Comparison between eSports and games models using cryptocurrencies.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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\r\n\r\n\tWorldwide application received a direction related with synthesis of zeolite-like matrices for chemical binding of radioactive nucleids, heavy metals and other toxic and hazardous substances, as well as production of materials with specialty properties.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book has been written by researchers and experts in the field and dedicated to graduate students, researchers and practicing engineers in the related fields.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-082-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-081-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-092-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"90681a8fef45a03f68f4b9276acba2d3",bookSignature:"Dr. Pavel Krivenko",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10609.jpg",keywords:"Identification, Structure, Agricultural Technologies, Medicine, Oil, Ethanol, Fly Ash, Metakaolin, Crystallization, Dehydration, Adsorption, Aluminosilicate",numberOfDownloads:13,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 6th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 4th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 2nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 23rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 22nd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Researcher on the synthesis of zeolite-like cement’s systems R2O, K2O(CaO)-Al2O3-SiO2-H2O. Holder of more than 400 USSR author’s certificates, patents of Ukraine, and foreign patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180922",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Krivenko",slug:"pavel-krivenko",fullName:"Pavel Krivenko",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180922/images/system/180922.jpeg",biography:"Education: Dnepropetrovsk Civil Engineering Institute – Building Materials Process Engineer (1961); Kiev Civil Engineering Institute – PhD (Eng) (1971); Kiev Polytechnical Institute – DSc (Eng) (1986)\nMembership in Professional Associations: RILEM Technical Committee (France)(www.rilem.net) (“Alkali-Activated Materials” (2010 – 2013), “Durability Testing of Alkali Activated Materials” (2013 – 2018) and “Chloride transport in alkali-activated materials” (2018 – currently)), Academy of Engineering Sciences of Ukraine and Academy of Construction of Ukraine (Ukraine).\nCarrier History /Position Held: Problem Laboratory of Soil Silicates of the Kiev Civil Engineering Institute, Head of Laboratory (1971 – 1990); Scientific Research Institute for Binders and Materials of Kiev National University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Director, Scientific Supervisor/Principal Investigator (1990 – currently).",institutionString:"Kyiv National University of Construction and Architecture",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Kyiv National University of Construction and Architecture",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ukraine"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:[{id:"75562",title:"The Effect of HNO3 and/or NaOH Treatments on Characteristics of Mordenite",slug:"the-effect-of-hno3-and-or-naoh-treatments-on-characteristics-of-mordenite",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Kawsar Alam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6851",title:"New Uses of Micro and Nanomaterials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49e0ab8961c52c159da40dd3ec039be0",slug:"new-uses-of-micro-and-nanomaterials",bookSignature:"Marcelo Rubén Pagnola, Jairo Useche Vivero and Andres Guillermo Marrugo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"112233",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Marcelo Rubén",surname:"Pagnola",slug:"marcelo-ruben-pagnola",fullName:"Marcelo Rubén Pagnola"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9393",title:"Engineering Steels and High Entropy-Alloys",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d33466a3272f97353a6bf6d76d7512a5",slug:"engineering-steels-and-high-entropy-alloys",bookSignature:"Ashutosh Sharma, Zoia Duriagina, Sanjeev Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9393.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145236",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashutosh",surname:"Sharma",slug:"ashutosh-sharma",fullName:"Ashutosh Sharma"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7360",title:"Fillers",subtitle:"Synthesis, Characterization and Industrial Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4cb5f0dcdfc23d6ec4c1d5f72f726ab4",slug:"fillers-synthesis-characterization-and-industrial-application",bookSignature:"Amar Patnaik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7360.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43660",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amar",surname:"Patnaik",slug:"amar-patnaik",fullName:"Amar Patnaik"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"66688",title:"A Genetic Perspective on Colorectal Cancer Progression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85894",slug:"a-genetic-perspective-on-colorectal-cancer-progression",body:'Colorectal cancer (CCR) is the third most common cancer in men, the second in women and the third most prevalent cause of mortality in the world. It was estimated more than 1.8 million new cases in 2018 according to American Institute for Cancer Research and Continuous Update project panel. It is linked to the transition nutrition to the western lifestyle, consuming processed meat, red meat and alcoholic drinks, greater body fatness and adult height increase the risk of the disease. The incidence of the disease continues to rise especially in low and middle income countries and it is considered one of the clearest markers for rapid societal and economic changes that are associated with cancer development [1].
Genetic knowledge is essential for understanding of carcinogenic colorectal cancer, and can develop strategies for prevention, diagnosis and treatment. A list of genes in which mutations are capable of interfering with both cancer creation and treatment, has grown a lot in recent years, helping to understand risks for cancer formation and identifying several promising therapeutic targets. Today focused on a best treatment, but research on colorectal cancer genetics began with a focus on diagnosis, much of our understanding of pathogenesis came from study of hereditary syndromes of colorectal diseases that advanced into cancer, showing a huge diversity in types of colorectal cancer and genetic involvement.
In 1882 W. Harrison Cripps associated in his work that multiple intestinal polyposis had hereditary nature and also potentially malignant nature. Subsequently in 1913 Aldred S. Warthin reported on 1600 cases of carcinoma treated at University of Michigan for 19 years, collecting detailed family histories of approximately 500 patients and mapping a predisposition to gastrointestinal and endometrial carcinogenesis of three generations. In 1950, Eldon J. Gardner at University of Utah conducted a long genetic study in patient families with multiple polyps and established a link between this event and a predisposition to carcinomatosis only in 1986 Herrera et al. described a case of a patient with polyposis and multiple carcinomatosis, with an amputation in a long arm of chromosome 5, suggesting a location of tumor suppressor gene. Subsequent studies in families with polyps have identified the 5q21 region as adenomatous polyposis coli or APC gene. Since then, we have identified numerous genetic defects and genetic expressions showing a diversity of mutations with distinct pathways of progression [2].
There have been significant advances in the last years and more than understanding the risk factors for CCR, recent progress in the field of molecular biology, has allowed us to identify the oncogenesis basis to the development of the disease. Then apply these knowledge in the research of new drugs that lead to better outcomes even in the advanced disease.
In medical practice, patients with cancer present with great frequency, clinical evolution in a differentiated way in response to the treatment performed. As a result, there is a high margin of uncertainty as to the effectuation of the treatment performed, not infrequently counting initially favorable prognostic evaluations [3].
Cancer results from a long process of at least three phases: initiation, promotion and progression, which reflect accumulated genetic alterations, responsible for the transformation of normal cells into neoplastic cells. The mechanisms of transformation of a normal cell into neoplastic involve a number of genetic and molecular events that affect proliferation and differentiation. In the pathogenesis of neoplastic processes, two groups of genes are involved: proto-oncogenes, which stimulate cell growth and impede differentiation, and tumor suppressor genes, which promote differentiation and limit cell proliferation. The imbalance in the regulation of this system, through the activation of proto-oncogenes or loss of the function of tumor suppressor genes, can lead to the uncontrolled proliferation of cells and to the accumulation of successive genetic abnormalities characteristic of neoplastic cells [4, 5, 6, 7].
The development of cancer (oncogenesis) results from mutations in one or more genes, responsible for the regulation of cell growth and programmed cell death called apoptosis (Figure 1) [8]. When cancer occurs as part of a hereditary cancer syndrome, the initial mutation causing the cancer is inherited through germ lineage. However, most cancers are sporadic because mutations occur in a single somatic cell, which then divides and proceeds to develop cancer [9].
Mechanism of oncogenesis. General scheme for mechanism of oncogenesis by proto-oncogene activation, loss of tumor suppressor gene expression, activation of anti-apoptotic genes or loss of pro-apoptotic gene expression. The effect of the genes that induce a process is shown as +, while the effect of the genes that suppress a process is shown as −. Modified from Thompson and Thompson [
Considering a frequency of 10-10 replication errors per DNA basis, cell division, and about 1015 cell divisions over the life span of an adult, only replication errors would result in thousands of mutations in the DNA of the genome [8].
Once initiated, a cancer progresses through additional accumulation of genetic damage through mutations in maintenance genes, which encode the DNA repairing cellular machinery. Changes in these genes produce mutations in increasing numbers, leading to failures in controlling cell proliferation and repairing DNA damage. In this way, the original clone of neoplastic cells functions as a reservoir of genetically unstable cells, known as cancer stem cells. These give rise to multiple underlining of varying degrees of malignancy, each carrying a set of mutations. In this context, cancer is a multifactorial disease with an important genetic component, and mutations are central to its etiology and progression [8] (Figure 2).
Stages in the evolution of cancer. Increasing degrees of abnormalities are associated with sequential loss of tumor suppressor genes from various chromosomes and activation of proto-oncogenes, with or without a defect, concomitant in DNA repair. Modified from Thompson and Thompson [
The classical CCR carcinogenesis model is based on the adenoma-carcinoma sequence in which tumor onset occurs from a sequential and progressive process. This involves the activation of oncogenesis (K-ras) and the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes (APC, DCC, p53) [10, 11]. This model of carcinogenesis, where there is chromosomal instability, is usually found in the distal segments of the colon and rectum [11]. The adenoma-carcinoma sequence was described for the first time by Hill et al. (Figure 3) [12].
The adenoma-carcinoma sequence. Postulated mechanism for progression from normal tissue to adenoma to carcinoma. n: normal gene; p: adenoma gene (recessive), so that cell pp: is adenoma-prone. A: environmental agent causing adenomas only in adenoma-prone cell. B: environmental agent causing adenomas to grow. C: agent causing adenomas to develop into carcinomas. Modified from Hill et al. [
In the colorectal carcinogenesis, there are a complex interaction between environmental and lifestyle factors and multiple molecular pathways contributes to its occurrence. Three different molecular mechanisms are implicated in colorectal carcinogenesis: chromosomal instability (CIN), genetic instability (GIN) and the serrated pathway. However, although they differ at the beginning of the chain of events, their signaling pathway, implicated in the transformation of the normal epithelial colorectal cell to the neoplastic one, appear to be similar and converge to the clinical and pathological manifestation of the disease. These genetic mechanisms can be acquired after birth and the occurrence of cancer is called sporadic or they can be inherited from the genitors and in this case is called hereditary. In the recent past, only clinical and pathological manifestations were considered when proposing the optimal treatment. However, after the understanding of the patterns implicated in the carcinogenesis, the tumors could be classificated according to molecular standards and individual treatment schemes were developed [13].
The most frequent model of phenotype group in colorectal cancer are allelic losses in the short arm of chromosome 17 and 8 and in the long arm of chromosomes 5, 18 and 22, being approximately 80% of the sporadic form and are related to mutations in tumor suppressor genes of TP53 genes, APC, SMAD2, and SMAD4.
The first major accepted model for cancer development in colon was described by Fearon and Vogelstein in 1990. The majority of the sporadic CCR tumors originates from premalignant precursor lesions known as polyps, which over time progress to clinically relevant tumors. In this model, the sequence of events leading from the adenoma (polyps) to carcinoma was based on mutation on APC and TP53 genes [13, 14].
The proto-oncogene K-ras (Kirsten-ras) tumor suppressor genes, APC protein (adenomatous polyposis coli), DCC protein (deleted in colorectal cancer) and TP53; and DNA repair or mismatch repair genes (MSH2, MLH1, PMS1, PMS2 and MSH6) are fundamental in development of CCR. Repetitive nucleotide sequences form approximately 25–40% of the DNA molecule being observed several times across the genome as dispersed replicates and tandem or satellite replicates [15]. These replicates can be classified according to the extension of the repetitive sequence in: satellite, minisatellite and microsatellite, depending on the number of nucleotides [16].
Most of the cases of CCR originate from polyps, but it was evidenced that about 45% of the tumors located in the proximal colon originated from epithelium without preexisting polyps, being considered new cancer [17]. In this model of carcinogenesis, which affects 10–15% of cases of sporadic CCR, instead of chromosomal instability there would be genomic instability due to mutations of DNA repair proteins, a phenomenon known as microsatellite instability (IMS) [18]. This pathway of colorectal carcinogenesis due to chromosomal instability is more frequently observed in tumors in the proximal colon, presenting characteristic histological features, being diploid, exophytic growth, worse histological grade, greater tendency to mucus production and lower mutation index in the TP53 gene, and paradoxically, they are associated with a better prognosis [18, 19].
DNA is a molecule that often undergoes changes through loss of segments, mutations that occur during the process of cell division. To correct these changes, it has proteins with the function of performing the repairs necessary to maintain its integrity. These proteins are produced from some genes known as repair (mismatch repair genes—MMR) and this function is carried out continuously, preserving the cellular tissues [20, 21, 22]. The hMLH1 gene is located on chromosome 3p21-23 [23, 24], hMSH2 on chromosome 2p21 [25, 26, 27] and hMSH6 is on 2p16 [28].
In hereditary CCR there are two genetic pathways of carcinogenesis: a chromosomal instability pathway, which occurs in PAF (familial adenomatous polyposis), where the patient inherits a mutation of the APC (adenomatous colonic polyposis) tumor suppressor gene, and DNA hypermutability pathway, which occurs in HNPCC (inherited non-polyposis colorectal cancer) in which the inherited genetic change is the inactivation of one of the alleles of genes involved in DNA repair (hMSH2 and hMLH1 genes). However, other genes are involved in colorectal carcinogenesis, such as K-ras gene, DCC gene, Tp53 gene, etc. [29].
DNA is a molecule that often undergoes changes through loss of segments, mutations that occur during the process of cell division. To correct these changes, it has proteins with the function of performing the repairs necessary to maintain its integrity. These proteins are produced from some genes known as repair (mismatch repair genes—MMR) and this function is carried out continuously, preserving the cellular tissues [20, 21, 22]. The hMLH1 gene is located on chromosome 3p21-23 [23, 24], hMSH2 on chromosome 2p21 [25, 26, 27] and hMSH6 is on 2p16 [28].
MMRs have the function of recognizing the occurrence of the mutation and blocking cell division in order to prevent the emergence of a defective cell line, which is done by inducing cell death (apoptosis) or performing DNA repair. For the latter, these proteins remove a segment of DNA containing the change and insert a new segment containing the right sequence, based on the “template” of the complementary DNA [30].
The failure of these proteins to function will cause a great instability in the genome, that is, defects in the sequence of base pairs occurring at random in DNA replication cannot be adequately repaired, generating an accumulation of genetic abnormalities that favor the emergence of cancer [30].
A genetic instability that appears in 12–15% of CCR cases, named MSI (microsatellite instability) as a result of a mismatch repair (MMR), what leading to the accumulation of mutations in genes controlling cell cycle and apoptosis (TGFBRII, BAX or CASPASE5) [31].
Cells with changes in MMRs are not able to correctly repair errors during DNA replication. Because of their repetitive structure, microsatellite regions in DNA are particularly prone to these repair errors [32, 33]. The DNA of cells of certain tumors presents differences in the number of repetitive units in one or more microsatellites, when compared to the same microsatellites in the DNA of normal cells, a fact called microsatellite instability (MSI). as positive for replication errors, that is, RER (+) [34].
More than 90% of HNPCC patients present RER (+), while about 15% of sporadic CCRs present this genetic trait [30].
Repair proteins in their normal state form heterodimers [35, 36, 37, 38]. MSH2 dimerizes with MSH6 forming the MutSα [38] functional complex, and MLH1 dimerizes with PMS2 to form MutLα [37, 39]. It has been shown that MSH2 and MLH1 proteins are obligatory parts of their respective heterodimers [40, 41, 42]. Their abnormalities may result in a proteolytic degradation of their dimers and consequently loss of both mandatory and secondarily associated proteins, the exception includes only MLH1 mutations, when the mutations result in the antigenically activation of the mutated MLH1 protein, which may be the loss of PMS2 only. The reverse, however, is not true, when mutation occurs in the genes of secondary proteins, for example, in MSH6 and PMS2, loss of MSH2 and MLH1 proteins that may not occur, inasmuch as other proteins compensate the function of the secondary proteins, such as MSH3, MLH3 and PMS1. In effect, mutations of MLH1 or MSH2 routinely cause loss of MLH1/PMS2 or MSH2/MHS6, respectively, while mutations of PMS2 or MSH6 cause isolated loss of PMS2 or MSH2 only [43].
Figure 4 shows the model of DNA repair proteins in patients with colorectal cancer [44].
Model of DNA repair proteins and molecular pathways for CCR with microsatellite instability. Modified from Kohzoh and Yamamoto [
Studies performed in CCR demonstrated a positivity index for greater microsatellite instability in young patients or located in proximal segments of the colon. A study restricted to rectum tumors, the incidence of repair errors was only in 2% of cases, confirming the relationship between microsatellite instability and tumors located in the right or transverse colon [45]. The CCR associated with repair errors tend to present the same location and biological behavior independent of their sporadic or hereditary nature (HNPCC) [45].
The serrated pathway was first described by Longacre and Fenoglio-Preiser in 1990 and differs from the classical adenoma-carcinoma sequence one because in this way there is the participation of other genetic alterations other than chromosomal instability and KRAS mutations like BRAF mutations and gene promoter hypermethylation. But in the serrated pathway, microsatellite instability can also be detected.
The serrated polyps are characterized by glandular serration in which the colonic epithelial crypts show luminal “saw-toothed” pattern. The nomenclature is not well established but the World Health Organization in 2010 classified them into three main groups: hyperplastic polyps, sessile serrated adenomas/polyps and traditional serrated adenomas [46].
Genetically, carcinoma arising from serrated polyps are MSI-H and shows epithelial serrations, clear, eosinophilic and abundant cytoplasm, vesicular nuclei, absence of necrosis, mucin production and presence of cell balls and rods. The finding of serrated lesion in the peripheral of an invasive carcinoma also leads to the diagnostic of this pathway.
Serrated adenocarcinoma is found in about 10% of sporadic colorectal cancers and is originated in the serrated polyp-carcinoma pathway. In this way, hyperplastic polyps now are recognized as neoplastic lesions because they may predispose to cancer in a sequence in which they progress to serrated adenomas and then to colorectal cancer in at about 7 years. It is not clear why only a few groups of hyperplastic polyps, mainly the ones located in the right colon, will progress to carcinoma and the answer is probably dependent on the genetic findings not elucidated until now. A great number of studies have shown that the right colon is not the same organ as the left colon and the right-sided cancer tends to be more aggressive and this difference is caused by the difference of genetic standard between the sides.
The clinical management of hyperplastic polyps and serrated polyps is essential for avoiding the carcinoma transformation. The most important procedure for prophylaxis is the complete removal of these polyps in colonoscopy and the subsequent surveillance but it is not well established how to follow up. Just for comparison, in the classical adenomatous polyps, the size, number and histological variants (if tubular, villous or tubulovillous) are taken in account to determine the interval of surveillance and this knowledge is more than a decade old. For serrated polyps, as the understanding of this pattern of via is recent, the follow up is not clear hence studies have not shown yet which features are important to determine the risk of progression of these lesions. Moreover, the majority of serrated polyps will not progress to carcinoma and studies answering why are not yet available. A few studies have demonstrated that sessile serrated lesions larger than 10 mm are at high risk for carcinoma progress. But despite the lack of information and in order to prevent cancer arising via serrated pathway, the complete removal of serrated polyps is the goal in these cases.
If there are significant differences regarding the genetic markers and pathological findings in serrated pathway, it is expected to have differences in the presentation of the disease and response to therapy. And some evidences have showed these: carcinomas arising from serrated pathway tends to have lesser 5-year survival but again the causes of this comportment are not available, and the answer may be found as the genetic alterations becomes evident [47].
For now, it is clear that serrated pathway is a well-established pattern that explains the behavior of some hyperplastic and serrated polyps that could not have been explained in the classical adenoma-carcinoma sequence using CIN and MSI models. Even with lacks in knowledge for profound understanding, the pathological and molecular characterization of these polyps are constantly progressing and studies in the next few years will probably show the best way to manage these cases in clinical practice [47].
There have been significant advances about tumor molecular biology, will allow us to apply this knowledge in more specific diagnostic techniques, a proper diagnosis, with the possibility of detecting earlier pre-malignant lesions and diagnoses. This applied research knowledge would allow the development of more efficient therapies for cancer, moreover, it can act in prevention.
The application of molecular biology knowledge in the diagnosis and treatment of colorectal cancer generates a great impact on the accuracy of diagnosis and optimization of cancer therapy in order to individualize the treatment, thereby trying to reduce the uncertainty about the effectiveness of the treatment that will be accomplished.
Games and eSports market are increasing every year, including the mobile sector that is competing directly with the traditional platforms and consoles. According to [1], by 2020, the eSports industry will reach 1.65 billion US dollars. Similarly, a study by [2] on the global games market forecasts that ‘2.3 billion gamers across the globe will spend $137.9 billion on games in 2018. Digital game revenues will take 91% of the global market with $125.3 billion’. The same trend can also be observed in the video game consumer market performance, with an increase of value from downloadable contents (DLC) in comparison to usual package models (see Figure 1). Most of the time, this revenue is earned through the selling of virtual goods within games.
\nVideo game consumer market value worldwide from 2011 to 2019, by distribution type (in billion US dollars) [
With technological advances, game developers and designers have found an opportunity to explore the business of virtual goods in order to increase their revenue stream, particularly through in-app purchases (IAP). One example is the freemium model [3]. For example, in the mobile game
Virtual goods are not the only venue that could be explored in games business models. Since there are many transactions involved in games, this could also open the opportunity to explore cryptocurrencies. It mentions the gamification techniques as a strategy used to incentivize participation in mobile crowd-sensing applications that can be conveyed by cryptocurrencies [8]. The effectiveness of cryptocurrency gamification schemes depends considerably on a large set of interrelated factors from community-related (number of participants) to cultural or motivational factors [9]. According to [10], if societies want to adopt cryptocurrencies, it is necessary to think differently about past sources, investments and revenues (including sustainability).
\nCryptocurrencies are decentralised currencies that rely on cryptography to secure their safety and trust; these are powerful mathematical protocols (e.g. blockchain) that avoid ‘cheating’ or fraud [11]. Blockchain is a decentralised transaction and data management technology developed first for
One of the most popular cryptocurrencies is
The term ludic economies is a critical reflection on the parallels between play and economic models [18]. These relationships could be understood through comparisons towards ‘capitalist’ thinking through the accumulation of resources. The ‘capitalisation’ refers to the action of collecting points, coins, digital currency or other incoming, just for getting rich or to enhance the score. The ‘monetisation’ refers to the points or money collected in the game which can be used to buy items such as clothes, guns, powers and others that will provide more power or capacity to collect more money or incomings. According to [19], there are three revenue models to consider: Freemium is ‘coined through the contraction of “free” and “premium”. It refers to a revenue model which enables consumers to have a certain product or service for free and getting revenue from additional features provided, usually to a small percentage of the user base’; premium is ‘basing income on a transaction with a given price which is agreed, and many times paid for, prior to getting the product or service’; and subscription is the ‘model based on periodic payments in return for a periodic or continuous service and/or product deliveries’. These models have been used historically in the video game industry, and, theoretically, they would fit personal computer video games and the specific genre of Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA). Some game companies are studying ways to implement cryptocurrencies for payments of the three revenue models.
\nA classic example of ‘capitalisation’ occurs in
Remembering the precursor games, since beginning the Mario Bros® arcade version in 1983, designed by Shigeru Miyamoto and Gunpei Yokoi, the same developers of
Paying customers are offered either to progress at a faster pace or a certain advantage also available to non-playing users willing to invest enough time into the game. In light of this, some games function with a dual currency system. Hard currency is obtained only by putting money into the game and soft currency is only obtained through time spent in game or logons (or though other mechanism such as number of wins). Offers for sale can be priced then in one or both of these currencies, determining then what can be bought with money, with time or with either one or the other (p.6) [19].
\nFor instance, ‘pay to win’ is an option that can be applied for cheating or winning, escaping hard stages, collecting more sources or enhancing the revenue. For example, in the game
Virtual goods are ‘in-game objects’ that players can use only in the game, like avatar clothing styles, power-ups, extra lives, weapons, places and time (p1) [23]. Virtual goods can be bought by real money or in-game currency. For example, in the popular farm game
Cryptocurrencies are currencies supported by agreed protocols [11]. Thus, in a game, a cryptocurrency is a currency that allows players to make exchanges inside the game, which may also involve ‘real’ money.
Regarding cryptocurrency and games, it is possible to mention strong market correlations between
Comparative market of gaming currencies using Bitcoin and USD as references. (Data extracted from Coinmarketcap on June 5, 2018) [
Two years’ chart comparison between GameCredits, Bitcoin and US Dollar [
[28] remembered that ‘gaming cryptocurrencies could change the face and economies of gaming and they are growing on an industry-wide scale to new all-time highs every day’. As mentioned by [29], it is possible to observe that although the Bitcoin market grows rapidly, there are still some doubts whether cryptocurrencies are a fad or a more efficient way to exchange goods (and money).
\nIn the game perspective, it is possible to observe as shown in Figure 3 the 2-year behaviour of
GameCredits’ stock price trend 2017–2018. Source: developed by the authors based on the market data [
Cryptocurrencies have structures that are similar to a game. The same principle is applied in both: people are rewarded by their actions, and they can use the rewards to buy goods. One of the first ‘cryptogames’ that use similarities with
(A) List of cryptocurrency connected with games designed in world cloud and (B) Pac-man word cloud of gaming cryptocurrency ticker symbol. Source: developed by the authors.
Ref. [33] mentioned that ‘six months after the
Observed data has four types of trend known as secular, seasonal, cyclical and random. Various statistical techniques are used to separate these trends and fit the best trend line according to the true nature of the data. Observed data in Figure 4 is seasonally affected and fluctuates persistently from year to year in quarterly stretched intervals. Therefore, the trend measured on the constant value of β is not appropriate statistics to predict in the recent future. Separating seasonal trends on the bases of 3-months moving average predicts based on the average value of 3 periods and moves along with the observed data.
\nThe term ‘eSports’ (or electronic sports) is a derivation of the conventional sports; thus, ethical and educational values are part of the play action of users. Recently, eSports are following one tendency to become part of sport mega-events, such as the Asian Games, the Olympic Games and the FIFA World Cup [35]. Commenting on the eSports and gaming, [28] describe both as one of the biggest industries today, and in 2017, there were about 2.2 billion gamers across the globe that are expected to generate $108.9 billion in-game revenues.
\nThere is a large discussion if eSports could be considered a ‘real’ sport and if players are ‘athletes’. eSports are sports since they share the same type of mechanics as a traditional sport like football [36]. eSports have fans, spectators, leagues, teams, structures and financial support (e.g. sponsorships). There is a huge opportunity for companies to sponsor players and teams. In fact, eSports have been considered as an Olympic game modality, and its first event was the eGames showcase that took place in Brazil [37]. The Rio de Janeiro eGames Showcase 2016, launched as part of this week’s London Games Festival and the Rio Olympics Games, offered medals and national pride rather than cash prizes for the winners. Ref. [38] comments that eSports ‘will be an official medal sport at the 2022 Asian Games in China, in the boldest step yet towards mainstream recognition of competitive gaming’. The same author highlighted that the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) announced a partnership with Alisports, the sports arm of Chinese online retail giant Alibaba, to introduce eSports as a demonstration sport at next year’s games in Indonesia 2018, with full-fledged inclusion in the official sporting programme at the Hangzhou Games in 2022. Some people still have the idea that eSport is just for fun, but it is not. This is a powerful market and businesses should pay attention to it.
\nRef. [38] refreshed that the Alibaba Sports Group announced a $150 m investment in 2016 with the International eSports Federation (IeSF), the South Korea-based federation that has long campaigned for the inclusion of competitive gaming in the Olympic Games. “It put forth more than $14.5m to organize the World Electronic Sports Games in China’s Changzhou province, where roughly 60,000 players from 120 countries and regions competed for a $5.5m purse in 2018”.
\nAccording to [2, 39], FIFA 2018 is one of the most watched games on Twitch and YouTube Gaming. In April 2018, the total prize pools for console eSports events reached $2.5 million, which is the double the amount awarded in the first quarter of 2017. Those data show that the game market is bigger than just selling consoles, games, accessories, power-ups and gadgets. Nowadays, the game industry manages the other slice of the market, such as the social media platforms, betting companies, mega-events, sport consumer and identity, television rights and e-channels that manage viewership hours, market share, top tournaments and titles and investments [40, 41, 42, 43]. Ref. [39] comments that 20 M of console eSports hours was watched on Twitch and YouTube Gaming between January and April 2018, representing 4.6% of the total games broadcasted. It is demonstrated in the 95% year-on-year growth of viewership of major tournaments on Twitch and put eSports in third position of top console genres with 21% of the market.
\nBetting companies also use eSports; however, both big traditional sportsbooks and newer start-ups are competing for space. It is possible to find examples of virtual or physical betting companies such as: bet365, betway esport, unibet, #OneHash – are possible to find virtual or physical, such as bet365, betway esport, unibet, and #OneHash—using
The virtual economies created within massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) often blur the line between real and virtual worlds. The result is often seen as an unwanted interaction between the real and virtual economies by the players and the provider of the virtual world. This practice (economy interaction) is mostly seen in this genre of games. The two seem to come hand in hand with even the earliest MMORPGs such as
The importance of having a working virtual economy within an MMORPG is increasing as they develop. A sign of this is the CCP Games hiring the first real-life economist for its MMORPG ‘Eve Online’ to assist and analyse the virtual economy and production within this game. The results of this interaction between the virtual world, and our real economy, is the future of the gaming industry.
\nSince ludic economies rely on economic dynamics and the way the game is designed, we have synthesised the main models that drive cryptocurrencies in games and eSports into a combination of virtual goods, game mechanics, values, economic models and currencies (see Figure 6). This combination of elements reflects the interdisciplinarity and relationship of several elements that are both derived from economics and design. Thus, in order to understand the economic aspect of businesses of games and ludic economies, we have also included four models:
\nCryptocurrencies in games and eSports. Source: developed by the authors.
Market model. The market model is a concept that explains how prices of the various items are determined in the game (or game market place). It explains how demand and supply forces interact with each other and settle down the prices. Whether it is virtual or real money, they are scarce, and the player has to put efforts to get it [44]. Thus, the market model functions as a holistic approach that guides ludic economies.
\nConsumer behaviour. Consumer (or player) behaviour reflects the factors that play an important role in the decision-making of consumers (or players) in order to buy any item or product. For example, there are many factors that can influence the player’s purchases of in-game virtual goods, including fun and social interactions [24]. Furthermore, consumer behaviour has a strong relationship to what the game offers to players. For example, time left in the game, or the position of player in the game (or status), influences the player’s perceptions and willingness to buy virtual goods [42, 43].
\nIncome model. Income model is a construct that explains the variables that determine the level of income of the player. It is the average level of income that a player maintains to achieve strategic depth in the game. It further explains how psychological factors of the player act to change the income generating behaviour [45-47] of the player act to change the income generating behaviour [45, 46, 47].
\nPrice strategy. Price strategy is a form of economic theory. In games, it can be related to how different players in oligopolistic market conditions are maintaining certain degree of rivalry. It can also include how players design their game strategies to win economic victory that ultimately will help them to win the game [7, 44, 48].
\nThe four models mentioned are part of the drivers of the other elements that mediate the use of cryptocurrencies in games and eSports. As illustrated in Figure 6, price strategy, consumer behaviour, market model and income model permeate the other five drivers of the applications of cryptocurrencies in ludic economies. For example, if considering values (e.g. individual values, cultural values, etc.), consumer behaviour could function as the main influencer of game systems. Thus, in the next section, we introduce and discuss the main applications of cryptocurrencies in games and eSports with examples in two scenarios: eSports and (digital) games.
\nFor eSports tournaments, the consumer is the spectator, who pays to watch the ‘match’ in an arena. From the consumer behaviour perspective, spectators find value in buying tickets to watch the game being played by professional players. As a tournament or event, eSports is a very valuable market. There are many opportunities for brands to sponsor professional players and games. Some managers are offering sponsorship for teams and players via Internet-booming opportunities. Comparing with other conventional sports, it is easy to find companies and businessmen available for investing in this sector. The type of the game, the place and the prizes are some of the aspects responsible for attracting players and spectators. With this, the consumer identity is developed based on the teams, ‘athletes’ and the events [49].
\nWhen players are broadcasting their gameplay, spectators can also participate, interacting directly with the events, players and market according to the rules and structure of the competition. For example,
The biggest market for games (in particular mobile games) is the utilisation of in-app purchases and the commercialisation of virtual goods. This can be employed in any digital game. Thus, for digital games, the market model depends on the game mechanics. For example, if players want to buy assets for their game character, then they will purchase them. Thus, the main concern for these games is to match the mechanics to this model and build a digital access to these virtual goods. For players, it could be that they want to buy specific clothes for their characters in order to resemble their own appearance. Thus, the need to buy virtual goods might have a relationship with the player’s preference. As [40] mentioned, some assets and specific characters might carry an advantage in the game, depending on the character’s ability and the game challenge. Therefore, there is an opportunity to generate a need for new gaming assets, creating a high demand for this type of commodity (or virtual goods). Another opportunity for games is the integration with emerging technologies such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR). For instance, mobile games like
Model | \neSports | \nGames | \n
---|---|---|
Market model | \nSpectators can buy goods in the arena and merchandising; spectators can sponsor players and collect points | \nIn-app purchases, freemium, virtual goods | \n
Consumer behaviour | \nIdentity with teams; fan culture, community | \nIdentity, ownership, competition, collaboration, community | \n
Income model | \nBrands could sponsor players; might depend on the place; points could be exchanged to virtual/real goods | \nPlayers pay for virtual goods that could be exchanged to real/virtual goods; players could exchange their virtual/real goods through the game | \n
Price strategy | \nDepends on the demand and place | \nCould be more fixed; depends on competitors | \n
Comparison between eSports and games models using cryptocurrencies.
In this chapter, we have analysed and discussed the current market and economic opportunities for games and eSports. For that, we explored the models and applications of cryptocurrencies in games and eSports and how economic models may emerge from interactions between players, spectators and games. From freemium models to betting, games have many mechanisms that are similar to our capitalist society, mimicking systems of trade, capital accumulation (e.g. same as game points) and exchange. For instance, [54] commented that the stock exchange is minting millionaires who know how to play the market every day, just like a game. Thanks to online trading with the BAWSAQ stock exchange, it is possible to lay it all on the line by betting on a stock. The problem of approaching games as an economy is that gambling and betting can become real risks for players. For example, gaming structures like
As mentioned in this chapter, games can embed their own stock market. The stock market in the game
On the other hand, there are many challenges regarding the use of cryptocurrencies within gaming environments that deserve attention. For example, [57] identified gambling as one problem in the current scenario of the eSports. The game currency and the direct connection between players/athletes and the spectators’ interference can generate ethical issues about adjustment of results, corruption and economic manipulation. Those aspects deserve attention and future studies about the impact of game currencies in the actual scene of eSports. In fact, connecting cryptocurrencies and traditional sports could become a new tendency beyond the eSports, perhaps achieving the conventional sports marketing management models.
\nThe potential for exploration of the boundaries between gaming and currencies is huge, and it requires more investigation for further and stronger conclusions. Trends like VR and AR games like
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. An Author, one must:
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