\r\n\tsubjected to the action of axial compression forces. When slender, these elements can reach \r\n\tan ultimate limit state defined by the loss of their stability, without having yet exhausted the \r\n\tresistant capacity of their sections. For these systems, the analyzes performed to evaluate the \r\n\tloss of stability by equilibrium bifurcation should consider both the effects of the existing \r\n\tdistributed and concentrated normal force, as well as the peculiarities of the materials of \r\n\twhich they are constituted, their behavior regarding elasticity, viscoelasticity or even plasticity, \r\n\tas well as deterioration factors. In this regard, all changes to the material over the life of the \r\n\tsystem must be considered. It is important to remember that column buckling was initially \r\n\tstudied in the field of static, in rational mechanics. However, this is essentially a dynamic \r\n\tphenomenon whose solution is based on stiffness and mass. Whether by static or dynamic \r\n\tpath, analyzes of inverted pendulum need to be done by observing the total stiffness of the \r\n\tsystem, which must be composed of all terms of interest. In addition to considerations of loss \r\n\tof equilibrium, in dynamic analysis it is still possible to obtain frequencies and modes of \r\n\tvibration, essential characteristics of these systems. In relation to the dynamic aspects, \r\n\tinverted pendulum is a class of systems widely used as control strategies.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bbc373cfcb4bfc69eafffc577366c86",bookSignature:"Prof. Alexandre de Macêdo Wahrhaftig and Dr. Marcelo Araújo da Silva",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8689.jpg",keywords:"Critical buckling load, Euler column, Self-weight, Analytical method, Equilibrium bifurcation, Stiffness, Frequencies, Computational method, Ultimate limit state, Serviceability limit state, Material behavior, Composite materials",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 11th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 28th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 28th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 17th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 15th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"224580",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandre de Macêdo",middleName:null,surname:"Wahrhaftig",slug:"alexandre-de-macedo-wahrhaftig",fullName:"Alexandre de Macêdo Wahrhaftig",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/224580/images/system/224580.jpg",biography:"Prof. Alexandre de Macêdo Wahrhaftig has a degree in Civil Engineering (1991), with a Master in Rehabilitation of Historic Heritage from the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain (1995) and PhD in Civil Engineering (Structures) from the Polytechnic School of USP, São Paulo (2008). 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
The discovery of new materials with unique properties often leads to new technology. After discovery of conductive polymers at the end of the 1970s, it opened up a whole new research, which eventually led to a new technology of plastic electronics (Chiang et al., 1978). When interesting material properties are observed in the laboratory, efforts are made to understand their mechanisms, which leads to the fine control of the fabrication process of this new and potentially important material. If future applications are anticipated, optimization of material properties becomes a continuous and sometimes a lifelong process. Doping of materials is one of the ways of modifying their physical properties. For example, a pure silicon (Si), which has a very poor electrical conducting properties can be doped with boron or arsenic to make it a good hole or electron conductor respectively. This opened up a new class of doped-Si materials, which is now the basis of perhaps the largest global electronics industry.
\n\t\t\t
Polymers, which consist of large molecules linked together in repeated fashion to form long chains, have naturally existed for a long time. Examples are tortoise shell, tar and horns. Today synthetic polymers are finding important applications in many areas. Polyolefins, epoxies and engineering resins are crucial materials for construction, commerce, transportation and entertainment. They are very appealing alternative materials because of the simple processing they offer such as drop casting, spray painting and printing. In addition, they almost provide low cost large-area scalability. In most applications however, polymeric materials are multicomponent systems. The integration of fillers such as minerals, ceramics, metals or even air, can generate an infinite variety of new materials with unique physical properties and possibly reduced production cost. Typically, when the filler in these multicomponent systems, which represents a minor constituent, has at least one dimension below 100 nm, the resulting material is termed, “polymer nanocomposite“ (Winey & Vaia, 2007). Reseach in this area is very active and promising, mainly because of many different combinations of polymers and filler materials that can be explored. Few examples of fillers that were recently reported are SrTiO3 (Umeda et al., 2009), fluorinated single walled carbon nanotubes (Bennett et al., 2009) and ZnS-coated CdSe nanocrystals (\n\t\t\t\t\tKim et al., 2009\n\t\t\t\t).
\n\t\t\t
The addition of a small amount of filler material into a host polymer can be considered a doping process if there is an intention of modifying the physical properties of the host. Some fillers, particularly with macroscopic dimensions, do not chemically react with the polymer so they cannot be regarded as dopants. Nanomaterials are attractive dopants to polymers because of their high surface reactivity, which is attributed to very large surface-to-volume ratio. Moreover, they possess intriguing properties associated with quantum confinement effects, making their interaction with different polymers a subject of great interest. They can also be dispersed into water or organic solvents, providing a simple process of doping polymeric solutions. It should be realized that nanomaterial-doped polymers should also be classified as polymer nanocomposite because they are multicomponents systems with a low dimensional non-polymer minor constituent embedded in a host polymer. When the nanomaterial dopant is inorganic, the term “hybrid nanocomposite“ is specifically used for the reason that it becomes an inorganic-organic system. This manuscript focuses on the effect of doping polymers with ZnO nanostructures such as nanowires, nanorods, tetrapods and nanoparticles. Their combination may achieve three goals: 1) tailor the property of ZnO; 2) tailor the property of polymer or 3) create a hybrid nanocomposite with unique or enhanced properties. A discussion of how these goals are relevant for optoelectronic and sensor applications is presented.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. ZnO as dopant to polymers
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Technological importance of ZnO
\n\t\t\t\t
ZnO has received much attention in recent years due to its diverse properties. It is a direct wide bandgap semiconductor (Eg = 3.4 eV) with large exciton binding energy (~60 meV), suggesting that it is a promising candidate for stable room temperature luminescent and lasing devices. It exhibits strong ultraviolet (Huang et al., 2001) and visible photoluminescence (Konenkamp et al., 2004). ZnO film can be used as transparent conducting electrode. It is also a piezoelectric material, with potential applications in surface acoustic wave filters (Wang et al., 2008). Ferromagnetism in ZnO has already been reported (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tKim et al., 2009\n\t\t\t\t\t) so it is being considered a material for spintronics. With all these important properties, it becomes more attractive because of its abundance in nature. It can be fabricated practically into different forms like thin film and nanowire using a variety of methods such as solution-based approaches, vacuum deposition techniques chemical vapor deposition.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.2. Fabrication of ZnO nanostructures for dispersion in solution
\n\t\t\t\t
There are several ways of fabricating ZnO nanostructures on a substrate. Nanowires, nanorods, nanobelts, nanoneedles and nanosprings have been reported by many researchers. For doping polymers, it is advantageous for the nanostructures to be dispersed in a solution since most polymers are prepared via a solution process. ZnO nanostructures grown on a substrate can be scraped and dispersed into a solvent. This approach however does not produce enough amount of nanostructures. Hence, it is not a practical method for obtaining a usable concentration of ZnO in a solvent. Solution-based methods have been widely used to prepare ZnO nanostructures. Nanorods and nanowires with variable-aspect-ratio (length/diameter) have been prepared in alcohol/water solution by reacting a Zn2+ precursor with an organic weak base, tetramethylammonium hydroxide (Me4NOH) at temperature window of 75 – 150 oC (Cheng et al., 2006). In another report, a room temperature wet-chemical approach was employed to synthesize highly regulated, monodispersed ZnO nanorods and derived hierarchical nanostructures such as hexagonally branched, reversed umbrella-type and cactus-like (Liu & Zeng, 2004). These hierarchical nanostructures are comprised of individual c-oriented nanorods. In the typical synthesis, the precursor solution of Zn was prepared by dissolving zinc nitrate and sodium hydroxide in deionized water. A sample of pure ethanol was added followed by ethylenediamine. The mixed solution was covered and kept at room temperature under constant stirring for 1-12 days to form the ZnO nanorods. ZnO nanoparticles with size ranging from 2 to 7 nm can also be prepared by addition of lithium hydroxide to an ethanolic zinc acetate solution (Meulenkamp, 1998).
\n\t\t\t\t
One of the disadvantages of solution-based ZnO fabrication is that it involves successive processes that take a fair amount of time. After the synthesis, the product has to be thoroughly cleaned to remove all traces of chemicals used in the process. In this article, a simple, straightforward method to fabricate ZnO nanostructures with fast turn around is explored. It is based on the oxidation of zinc vapor while a high purity Zn metal is being thermally evaporated. Figure 1 is a diagram that illustrates this method. The Zn source is placed in a crucible, which is then inserted into a vertically-oriented quartz tube. The tube is flushed with argon to remove ambient air and its open end is sealed [Figure 1(a)]. It is inserted into a vertically-oriented furnace set at 600 oC to evaporate the Zn. When the source starts to evaporate, air is allowed to diffuse towards the crucible by opening the seal. With the correct diffusion rate of O2 and evaporation rate of Zn, oxidation can be contained inside the crucible. Thus, the growth of ZnO nanostructures mainly occurs in the crucible. Figure 1(b) shows the actual crucible before and after the growth process. Typically, when the amount of Zn source is 0.03 g, it yields approximately 0.01 g of ZnO, which is the white material that fills the crucible in the picture. The product is like a cotton as shown by the SEM picture in Figure 1(c). It can be easily collected and dispersed in a solution. The entire fabrication process only takes less than 30 minutes. It is highly scalable and can be employed to mass-produce ZnO nanostructures.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 1.
a) Diagram illustrating the simple fabrication process of ZnO nanostructures. (b) Photos of the actual crucible before and after the growth process. (c) SEM picture of the cotton-like ZnO product collected from the crucible.
\n\t\t\t\t
The cotton-like ZnO product shown in Figure 1(c) consists of different nanostructures entangled together. They can be separated and size selected if desired. Two solvents were tried to disperse them: water and chlorobenzene. By ultrasonication, they were effectively segregated in both solvents. The solution became whitish after several minutes of agitation. When the procedure was stopped, ZnO structures slowly settled at the bottom and as expected, large entities sank first. This can be used as a simple size-selection method. For example, nanoparticles with lower diameter are the last ones to settle at the bottom. If the solution is allowed to be still for a long time after sonication, then get the top part of it, nanoparticles are obtained. They are shown in Figure 2(a). They are deposited on Si wafer by drop casting. If the large and unwanted entities are already removed, good nanowires can be extracted from the bottom of the solution. These nanowires are shown in Figure 2(b). Their length could exceed 10 m.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 2.
SEM micrographs of (a) ZnO nanoparticles and (b) ZnO nanowires via a mass production method and deposited on Si wafer after a simple size-selection process.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Polymer-based light emitting devices
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.1. Basic requirements for efficient electroluminescence
\n\t\t\t\t
Polymeric-based light emitting device is one type of OLED, which stands for organic light emitting diode. Photon is generated in the polymer emissive layer (EL), which should possess excellent photoluminescence (PL) properties. In an efficient device, the EL is sandwiched between an electron transport layer (ETL), which injects electrons into the LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital) of the EL, and a hole transport layer (HTL), which injects holes into the HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital) of the EL. The injected electrons and holes undergo radiative recombination due to the applied electric field. The charge transporting layers serve as facilitator for efficient charge transfer from the electrodes to the EL. This is illustrated in Figure 3. When a negative potential is applied to the anode, which is a low work function metal, electrons are injected into the ETL. If the ETL has excellent electron mobility (n-type) and its LUMO align closely with the LUMO of EL and the work function of the anode, efficient electron charge transport towards the EL is achieved. On the other hand, the positive potential applied to the cathode, which is a high work function transparent conductor, results in the injection of holes into the HTL. Efficient hole transport towards the EL is achieved if the HTL has excellent hole mobility (p-type) and its HOMO is well aligned with the HOMO of the EL and the work function of the cathode. It should be realized that the realization of high efficient OLEDs depends not only on the electronic and optical properties of the EL material, but also on the control of charge transport in the device.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 3.
a) Operation of a polymeric OLED and its (b) device structure.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.2. Control of charge transport
\n\t\t\t\t
One of the benefits of doping polymers in OLED with ZnO nanostructures is the improvement in charge carrier transport. It has been reported that by incorporating ZnO nanorods with the EL material PVK:DCJTB, which represents poly(vinylcarbazole) doped with 4-(dicyanomethylene)-2-t-butyl-6-(1,1,7,7-tetramethyljulolidyl-9-enyl)-4H-pyran at 1%, low threshold voltage and higher electroluminescence efficiency is obtained (Zhang et al., 2006). The authors employed the device structure: ITO/EL/Alq3/Al, with different concentrations of ZnO (1 wt%, 5 wt%, 10 wt%) in the EL material. They observed that the hole current density increases with increasing concentration of ZnO nanorods. This made the current injection more balanced and consequently enhanced the electroluminescence efficiency. They explained the increase in the hole current in terms of the effect of ZnO on the molecular chain of PVK. The nanorods can make the PVK chain more unwindable and possibly connect aligned molecular chains. Thus, current is not limited by hopping of carriers between chains. In addition, wurtzite ZnO has higher hole mobility (h) than PVK. For low p-type conductivity at room temperature, it ranges from 5 to 50 cm2/V-s (Norton et al., 2004). For PVK at low electric fields, it is in the order of 10-7 cm2/V-s (Blom et al., 1997).
\n\t\t\t\t
A similar observation has been reported on poly[2-methoxy,5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene], which is commonly called MEH-PPV for short (Xu et al., 2007). By doping the MEH-PPV with ZnO nanocrystals or tetrapods and employing it to build field effect transistor, the authors showed higher p – type mobility in the polymer nanocomposite. Pure MEH-PPV, which only exhibits p – channel behaviour, has h value in the order of 10-4 cm2/V-s. This increases with increasing concentration of ZnO nanostructures and saturates at 40 wt%. For nanocrystals and tetrapods, h saturates at a value of about 0.08 cm2/V-s and 0.15 cm2/V-s respectively. It should be mentioned that doping with ZnO did not change the conductivity type, indicating that charge transport takes place in the polymer. This is not surprising because there is a large energy barrier for holes to be transferred from ZnO to MEH-PPV. The valence band edge for ZnO is 7.6 eV while the HOMO of MEH-PPV is 5.3 eV. When the density of traps was investigated, it was found that it decreases with increasing ZnO concentration. Interestingly, it also saturates at 40 wt%. This is a strong indication that the effect of ZnO is to reduce the density of traps in the polymer and consequently improve its h. The authors further supported this interpretation by transient current measurement where a constant bias voltage was applied to the gate and the drain. The decrease in channel current with time was more dramatic for the pure polymer than the nanocomposite. This suggests that charge trapping is significantly reduced by ZnO doping. Other authors propose that the enhancement in h is due to the superposition of several transport mechanisms in the nanocomposite including percolation through polymer-ZnO nanoparticle interface network (Aleshin et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.3. Control of optical emission
\n\t\t\t\t
The high surface reactivity of ZnO nanostructures with certain polymers may provide interactions that can modify polymer properties in a positive way. The interaction of ZnO quantum dots (QDs) with poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) has already been demonstrated (Sui et al., 2005). The authors prepared PVA/ZnO hybrid nanofibers with ZnO concentration of 10 wt% and employed differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to study them with respect to pure PVA. It is known that the two exothermic peaks at about 305 oC and 500 oC are associated with the degradation of side chain (the scission of C-O) and main chain (the scission of C-C) with the delta enthalphy of 3760 and 1188 J g-1, respectively (Koji et al., 1999). For PVA/ZnO nanofibers, the exothermic peak below 450 oC was not observed, while the peak around 500 oC was sharp and strong with delta enthalpy of 3305 J g-1, suggesting that ZnO modifies the property of PVA. Their interaction, which is via the formation of an H bond and an O-Zn-O bond between PVA molecule and ZnO, is believed to be responsible for the novel luminescent properties of PVA/ZnO nanofibers.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 4 shows a typical PL spectrum of ZnO nanowires (NWs) prepared by the physical vapor transport method described in section 2.2. It has two emission bands around 380 and 520 nm, which is consistent with another report using a polymer-assisted route (Li et al., 2003). The UV emission originates primarily from a mixture of free exciton and bound exciton related to impurity or defects (Shan et al., 2005). The visible emission comes from the transition between the electron near the conduction band and the deeply trapped hole at the V0\n\t\t\t\t\t** center which is an oxygen vacancy containing no electrons (Dijken et al., 2000). It is also attributed to the transition between the electron at [V0\n\t\t\t\t\t*, electron] or [V0\n\t\t\t\t\t**, two electrons] and the hole at vacancy associated with the surface defects. For pure PVA, the PL spectrum consists of two emission bands at about 364 and 440 nm, originating from its organic functional groups (Sui et al., 2005). In PVA/ZnO hybrid film, the PL spectrum is a superposition of the PL of each component. The 440 nm emission from PVA overlaps with the 550 nm from ZnO making the visible emission band broader. In hybrid nanofibers however, this visible emission is much intense possibly due to two factors. In the film, ZnO-QDs can easily form aggregates resulting in bigger particle exhibiting bulk behavior. This is in fact one of the issues in polymer nanocomposites and ways to circumvent it are being explored (Sun et al., 2008). In the nanofiber, QDs align along the PVA matrix, resulting in better dispersion. Individual QD also interacts strongly with the PVA molecule. The other factor is the high surface to volume ratio of the nanofiber, which enhances the visible luminescence due to surface defects (Shalish et al., 2004).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 4.
Photoluminescence (PL) spectrum of ZnO nanowires for polymer doping, grown by physical vapour transport.
\n\t\t\t\t
The interaction between ZnO and polymer can also provide several new radiative recombination mechanisms that may be utilized for broadband light emission or wavelength tunable emission. Since these mechanisms are influenced by several factors such as the individual properties of the organic and inorganic components as well as their relative concentration, control of emission properties may be done in a number of ways. The existence of new recombination mechanisms is strongly suggested by the generation of new PL emission lines (420, 460 & 480 nm) when MEH-PPV is doped with ZnO nanoparticles (Aleshin et al., 2009). In this work, the authors prepared the polymer nanocomposite film on a Si substrate with a 200 nm-thick SiO2 layer via drop casting or spin coating. Gold and aluminum electrodes were then deposited on top with separation of 7 – 15 m. With this device structure, they could investigate PL while applying an external electric field. The existence of new emission lines, which could not be generated when ZnO was replaced by Si nanoparticles, was attributed to the formation of interfacial states termed exciplex. These states are formed in a type II heterojunction, such as ZnO/MEH-PPV, where there is an accumulation of electrons and holes on the opposite side. Charge transport is blocked by the barriers that result from the offset of HOMO and conduction band edge of MEH-PPV and ZnO respectively. It was proposed that since the carriers cannot proceed across the heterojunction, they diffuse two-dimensionally along the interface until they encounter an oppositely charged carrier on the opposite side of the interface and these form an exciplex (Morteani et al., 2005). If bulk exciton in the ZnO or MEH-PPV is within the exciton diffusion length, it can excite exciplex emission. It should be mentioned that the influence of ZnO nanoparticles is most dramatic at an optimum concentration of 10 wt%. This could be ascribed to the aggregation of nanoparticles which reduces interaction with polymer.
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Another observed phenomena when MEH-PPV is doped with ZnO is the blue shift of its PL emission spectrum accompanied by quenching. At 2 wt% concentration of ZnO nanoparticles, 11 nm shift has been reported (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTon-That et al., 2008\n\t\t\t\t\t). This shift increases with increasing nanoparticle concentration. However, its dependence becomes weaker at concentration greater than 4%. Using Raman spectroscopy, the authors did not observe any changes in the conjugation length, which may have caused the blue shift in PL spectrum. Their results indicate that the chemical structure and the gap energy of MEH-PPV is not affected by the incorporation of ZnO nanoparticles. Thus, they explained their observation in terms of the effect of electric field produced by excess electrons on the nanoparticles surface (Musikhin et al., 2002). The surface of ZnO nanoparticles is a strong perturbation of the lattice where there exists a high concentration of both shallow and deep defect levels (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTon-That et al., 2008\n\t\t\t\t\t). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis of their surface revealed that there is a large number of oxygen vacancies. These vacancies can accept electrons from MEH-PPV, creating an electric field outside the nanoparticles. As a result, the energy of the lowest exciton state is raised resulting in the blue shift of the luminescence.
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4. Polymer-based photovoltaics
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4.1. Challenges
\n\t\t\t\t
The highest power conversion efficiency () demonstrated by a polymer-based solar cell is achieved by employing an active layer blend of poly(3-hexylthiophene) and (6,6)-phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester (Ma et al., 2005). For convenience, this blend will be referred as P3HT:PCBM. It has a strong optical absorbance in the limited wavelength range of 400 nm to 600 nm mainly due to the P3HT. Because of this narrow band absorption, more than 60% of the photons in the solar spectrum are not harnessed. In fact, even the ones absorbed are not 100% converted to photocurrent because not all electron-hole pairs become free charges. Exciton binding energy of P3HT is so large that it does not lead directly to free charge carriers. However, the high electron affinity of PCBM provides sufficient potential difference that breaks exciton and thus it becomes energetically favourable for the electrons to jump from the LUMO of P3HT to the LUMO of PCBM. This electron donor-acceptor mechanism implies that only excitons near the P3HT/PCBM interface dissociate. The maximum distance for dissociation to occur is determined by the exciton diffusion length (), which is around 10 nm for P3HT. In the blend, phase segregation results in the formation of isolated islands of P3HT and PCBM. The size of P3HT islands could be more than so not all excitons can dissociate. There is another factor in the exciton dissociation process that reduces . Excited electrons in P3HT have excess energy that is dissipated quickly when they transfer to the PCBM. This energy loss, which depends on the energy alignment of the two materials, is reflected in the open circuit voltage (Koster et al., 2006).
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In a photovoltaic device, separated holes and electrons need to reach their respective electrodes to have high . This requires the blend to have high values of hole (h) and electron (e) mobilities. Good balance of mobilities is obtained using optimum ratio of P3HT and PCBM, which is estimated to be between 1:1 and 1:0.9 (Chirvase et al., 2004). This could yield values of h ~ 6.5 x 10-6 cm2/V-s and e ~ 5.0 x 10-6 cm2/V-s. However these numbers are still far inferior when compared to their inorganic counterpart, which raises the question of whether doping with inorganic nanostructures such as ZnO would be beneficial. In the blend, PCBM does not provide direct conduction pathways for electrons towards the electrode because of the isolated island formation. Electrons undergo a hopping process between PCBM islands before reaching the electrode. Thus, they become prone to recombination with holes. This limits the thickness of the active layer. High efficient P3HT:PCBM devices are achieved with active layer thickness around 100 nm to 200 nm, which is not the optimum thickness for photon absorption. Increasing the thickness absorbs more photons but it also increases the electron-hole recombination and degrades charge transport. The final stage of charge transport from point of exciton dissociation to the electrode is the crossing of the organic-inorganic interface. Large contact resistance will reduce the fill factor of a device. Potential barriers at the interface originating from impurities or polymer damage during vacuum deposition of the metal electrodes may also limit the open circuit voltage. Controlling the organic-inorganic interfacial properties is an important and urgent challenge in organic electronics. Several ways have already been explored such as insertion of very thin interlayer (Brabec et al., 2002), tuning the work function of the inorganic electrode (Sharma et al., 2009) and surface doping of polymer (Mukherjee et al., 2007).
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4.2. ZnO as electron acceptor
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PCBM is the most widely used electron acceptor for P3HT in a bulk heterojunction (BHJ) solar cell. It has the right LUMO and HOMO levels for charge separation and exchange. Its electron mobility in the order of 10-2 cm2/V-s, is sufficient for transporting photogenerated electrons towards the electrodes. However, higher mobilities are still demonstrated by inorganic materials. Wurtzite ZnO for example can have electron mobility of 200 cm2/V-s. Its LUMO and HOMO levels are well positioned to accept electrons from P3HT. Thus, doping of conjugated polymers with ZnO nanostructures can be employed to fabricate BHJ solar cells. For example, P3HT doped with ZnO nanoparticles yielded a photovoltaic device with ~ 0.92% at optimum concentration of 26% by volume (Beek et al., 2006). The values of the open circuit voltage (V\n\t\t\t\t\tOC), short circuit current density (J\n\t\t\t\t\tSC) and fill factor (FF) were 0.69 V, 2.19 mA/cm2 and 55% respectively. The authors employed the device structure: ITO/PEDOT:PSS/P3HT:ZnO/Al, which is a common structure used by P3HT:PCBM active layer. They identified the major performance limiting factors as the poor contact of P3HT with the ZnO and the coarse morphology. They also observed that thermal annealing of the active layer was very important.
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In another work, ZnO nanofibers were grown on the transparent electrode to achieve fixed morphology before the introduction of the P3HT (Olson et al., 2007). By spin-coating the P3HT on top of the ZnO nanostructure followed by annealing, intercalation into the voids between the nanofibers was induced. In this structure, a huge donor-acceptor interface area is formed between the P3HT and ZnO for exciton dissociation. Photogenerated electrons injected into the ZnO are transported directly towards the collecting electrode, providing pathways with higher electron mobility. The growth of ZnO nanofibers on ITO-coated glass was achieved via a low-temperature hydrothermal route from a solution of zinc nitrate precursor. In this device structure in which Ag is used as back electrode instead of Al, electrons are collected by the ITO while holes are collected by the Ag. The best device they obtained had V\n\t\t\t\t\tOC, J\n\t\t\t\t\tSC and FF of 0.44 V, 2.17 mA/cm2 and 56% respectively corresponding to ~ 0.53%. Although this performance is relatively poorer than P3HT:PCBM devices ( ~ 5%), it is expected to improve when the major mechanisms in the device are better understood. For example, the role of oxygen vacancies in the ZnO, which is the origin of visible emission, is not yet clear. Obtaining a balanced electron and hole mobilities in the active layer may also be a critical issue. Understanding the effect of ZnO on the effective Fermi level of the active layer, which determines the interfacial properties at the metal junction, is important. This may have a direct consequence on the V\n\t\t\t\t\tOC. Lastly, the mechanism of aging in ambient air may give insights on how to optimize this device. The authors observed that right after fabrication, the device exhibited only little diode behavior. But after storing it in dark ambient air for 24 hours, better device performance was observed. In contrast, the device stored in dark argon environment decreased in performance. After 3 days in argon, the device performance continued to deteriorate whereas the performance of the device stored in air improved substantially. The improvement came from the increase in FF and V\n\t\t\t\t\tOC. They explained this behavior in terms of the oxygen vacancies. These vacancies, which are intrinsic electron donors in ZnO, may be quenched when exposed to oxygen. As a result, semiconducting properties are improved as both the oxygen vacancy and carrier concentrations are reduced. This aging mechanism makes ZnO a very promising electron acceptor for BHJ solar cells, which require long term operation.
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4.3. Effect of ZnO nanowire doping on the Fermi level of P3HT
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In polymer-based photovoltaics, it is important to obtain the desired junction characteristic of the polymer-metal interface. Depending on the device structure, it may require an Ohmic or a Schottky junction. The junction characteristic, which has a direct influence on the charge transfer from the active layer to the electrode, is determined by the energy level alignment of the polymer and the metal. Fermi level (EF) is the most fundamental parameter that is used to understand polymer-metal junction. It determines the work function (energy difference between EF and vacuum level) of a material. It can be used to predict the built in potential (V\n\t\t\t\t\tbi) across a junction in thermal equilibrium. In thin film photovoltaic devices, V\n\t\t\t\t\tbi is an essential parameter. It influences charge dissociation, charge transport and charge collection. Most importantly, it sets the maximum V\n\t\t\t\t\toc of a single junction solar cell. Thus, measurement of V\n\t\t\t\t\tbi is very important practically and it can be a tool to understand how the EF of a material behaves when it is doped. In most situations, V\n\t\t\t\t\tbi across a junction is not equal to the value predicted by the difference in the EF of each component. During the formation of the junction, such as the deposition of the metal on the polymer or the drying of the polymer on a metal surface, chemical reaction may occur. This leads to the existence of new compounds in the middle of the junction, which modifies the expected V\n\t\t\t\t\tbi. Thus, determination of actual V\n\t\t\t\t\tbi in real devices is more important practically because it takes into account the effect of processing. In photovoltaics for example, measuring V\n\t\t\t\t\tbi in P3HT-Al junction formed by thermal evaporation of Al on P3HT film, is more meaningful than using a similar junction formed by spin-coating P3HT on Al film. This is because the first system is the one being used in the development of organic solar cells.
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In this manuscript, recent results are presented about the change in the Fermi level of P3HT when doped with ZnO nanowires. This system is already being explored as an active layer together with Al as back electrode (Beek et al., 2006). To measure V\n\t\t\t\t\tbi, capacitance-voltage (C-V) measurement was employed using an LCR meter. Test diodes were prepared by drop-casting P3HT and doped P3HT (~ 1 m thick) on Cr/Pt film then depositing Al on top via resistive thermal evaporation.
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Figure 5.
a) Device structure of the diodes used to measure the built in potential. (b) I-V characteristic of the reference (pure P3HT) device and the test (ZnO-doped P3HT) device.
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The device structure is shown on Figure 5(a). Both doped and undoped devices exhibited good rectifying behaviour as depicted by their I-V curves in Figure 5(b). The rectification is due to the Schottky junction formed by the polymer and Al. The high work function value of Pt (~6.35 eV) results in an Ohmic contact with the polymer. According to inorganic semiconductor theory, the capacitance C of the depletion layer is related to V\n\t\t\t\t\tbi by the equation (Sze, 2007):
Where V is the applied bias voltage, kT/q is the thermal voltage whose value at room temperature is 0.0259 V, s is the semiconductor permittivity and ND is the donor impurity density. Vbi is determined by plotting this equation and finding the value of V where 1/C2 extrapolates to zero. This is illustrated in Figure 6. The behavior of 1/C2 is quite linear for both devices in the bias range of 0.5 V, consistent with equation (1). The solid line is the linear fit for each data set. Its intercept plus the thermal voltage is equal to Vbi. The obtained value for the pure P3HT is 1.243 V. This is fairly close to the expected value based on the EL offset between P3HT and Al.
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Figure 6.
Plot of 1/C2 where C is the depletion layer capacitance as a function of applied DC bias. The intercept of the linear fit gives the built in potential.
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The work function of P3HT is around 5.1 to 5.2 eV. For Al, it ranges from 4.0 to 4.3 eV. The ZnO-doped P3HT has Vbi of 1.181V, indicating that EF of the P3HT moved farther from the valence band edge and closer to the EF of Al. One possible explanation for this reduction is the increase in the free electron concentration in the polymer nanocomposite provided by the ZnO. In semiconductors, EF lies closer to the conduction band edge for n-type conductivity and it lies closer to the valence band edge for p – type conductivity. The upward shift in EF due to the ZnO may be the cause of the drop in VOC for P3HT:ZnO nanofibers BHJ (Olson et al., 2007). When the authors compared the photovoltaic performance of ZnO bilayer and ZnO nanofiber devices, they observed higher VOC in the bilayer device (500 mV versus 440 mV). Although the nanofiber device still had better due to its higher JSC. The results shown in Figure 6 may be helpful in optimizing BHJ solar cell based on P3HT and ZnO nanostructures. High values of JSC and VOC may be obtained simultaneously by tailoring the property of the active layer-metal interface or selecting alternative metals or alloys for back electrode.
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5. Polymer-based conductivity sensors
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5.1. Conductivity sensors for chemical detection
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Conductivity sensors for chemical detection are very attractive because of their simple operation. The circuit design required to convert their response to electrical signals is relatively straightforward. These sensors are based on the change in the electrical conductivity of the sensing material due to its interaction with the stimuli. Device fabrication is also not difficult. For example, the sensing material may be deposited on interdigitated or two parallel electrodes, which form the connection for measuring the change in electrical resistance. Three common classes of sensing materials for conductivity sensors are conducting polymer composites, intrinsically conducting polymers and metal oxides (Arshak et al., 2004). The mechanism behind the change in conductivity is different for each class.
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In conducting polymer composites, conducting particles such as polypyrrole and carbon black (Albert et al., 2000) are embedded in an insulating polymer matrix. The stimuli can cause expansion of the polymer and the polypyrrole particles resulting in the increase of electrical resistance. If the stimuli interact chemically with the polypyrrole, its intrinsic conductivity will also change, making the resistance change in the composite more difficult to interpret. The operation of intrinsically conducting polymers (ICP) such as polypyrrole, polythiophene and polyaniline, is based on the alteration of intrachain conductivity, intermolecular conductivity and ionic conductivity after interacting with the stimuli. Intrachain conductivity is detrmined by the backbone while intermolecular conductivity is due to electron hopping to different chains. Ionic conductivity is affected by proton tunneling induced by hydrogen bond interaction at the backbone and also by ion migration through the polymer. One reported application of ICP employed an array of conducting polymer sensors incorporating 3-Methylthiophene, Aniline and Pyrrole (Guadarrama et al., 2000). The authors evaluated the sensors to different wine varieties and considered the cross sensitivity of the polymeric films to moisture and ethanol. The operation of a metal oxide sensor is based on the dependence of the conductivity to O2 molecules adsorbed on its surface. For n-type metal oxides such as ZnO or TiO2, O2 molecules capture electrons on the surface or at the grain boundaries resulting in the decrease of conductivity. Trapped electrons at the grain boundaries also produce potential barriers between grains that impede current flow. When exposed to reducing gas like H2, CH4, CO, C2H5 or H2S, the adsorbed O2 molecules react with the gas and release the captured electrons. This increases the conductivity of the sensing material. When exposed to oxidizing gas like O2, NO2 or Cl2, the effect is opposite. Conductivity is decreased because the number of adsorbed O2 molecules that can capture electrons is increased. For p-type metal oxides, their response to oxidizing gas is to increase in conductivity because the capture of electrons produces more holes. In contrast, their conductivity decreases when exposed to reducing gases.
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There are still many challenges in conductivity gas sensors. For polymer composites, aging is a concern because this leads to sensor drift. Their applicability is only limited to certain gases because of lack of sensitivity. For ICP, challenges include understanding the mechanism of sensor response, high sensitivity to humidity and drift in conductivity with time. These sensors can also have short lifetimes due to oxidation of the polymer. For metal oxides, one challenge is the low sensitivity at room temperature. They require higher operating temperatures and thus heating element has to be incorporated with the sensor (Roy & Basu, 2002) This increases the power consumption, which is not very appealing for handheld applications. Good selectivity is another challenge for metal oxide conductivity sensors. Their behavior to reducing gases is practically the same. For example, the conductivity of a sensor changed by when exposed to ethanol vapor with concentration C1. The same response can be realized when it is exposed to methanol with a different concentration C2. Thus, the identification of a particular reducing vapor, with a background of different others is almost impossible. Due to the mentioned challenges, there is a continuous effort to develop new materials for conductivity sensors. Reliable sensors with appropriate levels of selectivity and sensitivity will always be in demand. In the standpoint of defense and homeland security, new hazardous compounds or biomaterials that need to be detected is expected to arise. New applications such as self-powered sensors will require excellent energy efficient sensing materials without sacrificing sensitivity and selectivity.
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5.2. Sensing with P3HT doped with ZnO nanowires
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There is a lack of work in the exploration of ZnO doped polymers as conductivity sensors for chemical detection. Interestingly, only P3HT, which is mostly used in photovoltaics, has been reported to have promising sensing behavior when blended with ZnO-NWs (Saxena et al., 2007). As separate materials, P3HT and ZnO-NWs can both be used as a conductivity gas sensor. But due to the difference in their conductivity type, they have contrasting response to a specific stimulus. For example, they both exhibit high sensitivity to NO2 and H2S (Saxena et al., 2007). P3HT decreases in resistance upon exposure to NO2, which is oxidizing gas, while it behaves oppositely for H2S, a reducing gas. This characteristic is due to its p – type conductivity. The adsorption of an oxidizing compound on P3HT surface captures electrons leading to increased hole carrier concentration. Conversely, the adsorption of a reducing compound leads to the decrease in hole carrier concentration via the release of captured electrons. For n – type ZnO, the effect of oxidizing and reducing compounds is to decrease and increase conductivity respectively.
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Doping of P3HT with oxygen defficient ZnO nanowires results in the reduction of P3HT. This is well supported by GI-XRD, XPS and FTIR studies (Saxena et al., 2007). The authors also observed decrease in the P3HT conductivity after ZnO doping suggesting that its hole carrier concentation drops when ZnO donates electrons. This interaction may be used to tailor the response of polymers to different stimuli, opening up the possilibity of tunable polymer-based conductivity sensors. For example, the authors have demonstrated that highly reduced P3HT resulting from ZnO doping, has enhanced sensitivity to NO2 because this chemical can easily pick up electrons from P3HT to get adsorbed as NO-\n\t\t\t\t\t2 ions. They have obtained room temparature sensors that can detect NO2 in the 0 – 10 ppm range with very high selectivity. In contrast, the sensitivity of ZnO-doped P3HT to a reducing H2S is weakened because it is difficult to further reduce the P3HT.
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6. Conclusion
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As separate materials, polymers and ZnO are already considered to be important technologically. They have found several commercial applications in optoelectronics and sensors. Despite that, research activities involving these materials are still in full swing. For example, there is a lot of effort in developing high efficient polymeric solar cells and light emitting diodes. One of the big challenges in this area is long term stability. For ZnO, most of its expected applications, such as UV light emitters, spin functional devices, chemical sensors, surface acoustic wave devices and transparent conductors, are still in the laboratory level. This is mainly because ZnO is prone to material defects that it becomes very difficult to obtain reproducible device performance and reliability. Clearly, there is still a considerable work to be done with ZnO alone, but it is worthwhile to broaden its potential as a technological material. In this manuscript, a more unique role of ZnO, which is as a dopant to polymers, has been presented. This is an area of research, which is just beginning to be explored. Relevant publications are still limited but they report some intriguing observations that may have novel optoelectronic and sensor applications. The interaction of ZnO with polymers may provide ways of obtaining unique or enhanced optical and electronic properties in polymer nanocomposites. Thus, by doping polymers with ZnO, new applications may be realized without losing the benefits offered by polymers in terms of processing, scalability and mechanical flexibility.
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\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/8892.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/8892.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8892",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8892",totalDownloads:7434,totalViews:471,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 1st 2010",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/8892",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/8892",book:{slug:"nanowires-science-and-technology"},signatures:"Aga and Mu",authors:[{id:"7216",title:"Prof",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Mu",fullName:"Richard Mu",slug:"richard-mu",email:"rmu@fisk.edu",position:null,institution:null},{id:"9284",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Aga",fullName:"Roberto Aga",slug:"roberto-aga",email:"raga@fisk.edu",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. ZnO as dopant to polymers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Technological importance of ZnO",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Fabrication of ZnO nanostructures for dispersion in solution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Polymer-based light emitting devices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Basic requirements for efficient electroluminescence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Control of charge transport",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3. Control of optical emission",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Polymer-based photovoltaics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1. Challenges",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2. ZnO as electron acceptor",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3. Effect of ZnO nanowire doping on the Fermi level of P3HT",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Polymer-based conductivity sensors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.1. Conductivity sensors for chemical detection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.2. Sensing with P3HT doped with ZnO nanowires",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAlbert\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLewis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSchauer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSotzing\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStitzel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVaid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWalt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tCross-reactive chemical sensor arrays. 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Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 112\n\t\t\t\t\t41 (September 2008) 16002\n\t\t\t\t\t16010, 1932-7455\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B36",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSze\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tPhysics of Semiconductor Devices, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 978-0-471-14323-9, Hoboken NJ USA\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B37",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTon-That\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPhillips\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNguyen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT-P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tBlue shift in the luminescence spectra of MEH-PPV films containing ZnO nanoparticles. Journal of Luminescence, 128\n\t\t\t\t\t12 (July 2008) 2031\n\t\t\t\t\t2034.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B38",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTon-That\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPhillips\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFoley\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMoody\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStampfl\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tSurface electronic properties of ZnO nanoparticles. Applied Physics Letters, 92\n\t\t\t\t\t26 (July 2008) 261916, 1077-3118\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B39",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUmeda\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSakamoto\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYogo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tSynthesis and field-responsive properties of SrTiO3 nanoparticle/polymer hybrid. Journal of Material Research, 24\n\t\t\t\t\t7 (July 2009) 2221\n\t\t\t\t\t2228, 0884-2914\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B40",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPflugl\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAndress\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHam\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCapasso\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tGigahertz surface acoustic wave generation on ZnO thin films deposited by radio frequency magnetron sputtering on III-V semiconductor substrates. 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MRS Bulletin, 32\n\t\t\t\t\t4 (April 2007) 314\n\t\t\t\t\t322, 0883-7694\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B42",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ-X.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRoy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStallinga\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMuccini\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tToffanin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXiang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH-F.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC-M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tNanocomposite field effect transistors based on zinc oxide/polymer blends. Applied Physics Letters, 90\n\t\t\t\t\t22 (June 2007) 223509, 1077-3118\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B43",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQian\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTeng\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tInfluence of ZnO nanorod on the luminescent and electrical properties of fluorescent dye-doped polymer nanocomposite. Optical Materials, 29\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (November 2006) 216\n\t\t\t\t\t219, 0925-3467\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mu Aga",address:null,affiliation:'
Fisk University, USA
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Lake",authors:[{id:"7087",title:"PhD.",name:"Mohammad Abul",middleName:null,surname:"Khayer",fullName:"Mohammad Abul Khayer",slug:"mohammad-abul-khayer"},{id:"120976",title:"PhD.",name:"Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Lake",fullName:"Roger Lake",slug:"roger-lake"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3154",title:"Electrodeposited Nanowires and their Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"45243abd7aed0cc587462d93cb16169b",slug:"electrodeposited-nanowires-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Nicoleta Lupu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3154.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6995",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicoleta",surname:"Lupu",slug:"nicoleta-lupu",fullName:"Nicoleta Lupu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"8903",title:"Electrodeposited Nanowires and Their Applications",slug:"electrodeposited-nanowires-and-their-applications",signatures:"Nicoleta Lupu",authors:[{id:"6995",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicoleta",middleName:null,surname:"Lupu",fullName:"Nicoleta Lupu",slug:"nicoleta-lupu"}]},{id:"8904",title:"Computational Tools to Study and Predict the Long-Term Stability of Nanowires.",slug:"computational-tools-to-study-and-predict-the-long-term-stability-of-nanowires-",signatures:"Martin E. Zoloff Michoff, Patricio Vélez, Sergio A. Dassie and Ezequiel P. M. Leiva",authors:[{id:"7474",title:"Prof.",name:"Ezequiel",middleName:null,surname:"Leiva",fullName:"Ezequiel Leiva",slug:"ezequiel-leiva"},{id:"7475",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:"Eduardo",surname:"Zoloff Michoff",fullName:"Martin Zoloff Michoff",slug:"martin-zoloff-michoff"},{id:"121000",title:"Prof.",name:"Patricio",middleName:null,surname:"Velez",fullName:"Patricio Velez",slug:"patricio-velez"},{id:"121004",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Dassie",fullName:"Sergio Alberto Dassie",slug:"sergio-alberto-dassie"}]},{id:"8905",title:"Modelling Metallic Nanowires Breakage for Statistical Studies: Ni Case as Example",slug:"modelling-metallic-nanowires-breakage-for-statistical-studies-ni-case-as-example",signatures:"Samuel Peláez, Carlo Guerrero, Ricardo Paredes, Pedro A. Serena, and Pedro García-Mochales",authors:[{id:"7222",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia-Mochales",fullName:"Pedro Garcia-Mochales",slug:"pedro-garcia-mochales"},{id:"121015",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Serena",fullName:"Pedro Serena",slug:"pedro-serena"}]},{id:"8906",title:"Fabrication of Functional Metallic Nanowires Using Electrodeposition Technique",slug:"fabrication-of-functional-metallic-nanowires-using-electrodeposition-technique",signatures:"Takeshi Ohgai",authors:[{id:"7108",title:"Prof.",name:"Takeshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ohgai",fullName:"Takeshi Ohgai",slug:"takeshi-ohgai"}]},{id:"8907",title:"Annealing Effects on the Metal and Semiconductor Nanowires Loaded Inside the Alumina Pores",slug:"annealing-effects-on-the-metal-and-semiconductor-nanowires-loaded-inside-the-alumina-pores",signatures:"Arūnas Jagminas",authors:[{id:"7653",title:"Dr.",name:"Arunas",middleName:null,surname:"Jagminas",fullName:"Arunas Jagminas",slug:"arunas-jagminas"}]},{id:"8908",title:"Fabrication and Applications of Metal Nanowire Arrays Electrodeposited in Ordered Porous Templates",slug:"fabrication-and-applications-of-metal-nanowire-arrays-electrodeposited-in-ordered-porous-templates",signatures:"Giray Kartopu and Orhan Yalçın",authors:[{id:"7163",title:"Dr.",name:"Giray",middleName:null,surname:"Kartopu",fullName:"Giray Kartopu",slug:"giray-kartopu"},{id:"101308",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Yalçın",fullName:"Dr. Orhan Yalçın",slug:"dr.-orhan-yalcin"}]},{id:"8909",title:"Ferromagnetic Nanowires and Nanotubes",slug:"ferromagnetic-nanowires-and-nanotubes",signatures:"Xiu-Feng Han, Shahzadi Shamaila and Rehana Sharif",authors:[{id:"7414",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiufeng",middleName:null,surname:"Han",fullName:"Xiufeng Han",slug:"xiufeng-han"},{id:"26975",title:"Prof.",name:"Rehana",middleName:null,surname:"Sharif",fullName:"Rehana Sharif",slug:"rehana-sharif"},{id:"121020",title:"Prof.",name:"Shahzadi",middleName:null,surname:"Shamaila",fullName:"Shahzadi Shamaila",slug:"shahzadi-shamaila"}]},{id:"8910",title:"Extracting Individual Properties from Global Behaviour: First-order Reversal Curve Method Applied to Magnetic Nanowire Arrays",slug:"extracting-individual-properties-from-global-behaviour-first-order-reversal-curve-method-applied-to-",signatures:"Fanny Béron, Louis-Philippe Carignan, David Ménard and Arthur Yelon",authors:[{id:"7433",title:"Dr.",name:"Fanny",middleName:null,surname:"Beron",fullName:"Fanny Beron",slug:"fanny-beron"},{id:"121023",title:"PhD.",name:"Louis-Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Carignan",fullName:"Louis-Philippe Carignan",slug:"louis-philippe-carignan"},{id:"121024",title:"Prof.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Menard",fullName:"David Menard",slug:"david-menard"},{id:"121026",title:"Prof.",name:"Arthur",middleName:null,surname:"Yelon",fullName:"Arthur Yelon",slug:"arthur-yelon"}]},{id:"8911",title:"Impact of Nanowires on the Properties of Magnetorheological Fluids and Elastomer Composites",slug:"impact-of-nanowires-on-the-properties-of-magnetorheological-fluids-and-elastomer-composites",signatures:"R. C. Bell, D. T. Zimmerman, and N. M. Wereley",authors:[{id:"121029",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard C.",middleName:null,surname:"Bell",fullName:"Richard C. Bell",slug:"richard-c.-bell"},{id:"121030",title:"Prof.",name:"D. T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zimmerman",fullName:"D. T. Zimmerman",slug:"d.-t.-zimmerman"},{id:"121033",title:"Dr.",name:"Norman M.",middleName:null,surname:"Wereley",fullName:"Norman M. Wereley",slug:"norman-m.-wereley"}]},{id:"8912",title:"The Applications of Metallic Nanowires for Live Cell Studies",slug:"the-applications-of-metallic-nanowires-for-live-cell-studies",signatures:"Chiung-Wen Kuo and Peilin Chen",authors:[{id:"7620",title:"Dr.",name:"Peilin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Peilin Chen",slug:"peilin-chen"},{id:"121034",title:"Prof.",name:"Chiung-Wen",middleName:null,surname:"Kuo",fullName:"Chiung-Wen Kuo",slug:"chiung-wen-kuo"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"70572",title:"Improved Technologies for Higher Maize Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88997",slug:"improved-technologies-for-higher-maize-production",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Maize is known as the Queen of Cereals’ due to its’ demand and wider adaptability. It is the second most important cereal crop in the world in terms of acreage and production. Global production of Maize was about 1040 million MT in the year 2016–2017, where in USA and China contributed about 38 and 23%, respectively. In India, maize is the 3rd most important food crop after rice and wheat, where about 15 million farmers are engaged in maize cultivation [1]. In India, Andhra Pradesh ranks first in maize production followed by Karnataka with per cent share of 20.9 and 16.5, respectively [2]. It has a share of 9% in about Rs. 100 billion agriculture sector gross domestic product [3]. Maize can be cultivated successfully in loamy sand to heavy clay, well aerated, neutral pH soils. As of tropical origin, it is highly sensitive to water stagnation, so avoid the cultivation in low-lying or poor drainage fields. Furthermore, extended low temperature less 5°C severally affects the crop. Optimum range of temperature for better crop growth and yield realization is 25–35°C [4]. Being day neutral, maize crop can be cultivated throughout the year which leads to high yield levels in a short period of time. In this chapter, we are going to discuss an array of different production technologies to be followed by farmers for successful cultivation and better realization of yields. A brief outline of the chapter is given below.
\n
\n
\n
2. Origin and distribution
\n
Central America and Mexico is the primary centre of origin of maize which consists of a diversity of maize crop. Various studies reveal that maize crop was a significant crop in Mexico about 5000 years ago. USA has the largest area under maize crop followed by Brazil, China, Mexico and India. USA also stands first in terms of production followed by China. In India, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab are the major maize growing states. Highest acreage and production is in Uttar Pradesh while average yield/ha is recorded in Andhra Pradesh [2, 5].
\n
\n
\n
3. Climatic requirements
\n
Maize crop can grow under diverse conditions from sea level to about 3000 m altitude throughout the year in many parts of the country. In Northern India, kharif (monsoon) season is main growing period while in Southern India it can be grown from April to October as warm weather conditions prevail for longer period. Maize crop requires 21 and 32°C temperature for proper germination and growth with considerable moisture availability. For instance, 50–75 cm of well distributed rain is conducive for proper growth. During flowering, high temperature and low humidity damages the foliage, desiccates the pollens interferes with pollination and decreased grain formation. Maize is highly sensitive to water stagnation especially during early period of growth [2, 5].
\n
\n
\n
4. Improved production technologies
\n
\n
4.1 Crop establishment
\n
\n
4.1.1 Selection of cultivar
\n
Type of cultivar/hybrid to be grown depends on the crop season namely, spring, Kharif or Rabi. Cultivars can be proffered based on length of growing season, availability of optimum moisture regime. Depending upon above factors, cultivars can be selected as follows (\nTable 1\n) [6]:
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Length of cropping season (days)
\n
Type of cultivar
\n
\n\n\n
\n
More than 100
\n
Late maturing
\n
\n
\n
90 to 100
\n
Medium maturing
\n
\n
\n
80 to 90
\n
Early maturing
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Choice of cultivar as per length of growing season.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.2 Sowing time
\n
Due to occurrence of diverse climatic conditions in country, planting time varies from place to place. Optimum planting time in different agro-climatic regions is described in \nTable 2\n [2]. The optimum time to sow the crop depends on availability of irrigation facilities. For example, if irrigation facilities are available, maize crop can be sown about 2 weeks before onset of monsoon while under rainfed conditions, crop is sown with the onset of monsoon to have optimum moisture regime so that proper plant stand can be maintained in field. In Punjab, Maize crop can be sown during all seasons at following sowing times (\nTable 3\n) [7, 8]:
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Agro-climatic region
\n
Optimum planting time
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Indo-gangatic plains
\n
15 June–15 July
\n
\n
\n
North-western hills
\n
April-early May
\n
\n
\n
North-eastern hills
\n
First fortnight of March
\n
\n
\n
Peninsular region
\n
May–June
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Optimum planting of maize in different agro-climatic regions.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Season
\n
Planting time
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\nKharif\n
\n
Last week of May to last week of June
\n
\n
\n
Spring
\n
20th of Jan to 15th of Feb
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Season wise planting time maize.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.3 Seed rate
\n
Being a non-tillering crop it cannot compensate for the lost space if proper plant stand is not maintained under field conditions. So maintenance of 60–65,000 plants/ha is pre-requisite for realizing maximum yield. Sowing of the crop should be done 60 × 20–25 cm crop geometry. For hybrids and composites, seed rate can be used with respect to seed weight and requirement of plant population as given in \nTable 4\n [2, 8].
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Hybrids
\n
20–25 kg/ha
\n
\n
\n
Composites
\n
18–20 kg/ha
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Seed rate of maize hybrids and composites.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.4 Seed treatment
\n
Seed treatment plays a pivotal role in prevention of diseases and availability of nutrients to growing crop. For instance, seed treatment of maize with Bavistin or Derosal or Agrozim 50 WP (Carbendazim) @ 3 g/kg seed prevents the attack of seed and soil borne diseases in maize crop. Furthermore, treatment of seed with consortium (biofertilizer) @ 1.25 kg/ha helps in yield enhancement and improvement of soil health [2, 7, 8].
\n
\n
\n
4.1.5 Crop geometry
\n
Crop geometry has direct effect on inter and intra-plant competition in field crops. Maize crop can be planted in varied crop geometries (\nTable 5\n) depending upon the purpose of cultivation [2, 8]. Interculture operations like thinning, gap filling and earthing-up play critical role in performance of maize crop. Thinning needs to be performed about 10 days after germination to keep 1 plant/hill. Further, 2 earthing-ups are required in maize crop. First at 35–40 and 2nd at 60–65 days after germination [9].
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Purpose
\n
Crop geometry
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Grain crop
\n
60 cm × 20 cm; 75 cm × 20 cm
\n
\n
\n
Baby corn
\n
30 cm × 20 cm; 60 cm × 15 cm
\n
\n
\n
Fodder
\n
30 cm × 10 cm
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Crop geometry of maize to be followed as per requirement.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.6 Method of planting
\n
Although crop establishment is a series of events that depends on interactions of seed, soil moisture, method of sowing, machinery etc. but method of planting plays an important role in establishment of crop under given set of conditions. Maize is mainly sown directly through seed by using different methods of tillage & establishment. Recently, resource conservation technologies (RCTs) namely, zero tillage, minimum tillage, surface seeding etc. had came in practice in various maize based cropping system and are cost effective and environment friendly. Following are major planting methods that vary from situation to situation.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.7 Zero tillage
\n
Maize crop can be cultivated without any primary tillage under no-till (\nFigure 1\n) with decreased cost of cultivation and better resource use efficiency. In this situation, maintenance of proper soil moisture at sowing and band placement of seed and fertilizers with zero-till seed-cum-fertilizer planter with furrow opener as per the soil texture and field conditions is pre-requisite. The technology is followed by large number of farmers especially under rice-maize and maize-wheat systems in peninssular and eastern India. If the field is infested with weeds, farmers can go for foliar spray of gramoxone 24 SL (paraquat) @ 1250 ml/ha about 24 hours before planting of maize crop [2, 7, 8].
\n
Figure 1.
Maize crop sown under zero tillage system.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.8 Ridge/raised bed planting
\n
This planting method (\nFigure 2\n) is considered best for cultivation during monsoon and winter seasons both under excess and limited water availability conditions. On non-uniform lands, this method is most suitable for successful cultivation of maize crop. Planting of crop needs to be done on the southern side of the east–west ridges/beds for better exposure to sunlight during winters and better crop stand. Raised bed planter having inclined plate, cupping or roller type seed dropping system should be used for planting that facilitates proper placement of seed and fertilizers in single operation for having good crop stand, higher productivity and resource use efficiency. Irrigation water can be saved to the tune of 20–30%. Under temporary excess soil moisture/water logging due to heavy rains, the furrows will act as drainage channels and crop can be saved from excess soil moisture stress [2, 5, 7, 8].
\n
Figure 2.
Planting of maize crop on the ridges.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.9 Flat sowing
\n
Maize crop can be cultivated by conventional tillage flat planting (\nFigure 3\n) depending upon soil type and availability of irrigation facilities. Light soils have high infiltration rate and low water holding capacity, so farmers can go for flat planting of maize crop. Under rainfed conditions, to have better moisture availability to crop for longer period, flat planting becomes better alternate. Flat planting is also beneficial when no tillage system gets infested with high weed population and chemical/manual weed control becomes non-economical [7, 8].
\n
Figure 3.
Flat sowing of maize crop.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.10 Transplanting
\n
It is better establishment technique winter maize (\nFigure 4\n) in the intensive cropping system where field cannot be vacated on time, to prevent the delayed planting and crop loss due to low temperature. Under this situation, nursery of the crop is raised on a smaller portion of land and seedlings are transplanted in required field as and when they achieve certain age. For example, if the fields are to be vacated during December–January, it is advisable to go for nursery sowing 30–40 days before the transplanting. Seedlings can be transplanted in the furrows followed by light irrigation [2, 5].
\n
Figure 4.
Maize crop establishment through transplanting system.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.11 Furrow planting
\n
Furrow planting (\nFigure 5\n) of maize is recommended when crop is to be cultivated during spring season as high evaporative losses may lead to water deficit stress in flat and raised bed or ridge sowing [2, 5, 7, 8].
\n
Figure 5.
Crop establishment by furrow planting.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Water management
\n
Water requirement of the maize crop varies from 400 to 600 mm [10]. Excess or shortage of moisture can have harmful impact on the crop growth. Proper drainage of standing water and meeting the crop needs at critical stages play a pivotal role in better crop performance. Especially for winter maize, it is advisable to keep soil wet (frequent & mild irrigation) during 15 December to 15 February to protect the crop from frost injury [3].
\n
\n
4.2.1 Flood irrigation
\n
Flood method of irrigation is followed where maize crop is cultivated with flat sowing. Crop is irrigated as and when required. Generally, young seedlings, knee high stage (V8), flowering (VT) and grain 7.
\n
filling (GF) are critical stages and hence irrigation should be ensured at these stages [2, 7, 8].
\n
\n
\n
4.2.2 Furrow irrigation
\n
When crop is cultivated as ridge/raised bed planting, furrow irrigation is followed. Care needs to be taken at first irrigation that water should not overflow on the ridges/beds. As a thumb rule, the irrigation should be applied in furrows up to 2/3rd height of the ridges/beds. In raised bed and in limited irrigation water, the irrigation water can also be applied in alternate furrows to save irrigation water. In rainfed conditions, tied-ridges prove helpful in conserving the rainwater, increasing its availability in the root zone for longer period [2, 7, 8, 11].
\n
\n
\n
4.2.3 Above ground drip irrigation
\n
High temperature and high evaporative demand during summer season enhances the water requirement of maize crop as a result of which farmers go for a number of irrigation. To increase the water use efficiency of crop, above ground drip irrigation is recommended by Punjab Agricultural University. In this, broad beds are prepared at 1.20 m apart from centre to centre of furrow. These beds are 80 cm wide on the top and 40 cm wide furrows between beds. The beds are covered with U.V stabilized plastic film (Black) of 25 micron thickness (23 grams per m2). Two rows of maize are planted at a spacing of 60 cm keeping plant to plant distance of 20 cm. One lateral pipe is used to irrigate two rows of maize. The drippers are spaced 30 cm apart and are operated at a discharge of 2.2 L per hour as given in \nTable 6\n [7, 8, 12]. Prevailing climatic regimes of an area affect the efficiency of drip irrigation system [12].
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Month
\n
Timing of irrigation (min)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
February
\n
22
\n
\n
\n
March
\n
64
\n
\n
\n
April
\n
120
\n
\n
\n
May
\n
130
\n
\n\n
Table 6.
Month-wise timing of above ground drip irrigation in spring maize.
\n
* If discharge rate is different, time of irrigation may be adjusted proportionally by the formula:
\n
\n\nTime of irrigation\n=\n\n\n2.2\n×\nTime of irrigation\n\n\n\nmin\n.\n\n\n∗\n\n\nDischarge of dripper\n\n\n\nl\n/\nhr\n\n\n\n\n\nE1
\n
\n
\n
4.2.4 Sub-surface drip irrigation
\n
In field experiments, sub surface drip irrigation and fertigation resulted in 18.4% higher system productivity with saving of 28.5% applied irrigation water. Sub-surface irrigation technology can be followed in maize-wheat-summer moong cropping system. For this system, Place drip inline having dripper having 20 cm spacing at 20 cm depth with lateral to lateral spacing of 67.5 cm for sub surface drip irrigation in maize-wheat-summer moong cropping system. Sow one row of maize, two rows of wheat and two rows of summer moong on each drip inline during respective season. If discharge of the dripper is 2.2 L/hour, the schedule given in \nTable 7\n can be followed for sub-surface drip irrigation in above mentioned cropping system [7, 8, 10].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Crop
\n
Month
\n
Timing of irrigation (min)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Maize
\n
July
\n
35
\n
\n
\n
August
\n
35
\n
\n
\n
September
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
October
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
Wheat
\n
December
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
January
\n
65
\n
\n
\n
February
\n
70
\n
\n
\n
March
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
Summer Moong
\n
May
\n
60
\n
\n
\n
June
\n
45
\n
\n\n
Table 7.
Month-wise timing of sub-surface drip irrigation in maize-wheat-summer moong cropping system.
\n
If discharge rate is different, then time of irrigation may be adjusted proportionally by the formula:
\n
\n\n\n=\n\n(\n\n2.2\n×\ntime of irrigation\n\n\n(\n\nminutes\n\n)\n\n∗\n\n)\n\n÷\ndripper discharge\n\n\n(\n\nlitre\n/\nh\n\n)\n\n\n\nE2
\n
\n
\n
4.2.5 Partial root drying irrigation
\n
This technique (\nFigure 6\n) involves alternate wetting and drying of two halves of root zone of crop plants during consecutive irrigations. The PRD technique was developed on the basis of knowledge of root-to-shoot chemical signaling (can be negative or positive) about soil conditions that regulates the shoot physiology. Alternating is essential for maintaining a constant emission of signals from the root-to-shoot, because prolonged exposure of root to drying soil may cause anatomical changes which reduce the ability of root to sense soil drying and not able to sustain the production of ABA for long time period [10]. Different methods to apply the PRD technique can be separation of root system into two parts with sheet particularly in pots, controlled alternate surface drip irrigation on half part of the root zone, controlled alternate subsurface drip irrigation on half part of the root zone or controlled alternate furrow irrigation [10].
\n
Figure 6.
Field view of partial root drying irrigation technique in maize.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4.3 Weed management
\n
Maize crop is infested with grassy and broad leaf annual weeds. Among grassy, Dactyloctenium aegypticum, Eleucine indica, Setaria glauca, Cyanodon dactylon, Cyperus rotundus, Sorghum helepanse, Bracharia rapens are common. The broad leaf weeds are Celosia argentia, Commelina bengalensis, Phylanthis niruri, Solanum nigrum, Amaranthus viridis, Trianthema partulacastrum. Effective weed management strategies have key role in successful maize cultivation. Adoption of weed control practices during the first 6–8 weeks after planting is crucial because maize crop kept weed free for 30–45 days after planting is almost similar in yield as that kept weed free for entire crop period. The annual yield loss in maize because of weed problems is estimated to be approximately 10%. A number of weed management approached can be followed for weed management in maize crop that can be as follows [2, 7, 8]:
Non-chemical weed control measures can physical or cultural that means manual removal of weeds from the maize fields. In cultural method, Give two hoeings 15–30 days after sowing with khurpa/kasaula/wheel-hoe/triphali/tractor-drawn cultivator. Mulching is practice of keeping crop residues or plastic sheets on the soil surface within the crop rows. Mulching helps in temperature regulation, water conservation as well weed control in field crops [7, 8].
\n
\n
\n
4.3.2 Chemical control
\n
Sometimes due to continuous rains during the early stages of maize growth it becomes impossible to enter in the field. Also due to scarce availability of farm labour, the only effective way to control weeds is the use of herbicides. Spray of atrataf 50 WP (atrazine) @ 2 kg/ha on medium to heavy textured soils and 1.25 kg/ha in light soils within 10 days of sowing, using 500 L of water prove propitious in keeping weed population low in maize fields. Spray the herbicide uniformly at recommended rates to minimize residual toxicity to crops sown after maize. Alternatively, spray 262.5 ml/ha laudis 420 SC (tembotrione) in 375 L of water at 20 days after sowing provides effective control of mixed weed flora. For the control of Cyperus rotundus (dila/motha), apply 500 ml/ha 2,4-D amine salt 58 SL as post emergence 20–25 days after sowing in 375 L of water [2, 7, 8].
\n
\n
\n
\n
4.4 Nutrient management
\n
\n
4.4.1 Integrated nutrient management
\n
Among the cereal crops, maize in general and specifically hybrids are very responsive to nutrients applied through organic or inorganic means. The rate of application depends on soil nutrient status and cropping system. For realizing required yield, the dose of applied nutrients should be as par the soil supplying capacity and crop demand. As the response of maize crop to organic manures is remarkable so integrated nutrient management (INM) is very important option in maize based systems.
Apply 10–15 t/ha of good quality farmyard manure per hectare to the maize crop year after year [7, 8].
Green manure the field, to be put under maize with Dhaincha/Sunhemp/Cowpea. Cowpea/Dhaincha/Sunhemp should be sown during second fortnight of April using 12/20/20 kg seed per acre, respectively. The 50 days old green manure crop should be burried and allowed to decompose for about 10 days before sowing of maize. In case, summer moong crop is grown the straw should be burried before sowing of maize [7, 8].
Inoculate the maize seed with recommended bio-fertilizer as described earlier. For this, mix half kg packet of recommended consortium bio-fertilizer with 1 L of water and then thoroughly mix it with maize seed on clean pucca floor. Let it dry in shade and sow the seed immediately. Inoculation with bio-fertilizer should be done after treating the seed with fungicide. The seed inoculation with consortium biofertilizer increase grain yield as well as improves soil health [7, 8, 11].
Paddy straw compost @ 450 kg/ha along with recommended dose of fertilizers can be an alternate to farm yard manure [7, 8].
As a general recommendation, one could apply 120 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O per hectare for hybrids and 80 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 20 kg K2O per hectare for composites. Drill one third of nitrogen and the entire quantity of phosphorous and potassium at the time of sowing. Top dress one third of nitrogen at the knee-high stage and the remaining one third at the pre tasseling stage. It may be noted that application of nitrogen fertilizer more than recommended dose is no substitute for FYM [7, 8].
Decreased Zn availability visuals emerge on middle leaves (2nd or 3rd from tip) of plants which include white or light yellow band and reddish veins on both sides of the midrib [7, 8]. Remedial measures are described in \nTable 8\n:
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Method of application
\n
ZnSO4 (33%)
\n
ZnSO4 (21%)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Broadcasting
\n
16.25 kilogram/ha
\n
25 kilogram/ha
\n
\n
\n
Foliar application
\n
1.88 + 0.94 kilogram unslaked lime
\n
3 + 1.5 kilogram unslaked lime
\n
\n\n
Table 8.
Remedial measures for Zn deficiency in maize.
\n
\n
\n
4.4.2 Fertigation
\n
It refers to simultaneous application of irrigation water and fertilizers by drip irrigation. By this method, FUE can go up to 80%. In drip irrigation model for spring maize, certain recommendations are made in respect to fertilizer application along with drip irrigation. For the medium fertility soils application of 200 kg of urea, 80 kg of mono ammonium phosphate (MAP) and 40 kg of muriate of potash (white)/ha is recommended. Start fertigation 12 days after sowing of maize and apply 25% of the fertilizers in four equal splits during first month on weekly basis. Rest of the fertilizer should be applied in equal splits on weekly basis upto first week of May. Furthermore, in sub-surface drip irrigation, fertilizer can be applied to maize crop when grown in maize-wheat-summer moong cropping system. For instance, Apply sub surface drip irrigation at 3 days interval for maize and summer moong with fertigation of 80% recommended dose of NPK. In maize, apply 1/5 dose of NPK at sowing and fertigate remaining P and K in 5 splits and N in 7 splits at 9 days interval starting from 15 DAS. Apply sub surface drip irrigation at 7 days interval up to mid-February and thereafter at 5 days interval to wheat with fertigation of 80% recommended dose of NPK. In wheat, apply 1/5th dose of NPK at sowing and fertigated the remaining NPK in 8 splits at 7 days interval starting from crown root initiation. In summer moong, fertigated NPK dose in 5 equal splits at 6 days interval starting from 10 DAS. Use urea, mono ammonium 119 phosphate and muriate of potash as source of N, P and K, respectively [7, 8].
\n
\n
\n
\n
4.5 Insect and pest management
\n
\n
4.5.1 Integrated pest management (IPM)
\n
IPM (\nFigure 7\n) is highly efficient and eco-friendly strategy which includes integrated use of all possible alternates that can be biological, physical, cultural or chemical for controlling pests. Growers who are aware of the potential for pest infestation follow a four-tiered approach. The four steps include: set action thresholds, monitor and identify pests, prevention and control [11, 13].
\nCultural control: Deep summer plowing helps in destroying resting stage of pests. Inter-cropping with legume reduces borer incidence. Use of well decomposed farm yard manure termite attack. Balanced use of fertilizers.
\nGenetic management: Use of good quality planting material from reliable source.
\nMechanical control: Cutting and destroying infected plants which ceases further spread. Use of pheromone traps. Set up of light traps.
\nChemical control: use of synthetic chemicals for the control of insect-pest and diseases [13].
\n\n
Figure 7.
Components of IPM.
\n
\n
\n
4.5.2 Biological pest management
\n
This approach encompasses use of living entities for the control of insect-pests and diseases. Living entities can be predators, herbivores or parasites along with intensive human interference. For controlling maize borer and other insects, apply bio-insecticides like Neemazal (1%) @ 300 ml/ha. The maize borer can also be managed by using tricho-cards twice having 40,000 eggs of Corcyra parasitized by Trichogramma chilonis. Make first release on 10 days old crop and second 1 week after first release. Cut tricho-cards into 40 equal strips and staple them uniformly on the underside of the central whorl leaves in evening hours. The tricho-cards should not be applied on rainy days [8, 11].
\n
\n
4.5.2.1 Major insect-pests and diseases
\n
\nMaize stem borer: This insect (\nFigure 8\n) attacks the maize crop mainly cultivated during monsoon season. After hatching, larvae enter the stem by scraping followed by boring through whorl. Following strategies can be followed for prevention and protection of crop:
Summer plowing of field.
Destruction of perennating stages in stubbles, cobs, stalks.
Cut and bury the severely infested plant parts.
Spray the crop 2–3 weeks after sowing as soon as borer injury to the leaves is noticed with Coragen 18.5 SC (chlorantraniliprole) @ 75 ml using 150 L water/ha with knap-sack sprayer [7, 8, 11].
\n\n
Figure 8.
Damage of maize crop by maize stem borer.
\n
\nShoot fly: Although it is major pest in Southern India but it may infest the maize crop sown in spring season in Northern India. Mainly it attacks the seedling stage of crop (\nFigure 9\n) where maggots move down to the basal portion through leaf sheath followed by cutting of growing point resulting in dead hearts. Control measures can be as follow:
Spring crop should be sown between January 20 and February 15.
Seed should be treated with gaucho (imidacloprid) 600 FS @ 6 ml/kg seed [7].
\n\n
Figure 9.
Attack of shoot fly in maize crop.
\n
\nHairy caterpillar: This pest becomes a serious concern when attacks in epidemic form. They damage the crop by feeding on leaves and soft stem, from gregarious (during younger stage) to distant migration (grown up stage). Prevention and protection strateges can be as follow:
Collection and destruction of young larvae by cutting and burying the attacked plant parts.
Physical destruction of large caterpillars [2, 3].
\n\n
\nMite: The attack of mite is serious in June on the young crop or in September–October when the crop is nearing maturity. The affected leaves turn pale and can be recognized from the presence of dusty webs [7, 8].
\n
\n
\n
4.5.2.2 Recently reported pest infestations
\n
In recent years, non-associated pests (\nFigures 10\n and \n11\n) have been reported in different parts of India with the details as below (\nTable 9\n) [3]:
\n
Figure 10.
Attack of army worm in maize crop.
\n
Figure 11.
Attack of pollen eating beetle on maize tassels.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Pest name
\n
Plant part infested
\n
Region
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\nHelicoverpa armigera\n
\n
Cob
\n
Southern India
\n
\n
\n
\nChiloloba acuta\n
\n
Pollen
\n
Northern India
\n
\n\n
Table 9.
Recently reported pest infestations in maize.
\n
\n
\n
4.5.2.3 Diseases
\n
\nSeed rot and seedling blight: Poor germination, unthrifty seedlings and seedling mortality are the symptoms. Use disease free seed [7, 8].
\n
\nBanded leaf and sheath blight: Water soaked, straw colored necrotic lesions alternating with dark brown bands develop on basal leaf sheaths (\nFigure 12\n). Lesions enlarge and coalesce with each other. Later, sclerotia develop on diseased sheaths, husk and cobs. In severe cases, developing ears are completely damaged and dry up prematurely with cracking of husk. To manage this disease, spray 250 ml Amistar Top 325 SC (azoxystrobin + difenoconazole) in 200 L of water/ha at disease appearance. If needed, repeat the spray at 15 days interval [1, 2, 3].
\n
Figure 12.
Maize crop infested with banded leaf and sheath blight.
\n
\nMaydis leaf blight: Symptoms of the disease involve spindle shaped, brownish lesions on the leaves which can further merge to emerge as irregular patches (\nFigure 13\n). Late sowing, high humidity (>80%) and temperature of 25 + 2°C favors the development of disease. Destroy the infected crop residue in the field. Grow improved varieties. Follow spray schedule as against Brown stripe downy mildew [7, 8].
\n
Figure 13.
Maydis leaf blight attack in maize crop.
\n
\nBacterial stalk rot: Characterized by water soaked appearance and rotting of stem at basal portion causing loss of green color and gives scortching appearance. Rotting of stem results in emitting of foul odor and breakage at 2nd/3rd basal internodes. Excessive rains and poor drainage favors the disease. The infected plants wilt. Destroy the diseased plant debris, keep the fields well drained and use improved varieties for its control [7, 8].
\n
\nBrown stripe downy mildew: Presence of long, brown colored, interveinal stripes on leaves (\nFigure 14\n), which if critically watched, have white cottony fungal growth on the lower side of leaves. Whitish downy fungal growth may be observed on close examination on underside of the stripes. Control measures can be as follow:
Removal of secondary host, that is, Digitaria sanguinalis.
Proper drainage of the fields.
Spray mancozeb @ 500 g/ha in 250 L of water after about a fortnight of sowing. Give two more sprays at 10-day intervals. Grow recommended varieties [7, 8, 11].
\n\n
Figure 14.
Maize crop attacked by brown stripe downy mildew.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4.6 Harvesting
\n
For use as grain, cobs should be harvested when grains are at about 20% moisture. Whereas to consume as sweet corn, harvesting should be done when tassel starts turning brown and swelling of cob initiates. In case of baby corn, harvest young cob when the silk is near emergence [6].
\n
\n
\n
4.7 Multiple cropping
\n
System in which >2 crops are cultivated in proper sequence on given piece of land during a year. Efficiency of the system is determined by a number of factors namely, manpower, choice of crop/cultivar, availability of irrigation facilities etc. technical competence, need based farm activities play a critical role in performance of multiple cropping. Following strategies can be adopted for successful adoption of intensive cropping:
Maize crop can be cultivated along with other crops as intercrops for better utilization of resources, enhanced income per unit area and time basis. For instance, intercropping of 1 row of fodder cowpea or maize, groundnut and soybean in kharif maize sown in 60 cm × 20 cm crop geometry. Apply nutrients to maize as per recommendation and to intercrops on the basis of area under cultivation. Harvest fodder cowpea and maize at about 55 DAS. Furthermore, maize crop can also be cultivated as intercrop in kharif blackgram. In this system, maize may be intercropped at every fifth row in the 30 cm apart rows of mash crop. Soybean can be successfully intercropped with maize by sowing one line of soybean between two lines of maize sown at 60 cm [8].
\n
\n
\n
4.7.2 Maize based cropping systems
\n
Crops like wheat, paddy, potato, sugarcane, chickpea, berseem, barley, oats etc. can be grown successfully after harvest of maize crop. Following are some of the most appropriate maize based cropping systems [2, 8]:
Cowpea/pearl millet/maize (fodder)
Spring maize-basmati-wheat
Maize/rice-wheat
Maize/rice-potato-wheat
Maize-potato/toria-sunflower
Maize-potato-onion
Maize-potato-mentha
Maize-wheat/celery-pearl millet fodder
Maize/rice-gobhi sarson-summer greengram
Maize-vegetable pea/potato-spring maize
Maize-potato-sugarcane-wheat
Maize-wheat-sugarcane
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
4.8 Techniques to get higher market price
\n
\n
4.8.1 Maize drying
\n
Maize drying is a vital operation which involves removal of moisture from the cobs/grains. It is carried out because high moisture grain will deteriorate rapidly due to grain respiration and heating, germination of grains, mold (fungal) growth and subsequent incidence of mycotoxins (e.g. aflatoxin) and increase insect multiplication and damage. The optimum moisture content of maize should be 14% or less [14].
\n
\n
4.8.1.1 Types of drying
\n
\n
\nSun drying: It is a popular method of drying grain where spread grain is exposed to direct sunlight until the desired grain moisture content is achieved. It is low energy cost.
\nSmoking: The insect infestation is reduced when hung above the fire as the heat reduces the moisture content and the chemicals in smoke deters insect from laying eggs.
\nAir drying: The maize cobs are hung along the roof of the house to expose it to air and hence the moisture content is minimized [5].
\n\n
A portable maize dryer 3 ton capacity has been developed by Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana as per international norms and recommended to dry maize grains from a moisture level 25 to 15% in 8–10 hours. This cross-flow dryer has three pass, indirect type diesel fired heating system. A control panel to regulate and display the temperature of heated air, exit air and speed of air blower with variable frequency drive is provided for better operation. The dryer can maintain air temperature 60–75°C with the grain temperature of 45°C for seed and 60°C for commercial purpose. The dryer is capable of drying maize grain @ 1.0–1.5% per hour consuming about 4 L/hour. of diesel initially for 1 hour. A provision of heat recovery from flue gases ensures higher fuel efficiency with reduced diesel consumption to about 2 L/hour, later on. The dryer can be operated both with tractor PTO or electricity. One each of skilled and unskilled labor is required to operate this dryer [8].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion
\n
\n
Adoption of production techniques namely, selection of cultivars, irrigation techniques, INM. IPM and other technological interventions certainly prove propitious in achieving the potential yield targets.
Maize crop provides better opportunity to scientific community in exploration of resource conservation technologies like zero tillage, partial root drying irrigation, integrated pest management etc.
Characteristically, maize crop can fit well in diverse crop rotations and intercropping options, which enhances its preference in intensive agriculture.
\n\n
\n
A. Appendix. Common nutrient deficiency symptoms in maize
\n\n\n\n
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\n\n
\n',keywords:"maize, production technologies, crop establishment, integrated nutrient management, integrated pest management, maize drying",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70572.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70572.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70572",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70572",totalDownloads:1037,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"May 17th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 2nd 2019",datePrePublished:"December 23rd 2019",datePublished:"April 22nd 2020",dateFinished:"December 23rd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"An array of production technologies, from land preparation to harvesting, has been recommended for maize crop. Being non-tillering crop, optimum plant population can be achieved if suitable crop establishment techniques like method of sowing, sowing time, seed rate, seed treatment, crop geometry etc., are followed. Weeds can be managed well either by two hoeings 15–30 days after sowing or herbicides like atrataf 50 WP (atrazine) at 2 kg/ha on medium to heavy textured soils and 1.25 kg/ha in light soils within 10 days of sowing, using 500 litres as pre-emergence or spray 262.5 ml/acre laudis 420 SC (tembotrione) in 375 litres of water at 20 days after sowing. Integrated nutrient management strategy renders use of farm yard manure at 10–15 t/ha, Paddy straw compost at 450 kg/ha or synthetic fertilizers at 120 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O per hectare for hybrids and 80 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 20 kg K2O per hectare for composites. Integrated pest management approach emphasizes on use of physical, chemical or biological measures for the control of insect-pests. Maize borer can be controlled by spraying coragen 18.5 SC at 75 ml using 150 litres water/ha. Drying of maize produce can be done sun drying, smoking or air drying for fetching better market price.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70572",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70572",signatures:"Manpreet Jaidka, Shikha Bathla and Ramanjit Kaur",book:{id:"8951",title:"Maize",subtitle:"Production and Use",fullTitle:"Maize - Production and Use",slug:"maize-production-and-use",publishedDate:"April 22nd 2020",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8951.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Origin and distribution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Climatic requirements",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Improved production technologies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Crop establishment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.1.4 Seed treatment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.6 Method of planting",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.1.7 Zero tillage",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.1.8 Ridge/raised bed planting",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.1.9 Flat sowing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.1.10 Transplanting",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.1.11 Furrow planting",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.2 Water management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"4.2.1 Flood irrigation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"4.2.2 Furrow irrigation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"Table 6.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"Table 7.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"4.2.5 Partial root drying irrigation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"4.3 Weed management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"4.3.1 Non-chemical control: manual weeding, mulching",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"4.3.2 Chemical control",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"4.4 Nutrient management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"Table 8.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"4.4.2 Fertigation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"4.5 Insect and pest management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"4.5.1 Integrated pest management (IPM)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"Table 9.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_4",title:"4.5.2.1 Major insect-pests and diseases",level:"4"},{id:"sec_30_4",title:"Table 9.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_31_4",title:"4.5.2.3 Diseases",level:"4"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"4.6 Harvesting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35_2",title:"4.7 Multiple cropping",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35_3",title:"4.7.1 Intercropping",level:"3"},{id:"sec_36_3",title:"4.7.2 Maize based cropping systems",level:"3"},{id:"sec_38_2",title:"4.8 Techniques to get higher market price",level:"2"},{id:"sec_38_3",title:"4.8.1 Maize drying",level:"3"},{id:"sec_38_4",title:"4.8.1.1 Types of drying",level:"4"},{id:"sec_42",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_44",title:"A. Appendix. Common nutrient deficiency symptoms in maize",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nShukla GN, Kumar A, Jha A, Singh N, Sharma P, Singh J, et al. FICCI PwC knowledge Report: Maize Vision 2022; 2013\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nSingh C, Singh P, Singh R. Modern Techniques of Raising Field Crops. 2nd ed. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Company; 2017. p. 86\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nMaize Production Technologies in India. Available from: https://farmer.gov.in\n\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nZaidi PH, Jat ML, Jat HS, Lenka D, Swain D. Package of Practices for Profitable Maize Cultivation- a Field Manual. Hyderabad, India: CIMMYT; 2017\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nRagasa C, Dankyi A, Acheampong P, Wiredu AN, Chapo-to A, Asamoah M, et al. Patterns of Adoption of Improved Maize Technologies in Ghana. International Food Plocy Rsearch Institute, Working paper 36; 2013\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nMaize Cultivation: Advanced Maize Production Technologies. Available from: https://www.indiaagronet.com\n\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nAnonymous. Package of Practices for Rabi Crops. Ludhiana: Punjab Agricultural University; 2018\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nAnonymous. Package of Practices for Kharif Crops. Ludhiana: Punjab Agricultural University; 2019\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nPackage of Practices of Maize. Available from: https://kvk.icar.gov.in\n\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nShanahan JM, Rupert J, Schussler J, Groeteke F, Lamm M, Dowgert JV, et al. Subsurface Drip Irrigation for Corn Production and Research. Available from: https://www.pioneer.com\n\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nImproved maize production technologies enhanced the net returns of the hill farmers under collaborative programme of ICAR Manipur centre- IIMR, New Delhi\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nYang L, Yang H, Jiu-sheng L, Yan-feng L, Hai-jun Y. Estimation of irrigation requirements for drip-irrigated maize in a sub humid climate. Journal of Integrative Agriculture. 2018;17(3):60345-60347\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nPlessis J. Maize Production. Department of Agriculture and obtainable from Resource Centre Directorate Agricultural Information Services Private Bag X144, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa; 2003\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nMaize Drying and Harvesting. Ento, leaflet 21. Semtokha, Thimphu: National Plant Protection Centre, Department of Agriculture\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Manpreet Jaidka",address:"mjaidka@pau.edu",affiliation:'
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8951",title:"Maize",subtitle:"Production and Use",fullTitle:"Maize - Production and Use",slug:"maize-production-and-use",publishedDate:"April 22nd 2020",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8951.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"97030",title:"Dr.",name:"Letizia",middleName:null,surname:"Ferroni",email:"letizia.ferroni@unipd.it",fullName:"Letizia 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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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