Chapter 1: "Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors"\n Chapter 2: "The Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Premolar Teeth"\n Chapter 3: "Dental Anatomical Features and Caries: A Relationship to be Investigated"\n Chapter 4: "Anatomy Applied to Block Anaesthesia"\n Chapter 5: "Treatment Considerations for Missing Teeth"\n Chapter 6: "Anatomical and Functional Restoration of the Compromised Occlusion: From Theory to Materials"\n Chapter 7: "Evaluation of the Anatomy of the Lower First Premolar"\n Chapter 8: "A Comparative Study of the Validity and Reproducibility of Mesiodistal Tooth Size and Dental Arch with the iTero Intraoral Scanner and the Traditional Method"\n Chapter 9: "Identification of Lower Central Incisors"\n The book is aimed toward dentists and can also be well used in education and research.',isbn:"978-1-78923-511-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-510-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-247-8",doi:"10.5772/65542",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"dental-anatomy",numberOfPages:204,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,hash:"445cd419d97f339f2b6514c742e6b050",bookSignature:"Bağdagül Helvacioğlu Kivanç",publishedDate:"August 1st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5814.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7259,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 4th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 25th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 16th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 16th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 16th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"178570",title:"Dr.",name:"Bağdagül",middleName:null,surname:"Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",slug:"bagdagul-helvacioglu-kivanc",fullName:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178570/images/7646_n.jpg",biography:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç is a dentist, a teacher, a researcher and a scientist in the field of Endodontics. 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\r\n\tFood security, sustainable agriculture, and poverty alleviation are the key themes of the 2030 United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs). These are directly linked with agricultural mechanization, automation and robotics, high-efficiency irrigation systems, farm energy systems, post-harvest handling and processing, wastewater management, and the associated sustainable bio environment. Such agricultural, biological, and environmental engineering studies are the need of the 21st century, particularly from the viewpoint of the agricultural water–energy–food security nexus. Moreover, the wide range and interdisciplinary nature of research for agricultural engineering and technologies and system as well as the proliferation and technological advancement in agricultural engineering technologies will be the focus of this book. It will include engineering technologies and applications related to farm mechanization, farm energy and environment, smart farming, intelligent agriculture, conservation agriculture, on-farm irrigation, precision agriculture, food processing and storage, livestock and poultry sheds, wastewater management, etc. The chapters will comprise of original research, review, case studies, and/or recent progress/scenario in the above-mentioned research areas. \r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83881-922-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-921-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-923-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dcfc52d92f694b0848977a3c11c13d00",bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10454.jpg",keywords:"Agricultural Engineering, Technologies, Application, Sustainable Agriculture, Information Technology in Agriculture, Food Security, Renewable Energies, Precision Farming, Smart Agriculture, Farm Mechanization, Robotics, Post Harvest Technologies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 25th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 21st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ahmad is a researcher in the field of agricultural mechanization and agricultural equipment engineering, in-charge of Farm Machinery Design Laboratory at Bahauddin Zakariya University, with expertise in modeling and simulation. He applied for two patents at the national level.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Renowned researcher with a focus on developing energy-efficient heat- and/or water-driven temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse, agricultural livestock and poultry applications including HVAC, desiccant air-conditioning, adsorption, Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle), and adsorption desalination.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338219/images/system/338219.jpg",biography:"Fiaz Ahmad obtained his Ph.D. (2015) from Nanjing Agriculture University China in the field of Agricultural Bioenvironmental and Energy Engineering and Postdoc (2020) from Jiangsu University China in the field of Plant protection Engineering. He got the Higher Education Commission, Pakistan Scholarship for Ph.D. studies, and Post-Doctoral Fellowship from Jiangsu Government, China. During postdoctoral studies, he worked on the application of unmanned aerial vehicle sprayers for agrochemical applications to control pests and weeds. He passed the B.S. and M.S. degrees in agricultural engineering from the University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan in 2007. From 2007 to 2008, he was a Lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan-Pakistan. Since 2009, he has been an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, BZ University Multan, Pakistan. He is the author of 33 journal articles. He also supervised 6 master students and is currently supervising 5 master and 2 Ph.D. students. In addition, Dr. Ahmad completed three university-funded projects. His research interests include the design of agricultural machinery, artificial intelligence, and plant protection environment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199381/images/system/199381.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sultan completed his Ph.D. (2015) and Postdoc (2017) from Kyushu University (Japan) in the field of Energy and Environmental Engineering. He was an awardee of MEXT and JASSO fellowships (from the Japanese Government) during Ph.D. and Postdoc studies, respectively. In 2019, he did Postdoc as a Canadian Queen Elizabeth Advanced Scholar at Simon Fraser University (Canada) in the field of Mechatronic Systems Engineering. He received his Master\\'s in Environmental Engineering (2010) and Bachelor in Agricultural Engineering (2008) with distinctions, from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. He worked for Kyushu University International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) for two years. Currently, he is working as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University (Pakistan). He has supervised 10+ M.Eng./Ph.D. students so far and 10+ M.Eng./Ph.D. students are currently working under his supervision. He has published more than 70+ journal articles, 70+ conference articles, and a few magazine articles, with the addition of 2 book chapters and 2 edited/co-edited books. Dr. Sultan is serving as a Leading Guest Editor of a special issue in the Sustainability (MDPI) journal (IF 2.58). In addition, he is appointed as a Regional Editor for the Evergreen Journal of Kyushu University. His research is focused on developing energy-efficient heat- and/or water-driven temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse, livestock, and poultry applications. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Recently, marine environment such as coastal and estuarine regions is contaminated by waste created by human activities containing elevated concentrations of nutrients, organic pollutants, trace metals, and radionuclide [1, 2]. Some of these chemicals are highly toxic and persistent, and these elements have a strong tendency to become concentrated in marine food webs once they enter this aquatic environment. The pollution of coastal zones near metropolitan areas, by these anthropogenic wastes, is due to the large coastal human population and the enormous amounts of sewage discharged into coastal waters [3, 4, 5, 6]. The addition of waste products into rivers, estuaries, and wetland environment (Figure 1), especially those in industrial and population centers, has led to a significant increase in this pollutant level, especially metal contamination [7]. Accumulation of metals in surface sediments from industrial effluents and urban sewage discharged into the aquatic environment without proper treatment will easily be identified through metal spatial variations in sediments [8, 9].
\n
Figure 1.
Wetland ecosystem in Malaysia. This ecosystem may be polluted by metal pollutants derived from human activities. Photo by Ong Meng Chuan.
\n
Rivers can transport metals into the marine environment, and the amount of the chemical element input to the oceans depends on their levels in the river sediments, water, suspended particulate matter, and the exchange processes that occur in the estuaries [10]. With recent industrialization and human activities (Figure 2) that happen in the coastal region, these metals are continuing to be discharged to estuarine and coastal environment through rivers, runoff, and land-based point sources where the chemical elements are produced as a result of metal refinishing by-products.
\n
Figure 2.
Example of human activities (fishery industry) in the Gulf of Morbihan, France. Photo by Ong Meng Chuan.
\n
Metal concentrations in harbor or estuarine sediments usually are high due to significant anthropogenic contaminant loading carried by the upstream of tributary rivers and settled down at this area [11, 12]. The sediments itself can serve as a metal pool that can release metals to the overlying water via natural or anthropogenic chemical and physical processes, causing potential adverse health effects to organisms that live at the ecosystems [13, 14]. Moreover, marine organisms can uptake these chemical elements, which in turn enhances the potential of some elements entering into the food chain. Therefore, metal contaminations are considered by scientists as an environmental problem today in both developing and developed countries throughout the world [15].
\n
Metals accumulate in the sediments through complex physical and chemical adsorption mechanisms depending on the nature of the sediment matrix and the properties of the adsorbed compounds [16, 17]. Several processes had been identified for controlling the metal concentration in sediment, such as direct adsorption by small particle of clays, adsorption of hydrous ferric and manganic oxides which may also associate with clay fraction, adsorption of natural organic substances associated with inorganic particle, and precipitation as new solid phases [18, 19]. With this unique characteristic, sediments are usually used as geo-marker for monitoring and identifying the potential pollution sources in aquatic environment. These sediment analyses are an important tool for the determination of pollutants as they sink in the bottom through different chemical constituents and can reflect the pollutant proxy in the environment. In addition, the sediments act as a useful indicator of long- and medium-term metal flux in industrialized estuaries and rivers, and they help to improve management strategies as well as to assess the success of recent pollution controls [20].
\n
More than 90% of the metal compound load in marine aquatic systems is bound to suspended particulate matter and sediments [21]. Therefore, sediments serve as a pool of metals that could be released to the overlying water from natural and anthropogenic processes such as bioturbation and dredging, resulting in potential adverse health effects toward surrounding organisms [22, 23]. Besides that, it is necessary to determine the metal contamination in estuarine ecosystem because this area is the most productive ecosystem which serves as feeding area, migration route, and nursery area of many juvenile and adult organisms from freshwater and marine water ecosystem. Due of these important to the ecosystem, effective remedial actions to minimize the pollution by metals need to be distinguished if pollution are expected occurs there [24].
\n
\n
\n
2. Sediment as geo-marker for monitoring study
\n
Marine sediments (Figure 3), including materials originating from the terrestrial inputs, as well as atmospheric deposition and autogenetic matter from the ocean itself, preserve a continuous record of regional and even global environmental changes, which can be employed in metal pollution evolution [25, 26]. Because of its unique characteristic, sediment always is considered as mirror of sedimentary environmental changes, which can reflect the biological, geodynamic, and geochemical processes of former conditions [27, 28]. On the other side, environmental changes are not only driven by natural forces but also by anthropogenic effects by human [29]. Some studies had concluded that the anthropogenic impacts on the environment have led to eutrophication process in coastal zone and offshore and the interaction of the natural force and human activities has exerted great effects on the whole environmental system[30].
\n
Figure 3.
Sediment sample usually used by researchers as geo-marker for pollution study. Photo by Ong Meng Chuan.
\n
Sediments can pick up metals due to several chemical process and normally will settle down in marine aquatic environment. Because of this characteristic, sediment can act as an appropriate indicator to monitor the metal pollution. In aquatic environment, these pollutants are originated from natural and anthropogenic sources in the same manner [31]; thus, scientists have difficulty to identify and classify the origin of these pollutants in the environment. Therefore, to overcome these obstacles, several scientists were using sediment fraction and characterized them into several sizes to normalize the metal concentration [31, 32]. The rationale applying this approach is normally metals are associated with fine-grain fraction because this fraction has larger surface area and higher cation exchange capacity that can enhance metal adsorption [33]. These fine sediments such as silt and clay with size less than 63 μm (Figure 3) are categorized as the most geochemically active fraction in the sediment. With this characteristic, this fraction is suitable to determine the potential pollution in the sediment (Figure 4).
\n
Figure 4.
Fine-grain sediments have high surface area-to-grain size ratio which can accumulate more metals in the sediment. Photo by Ong Meng Chuan.
\n
Because of their large adsorption capabilities, fine-grain sediments represent a major repository for metals and a record of the temporal changes in contamination. Thus, they can be used for historical reconstruction. Although metals can occur naturally in marine environment due to their presence in local rocks, it is difficult to differentiate whether the source of the metals comes from anthropogenic or natural sources. Therefore, for better understanding about the metal behavior and distribution, it is important to distinguish between metals released from natural processes and those anthropogenic mainly introduced by human activities.
\n
Marine sediments play a key role in the geochemical and biological processes of an estuarine ecosystem. In particular, these sediments act as sinks for toxic metals that enter the estuary. This sediment characteristic can regulate the concentration of these minerals and compounds in the water column [34]. Marine sediment also plays a very important role in the physicochemical and ecological dynamics of metals in marine aquatic ecosystems. The physicochemical nature of sediment-bound metals is important in the bioaccumulation of aquatic organisms such as fishes and shellfish.
\n
Sediment quality has been recognized as an important and sensitive indicator or geo-marker of environmental pollution by various scientists [35, 36] since sediments can act as an important sink for various pollutants, such as metals that had been discharged into the environment [37, 38]. Besides acting as pollution indicator, sediments are also important in the remobilization process of contaminants in aquatic environment under favorable conditions through the interaction process between waste column and surface sediments. Due to this process, scientists had developed several comprehensive methods to identify and assess the sediment contamination mainly to protect the marine aquatic organisms [39].
\n
Over the last few decades, the study of sediment cores has shown to be an excellent tool for establishing the effect of anthropogenic and natural processes on depositional environments. Meanwhile, sediment cores (Figure 5) can provide chronologies of contaminant concentrations and a record of the changes in concentration of chemical indicators in the environment. During the early 1960s, sediment profiles from depositional areas were used to trace human activity, witnessed by anthropogenic contamination like phosphorus [40], and later in the 1970s, it was possible to distinguish radioactive isotope inputs due to nuclear tests. Metal accumulation rates in sediment cores can reflect variations in metal inputs in a given system over long periods of time. Hence, the study of sediments core provides historical record of various influences on the aquatic system by indicating both natural background levels and the man-induced accumulation of metals over an extended period of time. In addition, the dating of sediment cores using radioactive traces like 210Pb [41] permitted the precise quantification of the history of the inputs in a system [42].
\n
Figure 5.
Sediment core collected from mangrove ecosystem to study the metal proxy and sediment accumulation rate. Photo by Ong Meng Chuan.
\n
\n
\n
3. Assessment of metal pollution level
\n
The absolute concentration of metals in marine sediments never indicates the degree of contamination coming from either natural or anthropogenic sources because of its grain-size distribution and mineralogy characteristic [43, 44]. Normalization of metal concentrations to grain sizes, specific surface area, and reactive surface phases such as Li and Al is a common technique to remove artifacts in the data due to differences in depositional environments [45, 46, 47]. This method allows researchers to compare the contamination level directly even if the samples were collected at different locations. The most common normalization technique used is enrichment factor (EF) where this technique uses common elements such as Al, Li, and Fe as normalizer and index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) or compares the normalized concentration to average crustal abundance data [47, 48].
\n
In order to examine to sediment status, the determined element concentrations normally were compared to the published background concentrations. Literature data on average world shale or sediment cores or sediments from pristine such as undisturbed wetlands and non-industrialized regions were analyzed to establish the background values. However, to reduce the metal variability caused by the grain sizes and mineralogy of the sediments and to identify anomalous metal contribution, geochemical normalization has been used with various degrees of success by employing conservative elements [49, 50]. Researchers have proposed various elements as normalizer, and these elements have the potential for the environmental studies. Some of them are lithium, Li [51, 52, 53]; aluminum, Al [54, 55]; scandium, Sc [56]; cesium, Cs [57, 58]; cobalt, Co [59]; and thorium, Th [60, 61]. Among all proposed normalizers, conservative elements, Li and Al, have been widely applied in marine and coastal study [62, 63, 64].
\n
The concentration of metals in marine sediments cannot indicate the degree of contamination coming from either natural or anthropogenic sources because of grain-size distribution and mineralogy [44, 65]. Normalization of metal concentrations to sediment size, specific surface area, and reactive surface phases such as Li and Al is a common technique to remove artifacts in the data due to differences in depositional environments [46, 66]. This allows for a direct comparison to be made between contaminant levels of samples taken from different locations.
\n
Based on the researches by several geochemists [67, 68], if an EF value is between 0 and 1.5, it is suggested that the metals may be entirely from crustal materials or natural weathering processes. If an EF is greater than 1.5, it is suggested that a significant portion of metals has arisen from non-crustal sources or anthropogenic pollution [61, 69].
\n
Another common approach to evaluate the metal pollution in sediments is the index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) introduced by Müller [70] in order to determine and define metal contamination in sediments by comparing current concentrations with the background levels. Similar to metal enrichment factor, Igeo can be used as a reference to estimate the extent of metal pollution in sediments. The Igeo value is calculated by using the following equation:
where Cn is the measured concentration of the element (n) in the sediment and Bn is the geochemical background concentration of the element (n). Factor 1.5 is the correction of background matrix factor due to the lithogenic effects [70]. The upper continental crust values of the studied metals are the same as those used in the aforementioned enrichment factor calculation [71]. Müller [70] has distinguished seven classes of the Igeo from Class 0 to Class 6. The highest class (Class 6) reflects at least 100-fold environment above the background value.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Class
\n
Value
\n
Sediment quality
\n
\n\n\n
\n
0
\n
Igeo< 0
\n
Practically uncontaminated
\n
\n
\n
1
\n
0 < Igeo < 1
\n
Slightly contaminated
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
1 < Igeo < 1
\n
Moderately contaminated
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
2 < Igeo < 1
\n
Moderately to heavily contaminated
\n
\n
\n
4
\n
3 < Igeo < 1
\n
Heavily contaminated
\n
\n
\n
5
\n
4 < Igeo < 1
\n
Heavily to extremely contaminated
\n
\n
\n
6
\n
5 < Igeo < 1
\n
Extremely contaminated
\n
\n\n
\n
Tomlinson et al. [72] elaborated that the application of pollution load index (PLI) provides a simple way in assessing marine and coastal sediment quality by metal pollution. This assessment is a quick tool in order to compare the pollution status of different places [73]. PLI represents the number of times by which the metal concentrations in the sediment exceed the background concentration and gives a summative indication of the overall level of metal toxicity in a particular sample or location [74, 75]. PLI can provide some understanding to the public of the surrounding area about the quality of a component of their environment and indicates the trend spatially and temporarily [76]. In addition, it also provides valuable information to the decision-makers toward a better management on the pollution level in the studied region.
\n
PLI is obtained as contamination factor (CF). This CF is the quotient obtained by dividing the concentration of each metal with the background value of the metal. The PLI can be expressed from the following relation:
where n is the number of metals studied and the CF is the contamination factor. The CF can be calculated from
\n
\n\nCF\n=\n\n\nMetal concentration in samples\n/\nBackground metal concentration\n\n\n\nE3
\n
The PLI value more than 1 can be categorized as polluted, whereas less than 1 indicates no pollution at the study area [77, 78].
\n
\n
\n
4. Ecological risk assessment by sediment quality guidelines
\n
Over the last two decades, a considerable amount of research effort has been put into investigating sediment toxic threshold levels [79, 80]. As a result there are now a number of international guidelines relating to toxic concentrations as determined by field and laboratory data. The work of Long et al. [79] on sediment quality guidelines (SQGs) provides a useful tool for screening sediment chemical data to identify pollutants of concern and priorities problem sites (x). In their study, the toxicity range of these chemical pollutants in the sediments was estimated from experimental studies in the laboratory, observation, and measurement of these parameters in the field. The finding of the work can estimate the level of two pollutants that have high chances to give impact in adverse biological effect of 10 and 50% of biota population.
\n
Using this approach, scientists classified the toxicity of metals into effect range low (ERL) and effect range median (ERM) concentrations [79]. The concentration value between ERL and ERM represents the intermediate range in which this concentration can give an impact in 10–50% of the organism populations. ERL indicates the chemical pollutant can be considered to be of minimal or low concern, and the adverse effects toward organisms are infrequently observed (<10% impact on organisms population) if the concentrations are below the ERL value. On the other hand, ERM indicate that if the concentration is above this level which the significant effect can be observed in 50% or more of the organism population considered to be toxic and of significant concern.
\n
\n
\n
5. GIS application in environmental study
\n
Nowadays, the rapid developments of computer technology and geographical information system (GIS) are receiving increasing interest in environmental geochemistry study [81]. This method is becoming popular nowadays in marine environmental pollution studies to graphically and digitally present the distribution of metals in marine environments by using GIS technique [82, 83]. The spatial interpolation methods of geometrical interpolation, trend surface analysis, and kriging method are commonly used [84]. This base chemometric approach was applied to investigate the spatial distribution patterns of metals in marine sediment and to identify spatial human impacts on global and local scales [85, 86].
\n
GIS is a tool for decision-making, using information stored in a geographical form, in this case, in isopleth map form. Some researchers defined major requirements and function of GIS and mentioned spatial data handling tool for solving complex geographical problems [87, 88]. This GIS approach is increasingly used in environmental pollution studies because of its ability in spatial analysis and interpolation, and spatial interpolation utilizes measured points with known values to estimate an unknown value and to visualize the spatial patterns [89]. On the regional and national scales, the geochemical mapping of metals can be used as a tool for visualization which is enhanced by computer-aided modeling using GIS to make it easier to identify the possible locations of contaminated area. At present, joint using of GIS and chemometric approach mainly focuses on river estuary [90], soil [91], and nonpoint source identification [92].
\n
\n
\n
6. Organisms as biomarker for monitoring study
\n
Marine aquatic organisms can accumulate metals from various sources in their surrounding environment. The possible sources of these metals include sediments and soil erosion [93, 94], air depositions of dust and aerosol [93, 95], and discharges of wastewater [93, 94]. The accumulation of metals in marine aquatic organisms can pose a long-term burden on biogeochemical cycling in the ecosphere [96]. Once the metals enter the food chain, they may accumulate to dangerous levels and be harmful to human health.
\n
Shellfish species which are laying at the second trophic level in the aquatic ecosystem have long been known to accumulate both essential and nonessential metals. Many researchers have reported the potentiality of using mollusks, especially mussel and oyster species, as bioindicators or biomarkers for monitoring the metal contamination of the aquatic system [97, 98]. Besides being a biomarker for marine pollution studies, these mollusk species have also been used in ecotoxicology and toxicity studies. Individual biomonitors respond differently to different sources of bioavailable chemical elements, for example, in the solution, in sediments, or in foods. In order to conclude a complete picture of total metal bioavailability in a marine habitat, it is necessary, therefore, to use a correct biomonitor that can reflect the metal bioavailability in all available potential sources [99]. Such comparative use of different biomonitors should allow identification of the particular source of the contaminant elements [100] (Figure 6).
\n
Figure 6.
Shellfish (left, green mussel; right, oyster) are commonly used as biomonitor to study the pollution status.
\n
Metal accumulation in marine aquatic organisms depended on several factors, including the environmental concentrations of metals in water and sediments; the species of organisms; and body size and age of the marine organisms. Different concentrations of metal can also be found in different organs (stomach, gill, muscle, tissue) in the same biological sample [101, 102]. However, scientists mainly focused on the general metal burden in shellfish species such as oyster and mussel and the potential major pathways for metal contaminant in the coastal environment.
\n
\n
\n
7. Choice of biomonitors for environmental study
\n
Aquatic organisms can transport pollutants and contaminants into, within, and out of the marine aquatic ecosystem. These organisms can ingest the pollutants via water and food and inhale them as they breathe and during feeding process [103]. When the pollutants enter the organism body, some contaminants can quickly pass through several organs; however, some may be absorbed and accumulated in organism tissues, particularly fatty tissues [104]. Certain contaminants such as mercury and PCBs are easily dissolve in organism fats and oils but do not dissolve in water. Due to the organism metabolism process, bioaccumulation process can be clearly seen in carnivorous animals in higher tropic of food chain, ranging from big organism such as fishes and to human [105].
\n
The choice of a suitable biomonitor needs to consider the potential sources of metals to the organism. For example, sea grass not in contact with sediments, therefore, will take up metals from dissolved sources only [99]. Suspension feeders take up metals both directly from seawater and from the suspended particles collected during feeding. Thus, mussels, oysters, and barnacles are all candidates as suspension feeding biomonitors, and a careful choice will differentiate between suspended particles of different size ranges. As a generalization, sessile barnacles, but not stalked barnacles, have evolved micro-feeding, using the first thoracic legs to filter small suspended particles which would pass through the setae of the expanded cirral net formed by the more posterior thoracic legs [106].
\n
Deposit feeding bivalves will reflect the bioavailability of metals in the surrounding water via respiratory currents but also metal bioavailability in newly deposited particles, for they suck up such particles via the inhalant siphon during feeding [107]. Some bivalves are protected by the shell from contact with the interstitial water of the sediment, a protection not offered, for example, to a sediment burrowing polychaete, the soft epidermis of which may be bathed directly by interstitial water with a redox potential possibly very different from that of the overlying water [108].
\n
As concluded by monitoring scientists [109, 110], species to be chosen as biomonitors should fulfill several criteria such as:
Sedentary organism or those fixed in one spot
Easy to identify the species
Abundant
Long-lived
Available for all the time
Large enough to provide sufficient sample
Resistant to handle the organisms’ stress during test preparation
Adapt to environmental variations in physicochemical parameters such as salinity and temperature
\n
\n
\n
8. Organisms as laboratory testing organisms
\n
Besides using the organisms as a biomarker for metal pollution studies in the field, mollusk species also have been used in ecotoxicology and toxicity studies in the laboratory. Several criteria had been set in order to choose suitable organisms as testing organisms. Despite that, in order to achieve the objectives, these testing organisms should fulfill several criteria as follows:
Organisms should be commercially important and sensitive to the environment.
Organism must be easy to obtain and maintain in the laboratory.
Biology, feeding behavior, and their characteristic of the organism must be known.
Organism must be healthy and free from disease.
Organisms should be acclimatized for at least 2 weeks before use.
Mortality of organism in control tank must be less than 10%. If more than 10% mortality, the testing should be repeated.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
Authors wish to express their gratitude to the metallic element research group researcher that contributes to the chapter content. Also thanks to the School of Marine and Environmental Sciences for funding the group to run the project and Oceanography Laboratory, PPSMS, for providing the facilities during the laboratory analysis.
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors certify that they have no conflict of interest during preparation of this chapter.
\n
Notes/thanks/other declarations
\n
Thanks to the School of Marine and Environmental Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, that provided us the facilities to run our research project related to metal pollution.
\n
\n',keywords:"metal pollution, sediments, geo-marker, organism, bio-markers",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67227.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67227.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67227",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67227",totalDownloads:459,totalViews:118,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"April 24th 2018",dateReviewed:"March 1st 2019",datePrePublished:"May 20th 2019",datePublished:"June 5th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Pollution caused by metal elements has drawn increasing attention worldwide due to the increase of anthropogenic contaminants to the marine ecosystems. Pollution of the natural environment by metals is a serious problem because these elements are indestructible and most of them have toxic effects on living organisms, when they exceed a certain concentration. Sediments are widely used as geo-marker for monitoring and identifying the possible sources since sediment can act as sink for the pollutants. Most metals are bound in fine-grain fraction because of its high surface area-to-grain size ratio where they have a greater biological availability compared to those in larger fraction. Lying in the second trophic level in the aquatic ecosystem, shellfish species have long been known to accumulate both essential and non-essential metals. Many researchers have reported the potentiality of using mollusks, especially mussel and oyster species, as bioindicators or biomarkers for monitoring the metal contamination of the aquatic system.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67227",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67227",book:{slug:"monitoring-of-marine-pollution"},signatures:"Ong Meng Chuan and Kamaruzzaman Yunus",authors:[{id:"136681",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamaruzzaman",middleName:null,surname:"Yunus",fullName:"Kamaruzzaman Yunus",slug:"kamaruzzaman-yunus",email:"kama@iium.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",email:"ong@umt.edu.my",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Sediment as geo-marker for monitoring study",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Assessment of metal pollution level",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Ecological risk assessment by sediment quality guidelines",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. GIS application in environmental study",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Organisms as biomarker for monitoring study",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Choice of biomonitors for environmental study",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Organisms as laboratory testing organisms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Notes/thanks/other declarations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Clark MW, Davies-McConchie F, McConchie D, Birch GF. Selective chemical extraction and grain size normalisation for environmental assessment of anoxic sediments: Validation of an integrated procedure. Science of the Total Environment. 2000;258(3):149-170\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Kennish MJ. Environmental threats and environmental future of estuaries. 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Environmental Pollution. 2001;114(3):313-324\n'},{id:"B90",body:'Yin K, Lin ZF, Ke ZY. Temporal and spatial distribution of dissolved oxygen in the Pearl River Estuary and adjacent coastal waters. Continental Shelf Research. 2004;24(16):1935-1948\n'},{id:"B91",body:'Lee CSL, Li XD, Shi WZ, Cheung SCN, Thornton I. Metal contamination in urban, suburban and country park soils of Hong Kong: A study based on GIS and multivariate statistics. The Science of the Total Environment. 2006;356(1-3):45-61\n'},{id:"B92",body:'Chowdary VM, Rao NH, Sarma PBS. Decision support framework for assessment of non-point-source pollution of groundwater in large irrigation projects. Agricultural Water Management. 2005;75(3):194-225\n'},{id:"B93",body:'Labonne M, Othman DB, Luck JM. Pb isotopes in mussels as tracers of metal sources and water movements in a lagoon (Thau Basin, S. France). Chemical Geology. 2001;181(1):181-191\n'},{id:"B94",body:'Goodwin TH, Young AR, Holmes MGR, Old GH, Hewitt N, Leeks GJL, et al. The temporal and spatial variability of sediment transport and yields within the Bradford Beck catchment, West Yorkshire. Science of the Total Environment. 2003;314-316:475-494\n'},{id:"B95",body:'Gelinas Y, Schmit JP. Extending the use of the stable lead isotope ratios as a tracer in bioavailability studies. Environmental Science and Technology. 1997;31(7):1968-1972\n'},{id:"B96",body:'Ip CCM, Li XD, Zhang G, Wong CSC, Zhang WL. Heavy metal and Pb isotopic compositions of aquatic organisms in the Pearl River Estuary, South China. Environmental Pollution. 2005;138(3):495-505\n'},{id:"B97",body:'Ong MC, Kamaruzaman MI, Yong JC, Kamaruzzaman BY, Joseph B. Metals contamination using Polymesoda expansa (Marsh Clam) as bio–indicator in Kelantan River, Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences. 2017;21(3):597-604\n'},{id:"B98",body:'Ong MC, Amalina I. Determination of selected metallic element in marsh clam, Polymesoda expansa, collected from Tanjung Lumpur mangrove forest, Kuantan, Pahang. Borneo Journal of Marine Science & Aquaculture. 2017;1(1):65-70\n'},{id:"B99",body:'Phillips DJH. Arsenic in aquatic organisms: A review emphasising chemical speciation. Aquatic Toxicology. 1990;16(3):151-186\n'},{id:"B100",body:'Rainbow PS. Trace metal accumulation in marine invertebrates: Marine biology or marine chemistry? Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 1997;77:195-210\n'},{id:"B101",body:'Ong MC, Kamaruzaman MI, Siti Noorhidayah A, Joseph B. Trace metals in highly commercial fishes caught along coastal water of Setiu, Terengganu, Malaysia. International Journal of Applied Chemistry. 2016;12(4):773-784\n'},{id:"B102",body:'Ong MC, Gan SL. Assessment of metallic trace elements in the muscles and fins of four landed elasmobranchs from Kuala Terengganu waters, Malaysia. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2017;124(2):1001-1005\n'},{id:"B103",body:'Blais JM, Macdonald RW, Mackay D, Webster E, Harvey C, Smol JP. Biological mediated transport of contaminants to aquatic systems. Environmental Science and Technology. 2007;41(4):1075-1084\n'},{id:"B104",body:'Erickson RJ, Nichols JW, Cook PM, Ankley GT. Chapter 2. Bioavailability of chemical contaminants in aquatic systems. The Toxicology of Fishes. 2008:9-54\n'},{id:"B105",body:'Liu JK, He X. Quatitative and qualitative aspects of fish corp in relation to environmental quality. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 1987;13(1):61-75\n'},{id:"B106",body:'Anderson RS. Lack of hemocyte chemiluminescence stimulation by Perkinsus marinus in eastern oysters Crassostrea irginica with dermo disease. Journal of Aquatic Animal Health. 1999;11(2):179-182\n'},{id:"B107",body:'Bryan GW, Langston WJ, Hummerstone LG, Burt GR. A Guide to the Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in Estuaries Using Biological Indicators. Plymouth: Occasional Publication of the Marine Biological Association 4, Marine Biology of the United Kingdom; 1985. 92 p\n'},{id:"B108",body:'Rainbow PS. Biomonitoring of heavy metal availability in the marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 1995;31(4-12):183-192\n'},{id:"B109",body:'Bryan GW, Langston WJ, Hummerstone LG. The use of biological indicators of heavy metal contamination in estuaries: With special reference to an assessment of the biological availability of metals in estuarine sediments from south-west Britain. Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 1980;1:73\n'},{id:"B110",body:'Butler PA, Andren L, Bonde GJ, Jernelov A, Reisch DJ. Monitoring organisms. In: Ruivo M, editor. Food and Agricultural Organisation Technical Conference on Marine Pollution and its Effects on Living Resources and Fishing, Rome, 1970. Supplement 1: Methods of Detection, Measurement and Monitoring of Pollutants in the Marine Environment. London: Fishing News Books; 1971. pp. 101-112\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ong Meng Chuan",address:"ong@umt.edu.my",affiliation:'
School of Marine and Environmental Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia
Kulliyyah of Science, International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia
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1. Introduction
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder that is not only affecting various populations worldwide but also poised on affecting the developing nations of the world much more than developed countries [1, 2]. The International Diabetes Foundation (IDF) reported a diagnosis of over 400 million people living with diabetes and postulated an estimated increase to over 600 million people by the year 2040 in a worldwide survey [3, 4]. The report also shows that diabetes accounts for a death every 6 seconds [3]. In a recent study, it was observed that the total reported cases of people affected by DM had increased by 10 million in the subsequent survey carried out by IDF over the next year [5].
DM is a heterogeneous metabolic disorder and is difficult to classify. However, DM has been categorised into three major types based on the pathologic process. Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), also known as childhood/early-onset diabetes or insulin-dependent DM, is characterised by insulin deficiency as a result of β-cell dysfunction, degeneration and degradation by the immune system [6]. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), also known as adult/late-onset diabetes or non-insulin-dependent DM has insulin secretion and insulin resistance (IR) as its major characteristics [7]. Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) has glucose intolerance in pregnant women as its major characteristic. It is as a result of the β-cells inability to meet up with the insulin demand in pregnant women without a previous diagnosis of diabetes [8].
Diabetologists have a few other categories, such as tropical DM and Type 3 diabetes mellitus (T3DM). The former is thought to have a relationship with malnutrition [8], while the latter is a suggested mechanistic link to Alzheimer’s disease via inflammatory response and other mechanisms resulting in the pathophysiologic changes relating diabetes to dementia [3]. However, there is little information on the rarer forms of diabetes, such as secondary diabetes, mitochondrial diabetes, maturity-onset diabetes of the young, and latent autoimmune diabetes of adults [9].
1.1 Risk factors
Physical inactivity or sedentary lifestyle, excessive alcohol, overweight, obesity and unhealthy diet intake are modifiable DM risk factors [10]. Family history, hypertension, history of previously impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) or impaired fasting glucose (IFG), advancing age, history of GDM, ethnicity and genetic makeup are some unmodifiable risk factors. However, various researchers have reported that novel risk factors such as short sleep duration [11], noise pollution [12] and environmental toxins [13] contribute to the causal pathways which lead to diabetes. Trade and agricultural production policies are thought to contribute to both individual and societal level risk factors [14].
2. Diabetes mellitus in Nigeria
2.1 Epidemiology
The transition from infectious diseases to non-communicable diseases as leading causes of death is fast becoming a growing epidemiological trend and public health dichotomy in Sub-Saharan African countries [15]. In Africa, there is a 1% estimated prevalence of diabetes in rural areas while in urban areas, the range is from 5–7% [16]. Nigeria accounts for about one-sixth of Africa’s population [1]. The national prevalence of diabetes, which was less than 1% between 1960 and 1990, has risen from 2.2% in 1997 to 5% in 2013 [17]. However, the current prevalence may currently be as high as between 8 and 10% [9], with 4.83% recorded for patients aged 20 and above, accounting for over 3 million people currently living with this condition [18]. This observation makes her the country with the highest number of people living with diabetes and IFG in Africa [19]. Epidemiological statistics show that Nigeria is responsible for one in every five reported sub-Saharan case of diabetes, with a steep increase in the prevalence of this disease from the rural areas to members of the high socio-economic population [9]. Continuous urbanisation, the increasing population and poor economy, will further drive the incidence and burden of diabetes upwards in Nigeria [1, 2, 20]. T2DM appears to be the majority of the DM burden in Nigeria with T1DM accounting for less than 10% of DM cases [21], while tropical DM makes up less than 1% [8]. Lifestyle factors such as sedentary lifestyle, cigarette smoking and generous consumption of alcohol are known risk factors linked to the development of T2DM. Obesity has been reported to be a major contributor to approximately 55% of diagnosed cases of T2DM, with a prevalence of 3.3 to 18% [2]. It has also been associated with several life-threatening diseases such as cardiovascular disease (CVD), several cancer types, as well as reduced quality of life [22, 23]. Diabetes-related morbidity and mortality have been reported to be high in different locations in Nigeria with 105,091 diabetes-related deaths recorded as at 2013 and most patients reported to have been suffering from T2DM [10].
2.2 Management
Given the current DM epidemic and its projected consequences, effective population-based intervention identification has become a priority public health strategy in Sub-Saharan Africa [24]. In Nigeria, insulin, oral glucose-lowering drugs, diet and exercise are used in the management of DM. Complementary and alternative medicine such as concoctions, infusions, tinctures and herbal supplement is also used [1]. Inability to use insulin syringe, the high cost of therapy, few options in the Nigerian market and poor policies on DM management are a few challenges affecting insulin treatment [25]. The medications used in the management of diabetes become less effective over time as most patients do not achieve normal glycaemic control with their use [26], and thus have resulted to possible second-line medications to achieve the normal glycaemic target [27]. Despite the high cost of medication as well as the inability to maintain normal glycaemic control for an extended period, the use of polytherapy to achieve sufficient glucose control is a common feature in Nigeria [28]. Challenges such as needle phobia, hypoglycaemia, drug-associated side effect and cost of medication have made over 46% of diabetic patients opt for complementary and alternative medicine, with Vernonia amygdalina which is also known as “bitter leaf” being most utilised [29]. The school of thought that diabetics should abstain from carbohydrate rich meals has led to the intake of monotonous food like unripe plantain, beans and wheat rich diet [1, 30]. This challenge occurs due to the absence of a taste-appealing standardised diet for diabetics as well as their dietary requirements influenced by economic status, religious and cultural beliefs [1].
3. Terminalia species as medicinal plants
Medicinal plants (MPs) are a rich source of natural products with potential medical interest. There is an increased interest in the use of medicinal plants and their products as a result of their reported wide range application. Asides their application, they are the richest bioresource of modern medicines, nutraceuticals, food supplements, chemical entities for synthetic drugs, pharmaceutical intermediates, folk medicines and drugs of traditional systems of medicine [31]. These plants are also known to contain different plant secondary metabolites such as tannins, flavonoids, saponins alkaloids, terpenoids and phenols, which are responsible for numerous characteristics such as colour, flavour, smell and texture in various parts of these plants. These plant metabolites are also known for their pharmacological mechanism of actions in the treatment, management and prevention of diseases [32].
Terminalia genus has about 250 flowering tree species which belong to the Combretaceae family. They are found in the tropics of Australia, Asia, Africa and South America. The bark of many Terminalia species appear to be cracked from the stem, the branches are arranged in a stepwise manner with the leaves appearing large and leathery on the tips of shoots. The appearance of the leaves is responsible for the genus nomenclature Terminalia which is a derivative of the Latin word Terminus. The fruits of most Terminalia species are edible with deep red, yellow or black pulp colouration and hard nuts [33]. Extensive research has shown that Terminalia species are a rich source of phytocompounds ranging from flavonoids (gallic acid, ellagic acid, quercetin, hesperetin), steroids (β-sitosterol, terminic acid), tannins (punicallin, terchebulin, castalagin), vitamins (α-tocopherol), carotenoids (lutein) and others [33, 34, 35]. The various reported pharmacological activities such as antimalarial, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, cardiovascular effects, antidiarrhoeal, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidaemic, hypoglycaemic, antiprotozoal, antiviral, wound healing, antimutagenic and anticancer properties have been attributed to these compounds [33].
3.1 Terminalia species in Nigeria
There are about ten species of Terminalia found in Nigeria, namely; Terminalia altissima (Synonym: superba), Terminalia avicennioides, Terminalia brownii, Terminalia catappa, Terminalia glaucescens, Terminalia ivorensis, Terminalia laxiflora, Terminalia macroptera, Terminalia mollis and Terminalia schimperiana [33, 36, 37]. These species have been reported to be pharmacologically active with antimicrobial, antimycobacterial, wound healing, gastroprotective, antimalarial, antioxidant, antifungal, anthelmintic, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, analgesic, radical scavenging, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antimutagenic, antiaging, aldose inhibitory, antiplasmodial, cytotoxic, antipsychotic, sedative, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, trypanocidal, hypolipidaemic, antioxidant, antimycoplasmal and androgenic, properties as shown in Table 1 [34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42].
Name of specie
Location in Africa
Common name
Pharmacological activity
References
Terminalia altissima (Synonym: superba)
Tropical west Africa, Sierra Leone, Congo, Nigeria, Cameroon
List of Terminalia species found in Nigeria and their reported ethnopharmacological activity.
Terminalia species in Nigeria, have numerous application in the treatment and management of ailments among the various traditional medicine systems of different ethnic groups. Different parts are utilised by traditional healers to treat cholera, malaria, typhoid, hepatitis, stomach ache, tuberculosis, leprosy, diarrhoea, skin diseases, gastritis, hyperglycaemia, diabetes, gonorrhoea, wounds, epilepsy and catarrh [56, 57, 58]. They are also used as tonic, laxative and chewing sticks [26, 59, 60].
Several reports have highlighted some pharmacological properties of Terminalia species in Nigeria, such as its antimicrobial properties, antibacterial property, anti-inflammatory action, anti-HIV, hypoglycaemic, modulatory properties, analgesic, wound healing, antioxidant and radical scavenging activity, hepatoprotective, anticancer, anti-trypanocidal, antimutagenic and antiaging properties.
Nigeria’s vegetation is made up of forests, savannahs and montane land. All others but the latter are further divided into three parts which have ensured the wide distribution of these species across the country. This variation in the country’s vegetation has not only made these Terminalia species specific to Nigeria and West Africa, but accounts for the difference in their evolutionary relationship, development and pharmacologic activity. Upon assessment of the phylogenetic relationship on www.phylogeny.fr [61], using the available nucleic acid sequence of the Terminalia species that were deposited in National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) GenBank, it was observed that species that were closely related such as T. catappa and T. glaucescens as well as T. superba and T. avicennioides were located in the same vegetative region of the country (Figure 1). Irrespective of their evolutionary differences, it was observed that there were conserved regions that were similar in the deposited genetic sequence of the Terminalia species in Nigeria showing over 94% sequence similarity (Figure 2).
Figure 1.
Phylogenetic tree of some selected Terminalia species in Nigeria.
Figure 2.
Multiple sequence alignment of some selected Terminalia species in Nigeria.
3.2 Pharmacologic antidiabetic activities of Nigerian Terminalia species
The pharmacologic antidiabetic activity of Terminalia species have been reported in different climes using various in vitro, in vivo and in silico techniques in mice, rat, rabbit and humans to elucidate them. Nonetheless, in Nigeria, there is a paucity of data on the antidiabetic mode of action and mechanisms of Terminalia spp. despite its abundance. However, there are antidiabetic reports of these species from neighbouring countries with similar vegetation.
3.2.1 In vitro assessments
The crude aqueous and hydroethanolic leaf extracts of T. catappa from Nigeria have been reported to inhibit both α-glucosidase and α-amylase effectively. Mixed and non-competitive mode of inhibition were the mechanisms of action elucidated for the extracts [35]. This finding was further corroborated by in silico studies, in which the identified bioactives showed preferential binding to the active site than the allosteric site of α-glucosidase and α-amylase [35]. The α-amylase inhibitory property of crude methanol extract and solvent fractions of T. brownii stem bark was lower than that of acarbose as reported in [62]. When compared with some other medicinal plants, crude ethanol, aqueous and hydroethanolic extracts of T. superba root exhibited better inhibitory action on α-amylase activity than their respective counterparts [63]. For α-glucosidase and lipoxygenase inhibitory activity, the potency of dichloromethane, methanol and solvent fractions of T. macroptera leaves have been established to be more potent than acarbose and quercetin respectively [40].
High-throughput techniques were used to identify isolated bioactive compounds (gallic acid and methyl gallate) from T. superba stem bark dichloromethane extract, which exhibited very high inhibitory property on α-glucosidase activity [64]. Other isolates such as arjunic acid and glaucinoic acid from T. glaucescens stem barks and chebulagic acid, corilagin and narcissin from T. macroptera leaves are reported to exhibit significant β-glucuronidase, α-glucosidase and 15-lipoxygenase inhibitory activity respectively [40, 65].
3.2.2 In vivo assessments
The pre-administration of methanol-methylene chloride extract of T. glaucescens leaves have been reported to confer protective properties in mice against streptozotocin-induced diabetes effects [66]. T. schimperiana root bark extracts have been reported to be effective in reducing blood glucose and excess body lipids in alloxan-induced diabetic rats [67, 68]. The hypoglycaemic activity of T. catappa leaves has also been recorded [69]. The leaves have also been associated with a significant decrease of C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, fibrinogen and inflammatory markers associated with diabetes in rats when compared with other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [70]. In male rats fed with T. catappa drupe and seeds supplemented-diets for fourteen days, they were found to have exhibited enhanced sexual behaviour and biomarkers relevant to erectile dysfunction that were initially suppressed by streptozotocin-induced diabetic state [71]. Most research on the antidiabetic assessment of Terminalia species in Nigeria have reported the beneficial effect in rats and mice. Interestingly, in Ref. [72], T. catappa intake was found to illicit negative herb-drug effect by increasing the activity of transaminases concomitantly enhancing the adverse hepatic effects of antidiabetic drugs such as pioglitazone and atorvastatin.
4. Conclusion
The Nigerian Terminalia genus is made up of species that possess antidiabetic principles. This activity has been related to the presence and synergistic action of phytochemicals such as tannins, phenolics, terpenoids, flavonoids and other active bioconstituents. The species of this genus in Nigeria can provide great medicinal value to the country and its populace. However, most of the antidiabetic pharmacological assessment has been done only on Terminalia catappa, Terminalia glaucescens and Terminalia schimperiana. Moreso, high throughput analytical techniques and equipment can be utilised to identify and isolate novel phytocompounds that may be of therapeutic value in the management and treatment of diabetes. It is also imperative to identify the sequence of all Nigerian Terminalia species to understand better the genetic relationship, genetic variability, intraspecific variability and traits heritability in vegetative and floral characters of these species.
It was also observed that the majority of antidiabetic assessments of these Terminalia species were done in vitro, in rats and mice. Nonetheless, more in vivo studies should be carried out to identify the molecular mechanisms involved in its antidiabetic activity. Nigeria is the most challenged sub-Saharan nation with diabetes, a public health issue that needs to be tackled urgently. Hence, there is a need to increase translational research and explore the antidiabetic assessment of these Terminalia species directly on patients to extrapolate results that will be beneficial to the Nigerian public health system.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge Olawumi Toyin Iheagwam for proofreading the manuscript.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Terminalia species, antidiabetic, Nigeria, diabetes mellitus, mode of action, mechanism, traditional medicine",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73866.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73866.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73866",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73866",totalDownloads:47,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 15th 2020",dateReviewed:"October 13th 2020",datePrePublished:"December 11th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"November 2nd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Terminalia species are well recognised in traditional medicine. They are known for producing fruits and nuts which are edible and possess pharmacotherapeutic properties. They also have ornamental purposes in urban areas where they are found. These species are used by traditional healers in the treatment and management of diabetes mellitus, its complications and other related ailments that are involved in the pathophysiological process of this disease. Research has been extensively done to validate these antidiabetic claims scientifically as well as understand the mechanism and mode of antidiabetic action. This chapter proposes to highlight the antidiabetic activities of Terminalia species found in Nigeria.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73866",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73866",signatures:"Franklyn Nonso Iheagwam, Omoremime Elizabeth Dania, Happiness Chijioke Michael-Onuoha, Olubanke Olujoke Ogunlana and Shalom Nwodo Chinedu",book:{id:"9445",title:"Alternative Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Alternative Medicine",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Akram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9445.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"215436",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Akram",slug:"muhammad-akram",fullName:"Muhammad Akram"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Risk factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Diabetes mellitus in Nigeria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 Epidemiology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2 Management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Terminalia species as medicinal plants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Terminalia species in Nigeria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Pharmacologic antidiabetic activities of Nigerian Terminalia species",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.2.1 In vitro assessments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.2.2 In vivo assessments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ogbera AO, Ekpebegh C. Diabetes mellitus in Nigeria: The past, present and future. World Journal of Diabetes. 2014;5(6):905-911'},{id:"B2",body:'Olokoba AB, Obateru OA, Olokoba LB. Type 2 diabetes mellitus: A review of current trends. 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Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science. 2011;1(8):59-64'},{id:"B70",body:'Ben EE, Asuquo AE, Owu DU. Comparative effect of aspirin, meloxicam and Terminalia catappa leaf extract on serum levels of some inflammatory markers in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Asian Journal of Research in Biochemistry. 2019;4(1):1-10'},{id:"B71",body:'Adebayo AA, Oboh G, Ademosun AO. Almond-supplemented diet improves sexual functions beyond Phosphodiesterase-5 inhibition in diabetic male rats. Heliyon. 2019;5(12):e03035'},{id:"B72",body:'Ezuruike U, Prieto JM. Assessment of potential herb-drug interactions among Nigerian adults with type-2 diabetes. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2016;7:248'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Franklyn Nonso Iheagwam",address:"franklyn.iheagwam@covenantuniversity.edu.ng",affiliation:'
Department of Biochemistry and Covenant University Public Health and Wellness Research Cluster (CUPHWERC), Covenant University, Nigeria
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Omoremime Elizabeth Dania",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Biochemistry and Covenant University Public Health and Wellness Research Cluster (CUPHWERC), Covenant University, Nigeria
Department of Biochemistry and Covenant University Public Health and Wellness Research Cluster (CUPHWERC), Covenant University, Nigeria
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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at oapf@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at oapf@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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