
Figure 7.
Optical microstructure of Alloy 3 after heat treatment at 750 K for 15 min
A heat treatment for Alloy 3 at 750 K for 15 min was prepared for studying IQC growth process between IQC morphology in Alloy 3 and in Alloy 4. It can be seen from Fig.7 that various shapes of QCs at different growth stages were formed in the heat treatment process. There were plentiful IQC nuclei in as-cast Alloy 3, but the growth was not complete due to a fast cooling process. The petals shown in Alloy 3 were the ones who had experienced the nucleation process only, but do not have enough time to grow up into the morphology in Alloy 4. During the heat treatment, the IQC nuclei continued to grow.
From the above, the IQC morphology evolution process between IQCs in Alloy 1 and Alloy 2 as well as between IQCs in Alloy 3 and Alloy 4 were revealed. A general drawing of morphology evolution of Mg-Zn-Y quasicrystal phase in growth process was shown in Fig.8. Twenty-two kinds of typical morphology of Mg-Zn-Y QC phase during cooling process were extracted from SEM and OM images.
During cooling process of Mg-Zn-Y alloys, at first a plane branch (shape 2) grew out in one of prior growth directions of the flat DQCs (shape 1). And then more branches emerged and created a cluster (shape 3), which was the primary morphology of IQCs. At the beginning of the IQC growth stage, its morphology was near spherical (shape 4). The spherical interface was not maintained with alteration of the ambience conditions. Along the prior growth directions, the spherical IQC sprouted five petals (shape 5) or six petals (shape 16). These petals subsequently grew up and became larger in length (shape 6 and shape 17), and further separated from each other (shape 8 and shape 18). The separated IQC petals grew up (shape 9) and became new independent IQCs (as shape 5). If there were still leftover Zn and Y elements in the melt, the IQC petals will continue to split and repeat the cycle from shape 5 to shape 9 until they were used up. With decrease of the cooling rate and increase of the growth time, the IQCs became maturity and grew bigger (shape 11), and finally grew into bulk polygons.
Figure 8.
Schematic diagram of morphology evolution of Mg-Zn-Y quasicrystal phase in growth process
Figure 9.
Section schematic diagram of icosahedrons
The reason why the final morphology of IQCs was pentagonal (shape 12) and hexagonal (shape 13) polygon can be showed in Fig.9: a mature Mg-Zn-Y quasicrystal is an icosahedron in a 3-D view; when we observe it in different directions, it show different views; and when we grind and polish samples in parallel direction to the views, pentagonal and hexagonal cross-section morphology are presented with multiple probability.
2.2. Effects of the fourth component and undercooling [15,16]
The solidified process of quasicrystal phases which consist of grain nucleation and subsequent growth is similar to crystals. It was necessary to properly control the cooling rate during these two processes for the formation of the quasicrystal phase is thermodynamically unstable. Lower cooling rate might not effectively suppress the crystallization and would result in the formation of crystal phase while higher cooling rate might suppress the nucleation and growth of the quasicrystal phase and would result in the formation of amorphous phase. For quasicrystal containing magnesium alloys, stable icosahedral quasicrystal phase (I-phase) can be obtained under normal casting conditions.
At the early stage of nucleation process, the single fourth component particles act as potential nucleating substrates, and the morphology of I-phase should be nearly spherical. Because the coalescence of the fourth component at solidification front, surface energy at that local region was elevated, and growing velocity of I-phase slowed down. Moreover, the same heat dissipating condition in all directions leads to the same growing velocity of I-phase in all directions. Furthermore, during this process, highest volume percentage of surface layer to the whole volume of I-phase particle resulted in highest surface energy of I-phase, which enabled the morphology of I-phase particle shrinking to spherical or near-spherical. Therefore, the solidified morphology of I-phase depended on the stability of spherical I-phase during the subsequent growth [17]. I-phase with spherical morphology would be obtained if I-phase forming initially could preserve spherical interface stable in the whole growth process. Otherwise, I-phase with irregular or dendrite morphology would be eventually generated. According to the research results of Mullins et al. [18], relative stability criterion of spherical interface with radius being Rr can be expressed by the rate of change per unit perturbation amplitude:
δ•δ≤R•RE1
δ•δ=(l−1)KlKsL[ΔT−ΓTmΓR(1+∂t)]E2
The critical radius maintaining the spherical I-phase interface relative stable was:
Rr=2TmΓΔT[1+(l−1)(l−2)∂t]E3
∂t=12(l+2)[1+l(1+KsKl)]E4
Where δ is the amplitude of fluctuation, Ks the thermal conductivity of the solid phase, Kl the thermal conductivity of the liquid phase, L is latent heat of freezing, ΔT is degree of undercooling in the melt, Γ the ratio of interface energy to latent heat of solid phase per unit volume, l the rank of pherical harmonic function, Tm is the melting point of the alloy.
It can be known from Eqs. (3)~(4) that decreasing ΔT or elevating the interface energy between the I-phase and the melt were beneficial to the stability of spherical interface. The addition of a certain amount of the fourth component not only provided potential nucleating sites for I-phase, but also purified the melt by removing oxygen and the fourth component with harmful impurity elements. The coalescence of the fourth component compounds at solid/liquid interface resulted in higher interface energy and higher value of Γ. Moreover, the addition of the fourth component promoted heterogeneous nucleation of I-phase, lowered the degree of undercooling ΔT and increased the critical radius Rr. Meanwhile, the same heat dissipating condition of the I-phase particle in all directions resulted in the same growing velocity of I-phase particle in all directions, enabling I-phase to keep spherical growing front and providing positive conditions for spherical growth of I-phase.
However, if superfluous addition of the fourth component, un-dissolved fourth component will discharge from the solid phase to solid/liquid interface and formed the fourth component solute transitional layer with certain thickness. Moreover, due to the increasingly enrichment of the fourth component compounds in front of the growing solid/liquid interface of I-phase particle, the degree of constitutional under-cooling increased, and ΔT increased as well.
ΔT =ΔTh+ΔTc+ΔTkE5
Where ΔTh is thermodynamics undercooling, ΔTc the constitutional undercooling, and ΔTk the kinetics undercooling. It means that ΔT is composed of three parts of ΔTh, ΔTc and ΔTk.
Increased ΔT intensified the instability of spherical growing surface of I-phase particle. Then the I-phase turn to coarse, the spherical morphology will be wrecked and transform to petal-like.
Figure 10.
SEM images of as-cast Mg-Zn-Y-Sb alloys containing I-phase; (a) Mg72.2Zn26.2Y1.5Sb0.1 (b) Mg72.1Zn26.2Y1.5Sb0.2
Fig.10 shows SEM images of Mg-Zn-Y-Sb alloys. I-phase morphology in Mg72.2Zn26.2Y1.5Sb0.1 was spherical while Mg72.1Zn26.2Y1.5Sb0.2 presented petal-like. It can be seen from Fig.10(a) that the value of critical radius Rr of I-phase in Mg-Zn-Y-0.1Sb alloy was about 8μm when the content of the fourth component Sb was 0.1%. If local conditions changed, and spherical radius value exceed Rr, the morphology transformation of I-phase from spherical to petal-like will be occurred (marked by the lower red arrow in Fig.10(a) ). So we can see that the superfluous addition of the fourth component was negative to the stability of spherical interface, and also made against to forming spherical I-phase. We can see from Fig.10(b): most parts of I-phase are petal-like while a few of I-phase are spherical(marked by white arrows). Therefore a critical stable radius indeed exists. Once the interface radius of I-phase is larger than Rr in IQC growth process, the final morphology of I-phase in that local zone will be petal-like. Conversely, spherical morphology will be preserved in local zone if the interface radius of I-phase is smaller than Rr.
The effect of different contents of the fourth component and different degree of undercooling on critical stable radius of spherical I-phase can be shown in Fig.11. As we discussed above, for certain cooling conditions and certain compositions of Mg-Zn-Y alloys, certain size of critical stable radius exist and we describe this state as state I. The addition of a small amount of the fourth component is able to result in an decrease of degree of undercooling and finally increase the critical stable radius Rr as seen in Eqs.(3). We can describe this state as state II. However, if superfluous addition of the fourth component, constitutional under-cooling will come out, ΔT will increase. Thus the critical stable radius of spherical I-phase will decrease. This state can be called state III.
Figure 11.
Schematic diagram of different states and transform process of critical stable radius
For a certain cooling condition and a certain composition of alloys, different contents of the fourth component and their critical stable radius have relationships of one-to-one correspondence. Fig.11 takes the fourth component Sb and Cu for examples. Only when the radius of IQC less than Rr in their respective states can spherical IQC be formed. Under most of the conditions, if superfluous addition of the fourth component, small-sized Rr will generate big-sized petal-like IQC. It seems as if superfluous addition of the fourth component could not produce spherical I-phase. Actually, we can improve cooling conditions and increase ΔTh and ΔT artificially. Much smaller critical stable radius will make it difficult to forming spherical I-phase. However, higher cooling rate might cut down the growth time of the quasicrystal phase. Spherical interface of I-phase forming preliminary stage will be stably preserved in the whole growth process, and then smaller-sized spherical I-phase which its radius less than Rr will occurred. We can define this state as state IV. Under these principles, a kind of spherical I-phase with high content of the fourth component but amazing minisize (as shown in Fig.12(b)) can be produced by using a water-cooled copper mould (as shown in Fig.13(a)). So, it is a novel way to produce spherical I-phase with high content of the fourth component in minisize by increasing thermodynamics undercooling artificially. In this way, we can easily control cooling rate in a certain range and obtain quarternary spherical IQC with different minisize scale.
Searching proper content of different fourth component, confirming the size of spherical stable radius, developing quarternary spherical IQC with different minisize scale, and thoroughly making good use of IQC particles as reinforcement phase are future problems and proper research points.
Figure 12.
SEM images of Mg-Zn-Y-Cu alloys cooled in different mould(a) Mg72.1Zn26.2Y1.5Cu0.2 (cast iron mould) (b) Mg72.0Zn26.0Y1.5Cu0.5 (water-cooled Cu mould)
Figure 13.
Mould for produces spherical QC alloys; (a) Water-cooled cooper mould (b) Casting
3. Effects of quasicrystal alloys on mechanical properties of magnesium alloys [19]
The effects of different Ce contents on microstructure of Mg-Zn-Y-Ce QC alloys are shown in Fig.14. Mg-Zn-Y QCs showed petal-like morphology under cast iron mould cooling conditions. When the added Ce content was small (0.2 at.%), the morphology and size of QC petals were basically unchanged. With the increase of Ce content (0.5 at.%), the amounts and size of the QC petals were significantly increased, and the petals became more round. When the Ce content reached 0.8 at.%, the amounts of I-phases further multiplied, but the petals reduced in size. The petal branch became short, unconspicuous, and subsphaeroidal. With the further increase in Ce content (1.0 at.%), the IQC petal size grew twice that of 0.5 at.% Ce, and they were transformed as multi-secondary dendrites of the five- or six-petaled flowers. This process was in line with the cooling influencing law [15].
Figure 14.
SEM images of the Mg-Zn-Y-Ce QC alloys. (a) Mg72.5Zn26Y1.5 (b) Mg72.3Zn26Y1.5Ce0.2 (c) Mg72.1Zn25.9Y1.5Ce0.5 (d) Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 (e) Mg71.8Zn25.7Y1.5Ce1.0
Figure 15.
Microhardness of quasicrystals.
Figure 16.
Microstructure of AZ91 alloys reinforced by different content of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloys (wt%). (a) 0% (b) 5% (c) 10% (d) 15% (e) 30%
The microhardness test results (as shown in Fig.15) of IQC alloys showed as the following: All values of microhardness of quaternary QCs were higher than those of ternary QCs. With increase in Ce content, the microhardness of I-phase also increased. However, when the dosage reached a certain value (i.e., 1.0%), the microhardness of I-phase decreased sharply. The microhardness value of I-phase in the Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy reached to HV287, which is 82.8% higher than that in ternary Mg72.5Zn26Y1.5 alloy. In following experiments, Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy was used as a master alloy to strengthen AZ91 alloys since the quaternary subsphaeroidal I-phase contain high microhardness and possess better wetting power with Mg matrix.
Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 master alloys with contents of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 30% (wt.%) were added into AZ91 alloys. Changes in the microstructure of AZ91 alloys are shown in Fig. 16. With the increase in the amount of the Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy, the grains of AZ91 alloys were gradually refined, while β-phase was refined and narrowed. However, when the dosage of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy was too high (30%), β-phase turn to coarse.
In this craft, Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy was added into molten AZ91 and remelted. In the subsequent metal mold cooling process, the I-phases nucleated, but insufficient time did not allow for the adequate increase in size. Therefore, small granular I-phases precipitated from the grain interiors of the AZ91 alloys. These granular I-phases mixed with divorced β-phase particles, which baffled the process of identification of one from the other. In several kinds of phases of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy, only I-phases remained after remelting. Other phases integrated into the AZ91 and became constituting elements of AZ91 alloys. Since I-phases are heat-stable phases [20], they remain in the alloys and will not be broken down into other phases even in high-temperature heating process. Thus, they can play significant roles for the matrix after heat treatment. Considering this characteristic of I-phases, we can study the effects of heat treatment to further improve on the mechanical properties of QCs reinforced AZ91 alloys.
Figure 17.
Microstructure of AZ91 alloys reinforced by different content of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloys after T4 solution treatment at 420C for 24h. (wt%) (a) 5% (b) 10% (c) 15% (d) 30%
After solution treatment (420Cx24h), grain boundaries of AZ91 alloys became clear, the typical reticular morphology of β-phase disappeared, and I-phases and Al-Mn particles precipitated in the intragranular zone. It was difficult to distinguish between the two particles when the content of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 master alloy was low. I-phase was formed through the reaction of L→α-Mg+I at about 400C during solidification process [10]. Therefore, under this temperature, small IQC particles increased in size and ripened during the long time process of T4 heat treatment. As shown in Fig.17, during the same heat treatment process, with the increase of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy, the amounts and size of quaternary Mg-Zn-Y-Ce IQCs in AZ91 matrix gradually increased. The Al-Mn phases, however, did not change to bigger. This made the two kinds of particles distinguishable.
An aging treatment (220Cx8h) was conducted after the solution treatment. With an aging temperature of 220C set between the continuous precipitation temperature (310C) and discontinuous precipitation temperature (150C), but nearer to the discontinuous precipitation temperature, the β-phases of AZ91 alloys mainly discontinuously precipitated. During the 8h aging treatment process, lamellar precipitates formed from the grain boundaries and grew in the intragranular. Granular β-phase also precipitated in the intragranular through a continuous precipitation method. Thus, precipitates filled the whole grain, as shown in Fig. 18.
Figure 18.
Microstructure of AZ91 alloys reinforced by different content of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloys after T6 solution(420Cx24h) and aging(220Cx8h) treatment. (wt%) (a) 5% (b) 10% (a) 15% (b) 30%
I-phase was difficult to be observed after the aging treatment when the content of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy was small (5%). With an increase in the content of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy, the amounts of IQCs in the grain of AZ91 alloys likewise increased. When the content of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy continued to rise, the size of IQCs turned larger, but eutectic phases in grain boundaries became coarse. With the excessive addition of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy, only a few I-phases remained in the intragranular AZ91 alloys; eutectic phases in the grain boundary became very thick, and the morphology of eutectic β-phase presented a lamellar. Meanwhile, parts of the eutectic α-Mg showed dendrite morphology.
Fig.19 shows that the value of the Brinell hardness (HB) of the IQC-reinforced AZ91 alloy decreased after the solution treatment, while its value remarkably increased after the further aging treatment. With the increasing addition of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy, the HB values of as-cast and solution-treated AZ91 alloys showed a linear increase, while the HB values of aging-treated AZ91 alloys first increased and then decreased.
Figure 19.
Relationship between additions of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 master alloy and Brinell hardness of AZ91 alloys.
Figure 20.
Relationship between additions of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 master alloy and mechanical properties of AZ91 alloys.
Fig.20 shows that the values of tensile strength (σb) and elongation (δ) of AZ91 alloys with all states reached their maximum when the content of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy was about 10%. With increasing content of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy, the mechanical properties of AZ91 alloys increased first and decreased subsequently.
After adding Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy into AZ91 alloys, the introduced Y and Ce elements played mixed roles in grain refinement and strengthening. Tensile strength and elongation of AZ91 alloys increased. Furthermore, a large number of introduced highly hardened IQC particles shifted the HB value of as-cast AZ91 and the value increased with the rising content of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 master alloy. The excessive addition of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 alloy reduced the mechanical properties of AZ91 alloys; these were related to the formation of coarse β-phase, which produced dissevered effects to the matrix in the deformation process.
After the solution treatment, the majority of the main strengthening phase (reticulated β-phase) of AZ91 alloys disappeared, which made the HB value of solution-treated AZ91 alloys lower than in the as-cast. In addition, the microstructure of AZ91 alloys became homogeneous due to the annealing treatment. This eliminated most of the stress concentration and composition segregation. As a result, the tensile properties and plasticity of the heat-treated state AZ91 alloys showed small improvements compared to the as-cast AZ91 alloys. With additions of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 master alloy exceeding 10%, the reduced mechanical properties of AZ91 alloys resulted to large I-phases and dissevered effects to the matrix in the deformation process.
After the aging treatment, the lamellar eutectic β-phases that grew on the grain boundaries were parallel or perpendicular to the matrix; this played an important role in its strengthening. Due to the discontinuous precipitation of lamellar β-phases, with their main strengthening effect coming from this kind of precipitation method, in addition to continuous precipitation of pellet β-phases, the values of HB and tensile strength of AZ91 alloys rapidly increased. However, with the large amount of Mg72Zn25.7Y1.5Ce0.8 master alloy, the excess introduced a Y element, which brought about highly stable Al-Y phases during the aging treatment. These Al-Y phases resulted to a pinning effect on the nucleation and growth of β-phases, thereby preventing the precipitation of β-phases. Thus, the β-phases on the grain boundaries were very coarse and did not grow in the intragranular zone (as shown in Fig.18(d)). Thick and hard β-phases can easily make cutting effects to the matrix. Their interfaces can easily be crack sources of the AZ91 alloys, which is unfavorable to the strength and plasticity of magnesium alloys. As a result, the tensile strength and elongation of AZ91 alloys decreased sharply.
4. Mg-based nano-quasicrystals [21,22]
In previous study [14~16, 19, 21~27], the effects of cooling conditions, heat treatment and the fourth components on QC morphology, size and volume fractions are detailedly researched. Spherical QCs with small size are fabricated in a relatively high cooling rate. In this part, we improve the cooling condition by using a water-cooled wedge-shaped copper mould (Fig. 21 shows its casting) to produce QCs in nanoscale.
Figure 21.
Sketch map of a wedge-shaped casting (mm)
TEM photos of QC alloys (Alloy compositions are listed in Table 3) in different sample positions are shown in Fig. 22. Three kinds of componential micro/nano QC phases are synthesized on tip of wedge-shaped castings. Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis (Fig. 23) shows that micro/nano QC phases in Position B of Alloy 6 ~ Alloy 8 are Mg-Zn-Y phase, Mg-Zn-Y-Cu phase and Mg-Zn-Y-Cu-Ni phase, respectively. The selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns with typical five-fold rotational symmetry identify that these micro/nano QC phases are icosahedral QCs.
Alloy No.
Alloy compositions (at. %)
Mg
Zn
Y
Cu
Ni
6
72.0
26.0
2.0
-
-
7
71.0
26.0
2.0
1.0
-
8
71.0
26.0
2.0
0.5
0.5
Table 3.
Nominal composition of the experimental alloys
Alloy No.
Sample position
QC size(diameter) / nm
QC morphology
Microhardness / HV
6
A
650-900
Petal-like
324
B
330-340
Spherical
375
7
A
370-400
Spherical
367
B
1.0-5.0
Spherical
459
8
A
20-55
Spherical
412
B
8-30
Spherical
438
Table 4.
Comparisons of the quasicrystals (QCs)
Figure 22.
TEM photos of micro/nano-QC alloys and QC typical selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns on Position B of different alloys
Among all QCs, QCs in Position A of Alloy 6 show petal-like morphology, while others show spherical morphology. From the further analysis in Table 4, we can see that in alloys with same components, QCs in Position B are smaller than those in Position A, while QC microhardness in Position B is greater than that in Position A. After introducing Cu(-Ni) into Mg-Zn-Y alloys, we can see in the same sample position, QC size of Alloy 7 and Alloy 8 is obviously smaller than that of Alloy 6. QC size of Alloy 7 in Position A is close to that of Alloy 6 in Position B. Nano-QC spheres about 8~30 nm and 1~5 nm are synthesized in Position B of Alloy 8 and Alloy 7, respectively. It shows from the microhardness testing that the smaller the QC spheres, the greater their value of microhardness. Furthermore, the microhardness of nano-QC spheres in Position B of Alloy 7 exceeds HV450 which show fascinating properties.
Figure 23.
Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis on QCs in Position B
Fig. 24 shows the potentiodynamic polarization curves of QC alloys (Position B) measured in simulated seawater open to air at room temperature. We can see that Mg71Zn26Y2Cu1 nano-QC alloy presents high corrosion resistance in simulated seawater and its corrosion resistance is much better than that of Mg72Zn26Y2 and Mg71Zn26Y2Cu0.5Ni0.5 QC alloys. The further study shows that this result can be ascribed to the existence of well-distributed nano-QC phases (shown in Fig. 25 by red arrows) and polygonal Mg2(Cu,Y) phases [28]. These high corrosion resistance phases decrease the anodic passive current density, improve the polarization resistance, cut down the corrosion rate (Table 5) and finally improve the corrosion resistance of the Mg-Zn-Y-based alloy markedly. Cu and Ni have long been considered as harmful elements for improving corrosion resistance of Mg-based alloy [29], however, they are used to synthesize nano-QC spheres in this paper. Due to high corrosion resistance of QC phases, Mg71Zn26Y2Cu1 and Mg71Zn26Y2Cu0.5Ni0.5 nano-QC alloys present better corrosion resistance than Mg72Zn26Y2 QC alloy. Moreover, the corrosion resistance of Mg71Zn26Y2Cu1 nano-QC alloys is higher than Mg71Zn26Y2Cu0.5Ni0.5 nano-QC alloys for the higher damage level of Ni to the corrosion resistance of magnesium alloy than that of Cu when they have same contents [29].
Figure 24.
Potentiodynamic polarization curves of QC alloys (Position B) measured in simulated seawater open to air at room temperature
It was reported that a large negative enthalpy of mixing and/or existence of Frank-Kasper-type phases appear to be the crucial criteria for the formation of nanoquasicrystalline phase in any system [30]. Meanwhile, Mg-Zn-Y-based QCs just belong to Frank-Kasper-type phases [31] and have a certain negative enthalpy of mixing. So theoretically, Mg-Zn-Y-based nano-QCs can be formed in a proper cooling condition. The past cooling rate the researchers made to produce QCs was whether too high or too low, and was not content with the forming conditions of nano-QCs. This route just meets the demands for forming nanoscale QCs. So, nano-QCs are successfully produced in this paper. Moreover, the additions of Cu and Ni improve the degree of constitutional supercooling of Mg-Zn-Y melts and reduce the crucial criteria radius for forming spherical QCs. However, increasing thermodynamics undercooling coming from water-cooled wedge-shaped copper mould make it still possible to form spherical QCs. At the same time, the alloy components designed for this study is based on the three empirical rules [32] for the formation of metallic glass. It has been widely accepted that quasicrystals and at least some metallic glasses are built up with icosahedral clusters [33]. The short-range atomic configuration is very similar between the quasicrystal and amorphous phases [34]. On the tip of the wedge-shaped ingots, its cooling conditions are just suitable for these icosahedral clusters to be nucleation of QCs. And then, it leaves very short time for quasicrystal growth. So, it is nano-QCs that form in this route instead of metallic glasses.
Specimen
Icorr/µA/cm2
Rp/kΩ
Corrosion Rate/mpy
6#
11.09
6.925
19.298
7#
2.035
14.76
1.522
8#
3.762
8.105
3.084
Table 5.
Corrosion parameters obtained from potentiodynamic polarization curves for Position B of QC alloys in simulated seawater. Icorr: corrosion current; Rp: polarization resistance.
Figure 25.
Pentagonal nanophase in Mg71Zn26Y2Cu1 alloy
5. Summary
The existing results show that QC characteristics are influenced by the cooling conditions during QC nucleation and subsequent growth. In macroscopic view, transformations of QCs in morphology, size and volume fractions are caused by changes of the cooling rate, the additions of fourth components and heat treatments. The further theoretical research shows that the final morphology of a QC is determined by the critical stable radius Rr. Only when the real radius of a QC less than Rr can spherical IQC be formed. Otherwise, petal-like QCs will form.
QC master alloys can be used to strengthen magnesium alloys. Proper doses may induce an improvement in mechanical properties of a magnesium alloy. Furthermore, we can fabricate nano-QCs by controlling thermodynamics undercooling and using a water-cooled wedge-shaped copper mould. Due to the good corrosion resistance of QCs, nano-QCs containing magnesium alloy show higher corrosion resistance.
Although QCs have been studied for about 30 years by scientists all over the world, successful applications of QCs have been very limited. For example, QCs can be applied as a surface coating for frying pans, could be used in surgical blades, and could be incorporated into hydrogen storage materials [2]. These are insufficient to meet people’s demand for this amazing material. New applications are expected to develop.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Morphologies of quasicrystals",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Morphology evolutions of Mg-Zn-Y quasicrystals [14]",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Effects of the fourth component and undercooling [15,16]",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Effects of quasicrystal alloys on mechanical properties of magnesium alloys [19]",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Mg-based nano-quasicrystals [21,22]",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'LevineD.SteinhardtP. J.1986Quasicrystals. I. Definition and Structure. Physical Review B, 345966161098-0121\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'Louzguine-LuzginD. V.InoueA.2008Formation and Properties of Quasicrystals. Annual Review of Materials Research, 384034231531-7331'},{id:"B3",body:'ShechtmanD.BlechI.GratiasD.CahnJ. W.1984Metallic Phase with Long-range Orientational Order and No Translational Symmetry. 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1. Introduction
When dealing with groin hernia, we believe that surgeons must be familiarized with an open technique (Lichtenstein), a posterior open technique (e.g., Rives-Stoppa), a non-mesh technique (Shouldice or McVay), and a laparoendoscopic technique (TAPP or eTEP). The former is because the groin hernia has a lifetime occurrence of 27–43% in men and 3–6% in women [1]. Therefore, inguinal hernia repair (IHR) is one of the most common surgeries performed worldwide, doing approximately 20 million each year [2].
It is now well recognized that laparoendoscopic techniques are superior to open approaches concerning less postoperative pain, numbness [3], chronic pain, fewer complications, and faster return to normal activities [2–4. Nevertheless, longer operative time, increased costs, and major complications such as great vessels and intestinal injuries are attributable to the laparoendoscopic approach [2, 3, 4]. Even though laparoendoscopic surgery is more expensive than open procedures [2], improved surgical skills, experienced surgeons, high-volume centers, and some patient characteristics (e.g., Bilateral inguinal hernia) enhance this approach [2, 4, 5, 6].
The minimally invasive surgical techniques for inguinal hernia repair (MISr): extended-view totally extraperitoneal approach (eTEP) and transabdominal preperitoneal approach (TAPP); are gaining ground in the surgeons’ armamentarium. Improved laparoscopic skills, well-selected patients, simulator training, and anatomy knowledge of the groin are the cornerstone for these approaches.
2. Anatomical considerations
The myopectineal orifice (MPO) is an inherently weak area of the abdominal wall where the direct, indirect, femoral, and oblique hernias occur [7], being delimited medially by rectus abdominis muscle, inferiorly by pectineus ligament, laterally by psoas muscle, and superiorly by the transverse arch (transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscle) [8]. The anatomical landmarks are described in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Anatomical landmark of laparoscopic pelvic view (A) and inguinal laparoscopic view (B). Own by the author.
Two classic triangles have been described in the laparoscopic inguinal view: The triangle of doom (Figure 2) where the external iliac artery and vein are, and the triangle of pain (Figure 2), within this triangle, are from lateral to medial: the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve, the femoral branch of the genitofemoral nerve and the femoral nerve.
Figure 2.
Triangle of pain (P) and triangle of doom (D). Own by the author.
A more didactic description of the MPO’s posterior visualization dividing this region into three zones and five triangles was described to facilitate the comprehension and recognition of anatomical structures during MISr [8] (see Figures 3 and 4).
Figure 3.
Inverted “Y” and five triangles of the inguinal region. Femoral hernia (F), direct hernia (D), indirect hernia (I), doom (D) and pain (D) triangles. Own by the author.
Figure 4.
Zones of the inguinal region. Own by the author.
3. Surgical aspects
Even though the eTEP and the TAPP require a different initial approach, both techniques need to accomplish the MPO’s critical view to assurance a correct mesh placement after the creation of the peritoneal pocket.
3.1 Indications and contraindications
The indications to perform a MISr of inguinal hernia are the same as those for an open approach. The more important indications to do MISr are: knowledge of the technique with a clear laparoscopic anatomy concept, having laparoscopic skills for intracorporeal suture, and bimanual dissection capacity. In the case of an incarcerated or strangulated hernia, we recommend the TAPP approach to inspect the bowel; if small bowel resection must be done, intracorporeal stapler use or exteriorization of the bowel through the umbilical port (minilaparotomy of 5 cm) can be used.
The contraindications are the patient’s intolerance to pneumoperitoneum, childhood, and pregnancy after the second trimester. Relative contraindications are severe ascites, strangulated hernia, recurrence inguinal hernia after a posterior approach.
As for the initial cases, we recommend starting with small, unilateral hernias and progressively, increase the difficulty of the cases.
3.2 Preoperative planning
Patient: patient’s position on the operating table is supine with both arms secured at their respective side. Bladder drainage with a Foley catheter is unnecessary if the patient urinates immediately before entering the operating room; We suggest draining the bladder with a Foley catheter during the initial cases.
Instrument: laparoscopic tower, a 30 degrees 10 mm angular scope, two grasper or Croce-Olmi forceps, one Maryland dissector, one Metzenbaum scissors, one laparoscopic needle driver, monopolar energy.
The surgeon’s position is on the hernia’s contralateral side (Dr. Ploneda-Valencia usually operates at the patient’s head). The camera’s operator is on the hernia’s side (or at the opposite of the hernia if the surgeon is at the patient’s head). The operating table is kept in the Trendelenburg position with a contralateral rotation of the hernia. The monitor is placed at the patient’s feet.
Comment: Our anesthetist usually applies a TAP block guided with ultrasound.
3.2.1 Standardize technique: critical view of the myopectineal orifice
The following are the steps to gain the critical view of the MPO, which are necessary to increase surgical success [9]:
Create a large peritoneal flap. Dissect across the midline and identify the pubic tubercle and Cooper’s ligament (CL). For large, direct hernias, extend the dissection to the contralateral CL.
Rule out a direct hernia by visualizing the anatomy. Remove unusual fat in the Hesselbach’s triangle.
Dissect the space of Retzius at least 2 cm between the CL and bladder to facilitate flat placement of the mesh.
Rule out a femoral hernia by dissecting between the CL and iliac vein.
Parietalize the cord’s elements. To ensure compliance with this requirement, the dissection must continue until the cord’s elements lie flat. Pull the sac and peritoneum upward; this maneuver will not trigger any movement of the cord’s elements if this step is achieved.
Identify and reduce cord lipomas.
Dissect the peritoneum lateral to the cord’s elements beyond the anterior superior iliac spine.
Perform the dissection and ensure that mesh provides adequate coverage of all defects. Mechanical fixation must be placed above an imaginary inter-anterior superior iliac spine line and any defects to avoid recurrence and nerve injury.
Place the mesh only when items 1 to 8 are completed, and hemostasis has been verified. The mesh size should be at least 15–10 cm and be placed without creases or folds. Ensure that its lateral-inferior corner lies deep against the wall and does not roll up during space deflation.
3.2.2 eTEP technical features
The initial incision is made on the flank 3 cm above and 5 cm lateral to the umbilicus line [6, 10, 11]. See Figure 5 for unilateral hernia and Figure 6 for bilateral hernia trocar setup. At the selected location, a 12 mm incision is made, and the anterior fascia is exposed with the use of “S” retractors, the anterior fascia is incised with a no. 11 blade, the fibers of the rectal abdominis muscle are separate, and the posterior sheath is exposed. Blunt dissection with the finger is done, and the space created is lifted with the help of the “S” retractor to allow the introduction of the balloon dissector (Figure 7). Once the balloon dissector (Spacemaker™ Plus Dissector System) is inserted, the camera is introduced, and the balloon is inflated with the hand pump with 25–30 hand pumps of air under direct vision. The next step should follow the critical view of the myopectineal orifice [9].
Figure 5.
eTEP for unilateral inguinal hernia trocar setup. “A” left hernia and “B” right hernia. Own by the author.
Figure 6.
eTEP bilateral inguinal hernia trocar setup. “A” start with the right hernia; “B” insert a fourth trocar in the rigth lower cuadrant to do the left hernia.
Figure 7.
Balloon dissector outside (A) and inside (B) view of the abdomen. Own by the author.
3.2.3 TAPP technical features
The trocar setup we recommend is demonstrated in Figure 8; the initial incision is transumbilical [12, 13], either Veress or Hasson technique can be done as the surgeons’ preference, and a 12 mm trocar is introduced. After laparoscopy is done, two 5 mm trocar to the right and left of the umbilicus are introduced. Our recommendation for the peritoneal flap creation is to initiate the lateral side 2 cm upper and 2 cm medial to the anterior superior iliac spine. In a horizontal direction, it incises the peritoneum to the medial umbilical ligament (See Figure 1). The following dissection should be in a bloodless space, which could be done either in Zone 1 or in Zone 2 (See Figure 4). We recommend doing first the Zone 2 dissection because it is easier to identify the CL and the pubic tubercle (Figure 9). The next step should follow the critical view of the myopectineal orifice [9].
Figure 8.
TAPP trocar setup. Own by the author.
Figure 9.
Complete inguinal dissection. Own by the author.
3.2.4 Pitfalls and pearls
The TAPP technique is easier to learn and has a more “friendly” view of the anatomical landmarks than eTEP.
The dissection of Zone 2 is easier to do and has a more consistent anatomy.
The medial defect should be close if it is larger than 2 cm. We recommend the use of the European Hernia Classification to describe the hernias [14].
The lateral hernia sac should be traction medially. Remember, “traction” and “counteraction” are the key steps to dissect the sac.
“Twist” medially the sac to improve the traction.
The dissection of the cord’s elements is achieved when we tract the peritoneal flap, and the movement is not transmitted to the cord’s elements; the sac must reach the peritoneal flap.
In larger sacs, the “ligation and section” approach is a valid option
If bleeding from the “Corona Mortis” occurs, simple compression with two or three gauzes is usually enough for 5 to 10 minutes. We do not recommend using electrocautery as it may tear the vessel or increase the zone of bleeding.
The mesh should be at least 12 cm transversely and 11 cm vertically. We usually use a 14×14 cm mesh.
We do not recommend using a pre-shaped mesh because it only increases the cost of the procedure. We use a polypropylene mesh of 15×15 cm (Ultrapro™ or Prolene™) and cut it to fix. We only cut the border of the mesh. See Figure 10
We recommend rolling up the mesh to introduce the mesh and place an external stitch to maintain the position. Once inside, cut the stitch and unroll it, pulling the mesh’s inferior medial aspect downward and unrolling upward. See Figure 11
To fix the mesh, either use 1–2 Tackers in CL, 1 Tacker medial, and 1 Tacker lateral and in the most upper part of the mesh to avoid the triangle of pain or use absorbable stitches instead. Always remember not to apply it over the inferior epigastric vessels or beneath an imaginary line that runs transversely from the iliopubic tract to the pubic tubercle (See Figure 3). See Figure 12.
Even though experts do not fix the mesh [15], we strongly recommend fixing it to diminish migration risk. On the other hand, the mesh’s excessive fixation won’t prevent a recurrence if the surgical technique isn’t performed correctly and will increase the risk of postoperative pain and chronic pain [16].
Tears can appear during the creation of the peritoneal flap, making it complicated to cover the mesh. Using the redundant peritoneal sac to cover the mesh with peritoneum is a feasible option.
Figure 10.
Mesh configuration. Own by the author.
Figure 11.
Roll up mesh (A) and unroll the mesh from downward to upward (B). Own by the author.
Figure 12.
Fix mesh either with tackers (A) or stitches (B). Own by the author.
3.2.5 Postoperative care
In the small or medium-sized hernias (L/M < 3), we managed the patient as an outpatient; during the learning curve, a 12–24 hours observation may be advisable. The use of tight boxers and an icepack application in the groin region reduces postoperative pain and the inflammatory response. We recommend using the icepack for 30 minutes four times a day during the first seven days. Physical activity, mild activities (such as driving or going to work) are recommended after the 7th postoperative day; lifting over 10 kg or doing exercise is recommended after the 4th postoperative week.
3.3 Complications
Transoperative complications: the most common complication is peritoneal flap tear, which can be closed with the remanent sac or by diminishing the insufflator’s pressure to do a primary closure. Bleeding of large vessels is a life-threatening complication. The more frequent injured vessels are the inferior epigastric vessels or the obturator vessels. If bleeding occurs, compression with gauze for 10 minutes is usually enough; using titanium clips or an advanced hemostatic device (LigasureTM or HarmonicTM) may resolve the problem. The surgeon must be ready to convert the surgery if the bleeding is abundant. As for the intestinal lesion, the surgeon’s ability to do a primary closure with intracorporeal suture will decide the course of action. If the surgical field is contaminated, an open non-mesh technique should be done.
Postoperative complications include pain, seroma, hematoma, hydrocele, surgical site infection, chronic pain, mesh rejection, mesh infection, recurrence, testicular atrophy, among other less common complications (e.g., mesh penetration of the bladder). Seroma is the most frequent complication, usually appears in a large hernia, secondary either to death-space or to an exhaustive dissection of a large sac. Hematoma is another frequent complication which diminishes its appearance if tight boxers and icepack on the groin are used. Generally, watchful waiting is enough to manage either seroma or hematoma, but surgical drainage may be needed if large and painful.
4. Conclusions
MISr is safe and feasible if the surgeon is familiarized with the anatomical landmarks and the technique. Surgical skills and experience are essential to improve patient outcomes. Reviewing the surgery video, especially during the learning curve or in complicated cases, and comparing it with the expert’s videos, enhances the surgeon’s growth and diminishes the learning curve.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"inguinal hernia, TAPP, TEP, E-TEP, minimally",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76228.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76228.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76228",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76228",totalDownloads:8,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 13th 2020",dateReviewed:"March 15th 2021",datePrePublished:"April 12th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 12th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The minimally invasive surgical technique for inguinal hernia repair (eTEP and TAPP) are gaining acceptance among surgeons worldwide. With the superior benefits of the laparoendoscopic techniques (less postoperative pain, numbness, and chronic pain, fewer complications, and faster return to normal activities), the protocolization and standardization of these approaches are essential to improve patient outcomes and reduce costs. Improved laparoscopic skills, well-selected patients, simulator training, and anatomy knowledge of the groin are the cornerstone for these approaches. We recommend starting the learning curve with the TAPP procedure, because it is easier to get familiarized with the anatomical landmarks of the pelvis and groin.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76228",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76228",signatures:"César Felipe Ploneda-Valencia, Carlos Alfredo Bautista-López, Carlos Alberto Navarro-Montes and Juan Carlos Verdugo-Tapia",book:{id:"10447",title:"The Art and Science of Abdominal Hernia",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"The Art and Science of Abdominal Hernia",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Shamim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10447.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"235128",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Shamim",slug:"muhammad-shamim",fullName:"Muhammad Shamim"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Anatomical considerations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Surgical aspects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Indications and contraindications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Preoperative planning",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.2.1 Standardize technique: critical view of the myopectineal orifice",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.2.2 eTEP technical features",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.2.3 TAPP technical features",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.2.4 Pitfalls and pearls",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.2.5 Postoperative care",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3 Complications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'The HerniaSurge Group. International guidelines for groin hernia management. Hernia. febrero de 2018;22(1):1-165.'},{id:"B2",body:'Tadaki C, Lomelin D, Simorov A, Jones R, Humphreys M, daSilva M, et al. Perioperative outcomes and costs of laparoscopic versus open inguinal hernia repair. Hernia. junio de 2016;20(3):399-404.'},{id:"B3",body:'Cavazzola LT, Rosen MJ. Laparoscopic Versus Open Inguinal Hernia Repair. Surg Clin North Am. octubre de 2013;93(5):1269-1279.'},{id:"B4",body:'Pisanu A, Podda M, Saba A, Porceddu G, Uccheddu A. Meta-analysis and review of prospective randomized trials comparing laparoscopic and Lichtenstein techniques in recurrent inguinal hernia repair. Hernia. junio de 2015;19(3):355-366.'},{id:"B5",body:'Ielpo B, Nuñez-Alfonsel J, Duran H, Diaz E, Fabra I, Caruso R, et al. Cost-effectiveness of Randomized Study of Laparoscopic Versus Open Bilateral Inguinal Hernia Repair: Ann Surg. noviembre de 2018;268(5):725-730.'},{id:"B6",body:'Daes J. Minimally Invasive Surgical Techniques for Inguinal Hernia Repair: The Extended-View Totally Extraperitoneal Approach (eTEP). En: Davis, SS, Dakin G, Bates A, editores. The SAGES Manual of Hernia Surgery [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019 [citado 22 de noviembre de 2020]. p. 449-60. Disponible en: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-78411-3_33'},{id:"B7",body:'Yang X-F, Liu J-L. Anatomy essentials for laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair. Ann Transl Med. octubre de 2016;4(19):372-372.'},{id:"B8",body:'Furtado M, Claus CMP, Cavazzola LT, Malcher F, Bakonyi-Neto A, Saad-Hossne R. Systemization of laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair (tapp) based on a new anatomical concept: inverted y and five triangles. ABCD Arq Bras Cir Dig São Paulo. 2019;32(1):e1426.'},{id:"B9",body:'Daes J, Felix E. Critical View of the Myopectineal Orifice: Ann Surg. julio de 2017;266(1):e1-e2.'},{id:"B10",body:'Claus C, Furtado M, Malcher F, Cavazzola LT, Felix E. Ten golden rules for a safe MIS inguinal hernia repair using a new anatomical concept as a guide. Surg Endosc. abril de 2020;34(4):1458-1464.'},{id:"B11",body:'Daes J. The enhanced view–totally extraperitoneal technique for repair of inguinal hernia. Surg Endosc. abril de 2012;26(4):1187-1189.'},{id:"B12",body:'Inga-Zapata E, García F. MIS Techniques: Lap TAPP and rTAPP. En: Davis, SS, Dakin G, Bates A, editores. The SAGES Manual of Hernia Surgery [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019 [citado 22 de noviembre de 2020]. p. 415-27. Disponible en: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-78411-3_30'},{id:"B13",body:'Garcia-Ruiz A, Weber-Sanchez A. Laparoscopic Transabdominal Preperitoneal Inguinal Hernia Repair. En: Fischer JE, Jones DB, editores. Master Techniques in Surgery Hernia. Philadelphia PA: Lippincott Williams & Williams, Wolter Kluwer; 2013. p. 161-72.'},{id:"B14",body:'Miserez M, Alexandre JH, Campanelli G, Corcione F, Cuccurullo D, Pascual MH, et al. The European hernia society groin hernia classication: simple and easy to remember. Hernia. 22 de marzo de 2007;11(2):113-6.'},{id:"B15",body:'Palmisano EM, Aguilar Ruiz MJ. Transabdominal pre-peritoneal inguinal hernioplasty (TAPP) without mesh fixation. Initial experience in the short term. Rev Hispanoam Hernia [Internet]. 2019 [citado 23 de noviembre de 2020]; Disponible en: https://hernia.grupoaran.com/articles/00234/show'},{id:"B16",body:'Yheulon C, Davis SS. Fixation vs. No Fixation in MIS Inguinal Hernia Repair. En: Davis, SS, Dakin G, Bates A, editores. The SAGES Manual of Hernia Surgery [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019 [citado 23 de noviembre de 2020]. p. 391-5. Disponible en: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-78411-3_28'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"César Felipe Ploneda-Valencia",address:"dr.ploneda.cirugia@gmail.com",affiliation:'
CEMIJAL (Cirugía Endoscópica y de Mínima Invasión Jalisco), CHG Hospital, México
Hospital Civil de Guadalajara “Dr. Juan I. Menchaca”, Guadalajara, México
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Carlos Alberto Navarro-Montes",address:null,affiliation:'
CEMIJAL (Cirugía Endoscópica y de Mínima Invasión Jalisco), CHG Hospital, México
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Juan Carlos Verdugo-Tapia",address:null,affiliation:'
CEMIJAL (Cirugía Endoscópica y de Mínima Invasión Jalisco), CHG Hospital, México
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10447",title:"The Art and Science of Abdominal Hernia",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"The Art and Science of Abdominal Hernia",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Shamim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10447.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"235128",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Shamim",slug:"muhammad-shamim",fullName:"Muhammad Shamim"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"41386",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Georgescu",email:"c_e_georgescu@yahoo.com",fullName:"Carmen Georgescu",slug:"carmen-georgescu",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Human Cord Blood-Derived Stem Cells in Transplantation and Regenerative Medicine",slug:"human-cord-blood-derived-stem-cells-in-transplantation-and-regenerative-medicine",abstract:null,signatures:"Cornel Iancu, Ioana Ilie, Lucian Mocan, Carmen Georgescu, Razvan Ilie, Ileana Duncea, Teodora Mocan, Dana Iancu, and Florin Zaharie",authors:[{id:"33183",title:"Prof.",name:"Cornel",surname:"Iancu",fullName:"Cornel Iancu",slug:"cornel-iancu",email:"dr_cornel_iancu@yahoo.com"},{id:"37579",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucian",surname:"Mocan",fullName:"Lucian Mocan",slug:"lucian-mocan",email:"mocanlucian@yahoo.com"},{id:"37580",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodora",surname:"Mocan",fullName:"Teodora Mocan",slug:"teodora-mocan",email:"teodora.mocan@umfcluj.ro"},{id:"41386",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Georgescu",fullName:"Carmen Georgescu",slug:"carmen-georgescu",email:"c_e_georgescu@yahoo.com"},{id:"85636",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioana",surname:"Ilie",fullName:"Ioana Ilie",slug:"ioana-ilie",email:"ioanamanaila@yahoo.com"},{id:"85728",title:"Prof.",name:"Ileana",surname:"Duncea",fullName:"Ileana Duncea",slug:"ileana-duncea",email:"imduncea@yahoo.com"},{id:"85729",title:"Dr.",name:"Razvan",surname:"Ilie",fullName:"Razvan Ilie",slug:"razvan-ilie",email:"verdell1477@yahoo.com"},{id:"85730",title:"Dr.",name:"Dana",surname:"Iancu",fullName:"Dana Iancu",slug:"dana-iancu",email:"danatodeaiancu@yahoo.com"},{id:"85732",title:"Dr.",name:"Florin",surname:"Zaharie",fullName:"Florin Zaharie",slug:"florin-zaharie",email:"florinzaharie@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Stem Cells in Clinic and Research",slug:"stem-cells-in-clinic-and-research",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"New Insights into the Diagnosis and Management of Pregnancy-Related Diabetes Insipidus",slug:"new-insights-into-the-diagnosis-and-management-of-pregnancy-related-diabetes-insipidus",abstract:null,signatures:"Carmen Emanuela Georgescu",authors:[{id:"41386",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Georgescu",fullName:"Carmen Georgescu",slug:"carmen-georgescu",email:"c_e_georgescu@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Diabetes Insipidus",slug:"diabetes-insipidus",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"The Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Status - A Risk Factor for Future Cardiovascular Disease",slug:"the-polycystic-ovary-syndrome-status-a-risk-factor-for-future-cardiovascular-disease",abstract:null,signatures:"Ioana Ilie, Razvan Ilie, Lucian Mocan, Carmen Georgescu, Ileana Duncea, Teodora Mocan, Steliana Ghibu and Cornel Iancu",authors:[{id:"41386",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Georgescu",fullName:"Carmen Georgescu",slug:"carmen-georgescu",email:"c_e_georgescu@yahoo.com"},{id:"85636",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioana",surname:"Ilie",fullName:"Ioana Ilie",slug:"ioana-ilie",email:"ioanamanaila@yahoo.com"},{id:"85729",title:"Dr.",name:"Razvan",surname:"Ilie",fullName:"Razvan Ilie",slug:"razvan-ilie",email:"verdell1477@yahoo.com"},{id:"125940",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucian",surname:"Mocan",fullName:"Lucian Mocan",slug:"lucian-mocan",email:"dr_mocan@yahoo.com"},{id:"125941",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",surname:"Duncea",fullName:"Ileana Duncea",slug:"ileana-duncea",email:"ileana.duncea@umfcluj.ro"},{id:"125942",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodora",surname:"Mocan",fullName:"Teodora Mocan",slug:"teodora-mocan",email:"teutza@yahoo.com"},{id:"125943",title:"Mrs.",name:"Steliana",surname:"Ghibu",fullName:"Steliana Ghibu",slug:"steliana-ghibu",email:"stelianaghibu@yahoo.com"},{id:"125944",title:"Prof.",name:"Cornel",surname:"Iancu",fullName:"Cornel Iancu",slug:"cornel-iancu",email:"cornel.iancu@umfcluj.ro"}],book:{title:"Recent Advances in Cardiovascular Risk Factors",slug:"recent-advances-in-cardiovascular-risk-factors",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"A Perspective on the Current Medical Approach of Advanced Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma",slug:"a-perspective-on-the-current-medical-approach-of-advanced-medullary-thyroid-carcinoma",abstract:"Medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) is a neuroendocrine tumor (NET), which originates in neural crest-derived calcitonin-producing C-cells. It occurs either sporadically or as a result of a germline mutation in the RET proto-oncogene, as in multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) syndrome type 2A including its variant familial MTC (FMTC) and type 2B. Currently, the only curative treatment for MTC is surgery, accompanied by lymph node dissection. However, the outcome is largely dependent on disease staging, with lymph node and distant metastases often identified at diagnosis, particularly in sporadic forms. Furthermore, the presence of cervical lymph node invasion at surgery predicts residual disease. The development of new treatments is strongly motivated by: (a) the low surgical cure rate when cervical lymph node metastases are present at the time of initial surgery, with 90% of patients having residual disease, (b) the high prevalence of distant metastases at initial diagnosis (lungs, bones and liver) and (c) the poor outcome in patients receiving cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agents. Herein, we focus on current nonsurgical options and perspectives in the treatment of MTC with emphasis on last year’s FDA-approved tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) and other systemic therapies that need to be considered in the setting of advanced disease.",signatures:"Ana Valea and Carmen Emanuela Georgescu",authors:[{id:"41386",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Georgescu",fullName:"Carmen Georgescu",slug:"carmen-georgescu",email:"c_e_georgescu@yahoo.com"},{id:"183359",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Valea",fullName:"Ana Valea",slug:"ana-valea",email:"ana74us@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Thyroid Cancer",slug:"thyroid-cancer-advances-in-diagnosis-and-therapy",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"33183",title:"Prof.",name:"Cornel",surname:"Iancu",slug:"cornel-iancu",fullName:"Cornel Iancu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33183/images/1716_n.jpg",biography:"Cornel Iancu, professor and chairman of the of 3rd Department of Surgery at “Iuliu Hatieganu” University of Medicine Cluj-Napoca is a pioneer in laparoscopic surgery. A highly respected surgeon, teacher and researcher, he is one of the leading authorities on advanced laparoscopic surgery in Romania. Beside laparoscopic cholecystectomy and anti-reflux surgery Dr. Iancu has extensive experience in performing advanced laparoscopic procedures for gastric tumors, colo-rectal malignancies, pancreatic and liver tumors and complicated hydatic disease. Among research in the field of digestive surgical oncology and endoscopic surgery, Dr. Iancu’s research was also focused in the area of nanotechnology, bio-nano-medical research and treatment by bioconjugated nanomaterials with priority on the selective laser ablation and optical damage of the pancreatic and liver cancer cells mediated by antibodies functionalized nanoparticles.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"37579",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucian",surname:"Mocan",slug:"lucian-mocan",fullName:"Lucian Mocan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"37580",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodora",surname:"Mocan",slug:"teodora-mocan",fullName:"Teodora Mocan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"53560",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongxiang",surname:"Hui",slug:"hongxiang-hui",fullName:"Hongxiang Hui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"59235",title:"Mr",name:"Xiaoning",surname:"Zhao",slug:"xiaoning-zhao",fullName:"Xiaoning Zhao",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"59236",title:"Mr",name:"Yongming",surname:"Tang",slug:"yongming-tang",fullName:"Yongming Tang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"85636",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioana",surname:"Ilie",slug:"ioana-ilie",fullName:"Ioana Ilie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"85728",title:"Prof.",name:"Ileana",surname:"Duncea",slug:"ileana-duncea",fullName:"Ileana Duncea",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"85729",title:"Dr.",name:"Razvan",surname:"Ilie",slug:"razvan-ilie",fullName:"Razvan Ilie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"118970",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",surname:"Hu",slug:"min-hu",fullName:"Min Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 128,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
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\\n\\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,200 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 150 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 128,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,200 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 150 million downloads
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