\r\n\tBacteriology is subdivision of microbiology which deals with morphology, ecology and biotechnology of bacteria that found in different environmental niches - either inside living organisms, or free living in soil, marine and fresh water. It is also connected to medicine concerning spoilage of foods and bacterial associated diseases (pathogenic bacteriology). On the other hand, good use of friendly bacteria gives protection from other bad microbes causing serious illness. These beneficial bacteria promote absorption of nutrients and aid in healthy digestion.
\r\n
\r\n\tBacteria are key players in bioremediation.They can play a significant role in the mitigation or removal of contaminants in the environment, both organic and inorganic.
\r\n
\r\n\tIn natural environment, bacteria produce nanoparticles as part of their metabolism. Bacteria grab target ions from their environment and then turn the metal ions into the element metal through enzymes generated by the cell activities.The biosynthesized nanoparticles have been used in a variety of applications including drug carriers for targeted delivery, cancer treatment, gene therapy and DNA analysis, antibacterial agents, biosensors and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of bacterial science and it's applications in different disciplines.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9efd2538a169c261ee567026dc837dd2",bookSignature:"Dr. Khouloud Mohamed Barakat",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7508.jpg",keywords:"Prokaryotes, Archaea, Bacteria, Microbial Growth, Control, Bacterial Flora, Soil Bacteria, Marine Bacteria, Pathogenic Bacteria, Benefit Bacteria, Industrial Bacteria, Bacterial Biotechnology, Bacterial Nanotechnology",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 15th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 5th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 4th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 23rd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 22nd 2018",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"218571",title:"Dr.",name:"Khouloud Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Barakat",slug:"khouloud-mohamed-barakat",fullName:"Khouloud Mohamed Barakat",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/218571/images/system/218571.jpeg",biography:"Associate Professor in Microbiology LAB., National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Alexandria Egypt. She received her BSc in Microbiology, MSc and Ph.D. in Marine Microbiology from Faculty of Science, Alexandria University in 1998, 2003 and 2008, respectively. She had 25 published papers in local and international peer-reviewed journals and 2 abstracts conference proceedings in the field of marine and microbial biotechnology. She worked as an Assistant Professor at Faculty of Science and Humanities studies, Shaqra University, Saudi Arabia, from 2010 -2012 where she conducted lectures on General Microbiology, Bacteriology and Pollution. She is a member of numerous local societies and serves as an editorial board of the International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research, International Archive of Medicine, Lawarence Press, International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management. She was also selected as a member at Who\\'s Who in the World for inclusion in the forthcoming 31st Edition 2014. She supervised many PhD and MSc thesis and performed more than 15 arbitration of scientific research and thesis.",institutionString:"National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"409",title:"Bacteriology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-microbiology-bacteriology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
Exposing deep-seated mineral deposits requires the construction of new shafts. In Poland, where usable minerals are usually covered by thick layers of heavily waterlogged overburden, the construction of new shafts poses extraordinary difficulties. New shafts continue to be designed and constructed in quite challenging hydrogeological conditions in Poland, as well as in other countries worldwide. Hence, it would be fruitful to look at some Polish experiences in coping with this extremely difficult hydrogeology while mining deposits of both hard-coal and nonferrous metal ores. A range of detailed examples of how to eliminate such water hazards has been provided elsewhere [1, 2, 3]. Over the last three decades, Poland has seen at least several cases involving shaft flooding. These occurred mainly during the sinking phase. There are many methods for eliminating water hazards and dewatering flooded shafts to put them back into operation. This paper presents two cases of highly problematic flooding in shaft sunk through highly waterlogged layers using the freezing method, both leading to considerable construction delays. The first case involved the removal of increased water inflow into the R-XI shaft at KGHM. In the other case, problems occurred due to a shaft passing through an Albian layer in the S. 1.3 shaft sunk for the Lubelski Węgiel Bogdanka S.A. mining corporation. Although completely different from each other, these cases provide useful guidance and a serious warning against hasty shaft design or a careless approach to constructing shafts [4, 5, 6]. Considered completely safe for shaft construction, the technological solutions presented here should be of interest to experts in water-related mining issues.
2. Diversion of increased water inflow into the R-XI shaft during sinking
Waterlogged overburden formations as deep as 700 m below the ground have made it necessary for Polish mining corporations to use the freezing method to construct all copper mine shafts and most hard-coal mine shafts. Hundreds of shafts have been successfully sunk in Poland using this technology. However, when it seemed that the engineers had virtually eliminated freezing pipe leaks in the boreholes, a major problem that had caused brine leaks into frozen rock, water hazards emerged in completely unexpected and highly unlikely situations.
2.1 Project specification and the effects of the water hazard
The R-XI shaft was not the first structure of this type constructed by PeBeKa S.A. in the Polish Copper Basin area [7]. Hydrogeological surveys preceding the shaft work at depths of 431.0–630.0 m indicated no significant water hazards along this section. The projected water inflows into the shaft face below the 431.0 m level are shown in Table 1. The R-XI shaft was designed to serve as a ventilation shaft and has the following parameters [5]:
At the time, this shaft had the greatest rock freezing depth at 635 m. PeBeKa Lubin applied many innovative rock freezing solutions. One of them was selective freezing using two types of freezing holes: short holes with a depth of 395 m and long holes with a depth of 635 m. This method made it possible to achieve a frozen mantle that was thickest in its lower portion, where the water pressure was found to be the highest.
Because a gallery had already been excavated near the shaft at a depth of 1212.7 m, the design included a simplified drainage system for the shaft face below the freezing zone. This was achieved through a dewatering borehole drilled in the shaft axis vertically upwards from a level of 1212.7 m. This made it possible to dispense with the construction of an expensive cascade drainage system and significantly facilitated shaft sinking at depths of 635–1212.7 m. At the 503.6–632.4 m shaft section, the design included a combined panel and concrete lining, i.e., a top-down panel lining and a concrete, monolithic, bottom-up lining using panel forms. The concrete lining was laid on a 2.6-m-thick base ring beam set between depths of 632.4 and 635.0 m (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
The last phases of shaft sinking in the frozen rock area. (a) Installation of foundation for the final shaft concrete lining. (b) Section of final shaft concrete lining with drainage. Explanations: 1, three-deck shaft working platform; 2, cast-iron shaft lining; 3, preliminary pre-cast segmental shaft lining; 4, shaft lining foundation; 5, boreholes in the drainage system; 6, sliding formwork H = 3.75 m; 7, dewatering borehole TS-1 (d = 3.5,” L = 576 m); 8, final concrete lining.
According to the records [6, 7], the in situ rock temperature at a depth of 632 m was about 32°C. So, it was reasonable to expect that the end portion of the frozen mantle would also be exposed to increased heat from below. When the shaft face reached a depth of 632 m without any difficulties, it seemed that the most challenging section had been sunk as designed and on schedule. Yet, nature retained its unpredictability.
After the two last reinforced concrete panel rings had been completed, with excess material excavated to make a curb gap 4 (Figure 1) at a depth of 632 m, a small water leak, estimated at about 3–5 L/min, was noticed at the shaft bottom at the thill sidewall interface. The water was clean, very cold, and slightly salty. For a shaft sunk using the freezing method, in which the freezing core usually has a temperature below −15°C, this was unusual and perplexing. Since the freezing pipes had reached a depth of 635 m, no liquid water should have occurred at a depth of 632 m. However, this phenomenon could be partly explained by the water’s salinity. Unfortunately, the electrical conductivity of this water has not been documented. In these circumstances, the TS-1 dewatering borehole work was intensified. Also, work commenced on the final concrete lining 8 (Figure 1)—constructed from the bottom up—equipped with a drainage system [7].
It was found that even though all the freezing safety requirements had been observed, the ice mantle along this section was not completely watertight and did not fully prevent water inflow into the shaft face. The movement of slightly saline water at a temperature above zero (tw > 0°C) caused the frozen mantle to be soaked from below and consistently thawed, with water inflows effectively increasing day by day. The situation was becoming dangerous, as no shaft pipe drainage had been planned down to this depth. This meant that the shaft had no pipelines through which the water could be pumped up to the surface. The further section of the shaft was designed to allow drainage via the TS-1 dewatering borehole drilled from a level of 1212.7 m (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
The phases of dewatering the sunken shaft section. (a) Shaft flooding. (b) Dewatering of the shaft using a “RITZ” submersible pump, (c) replacing the concrete lining along the 574.3–632.9 m section with a cast-iron tubing lining. Explanations: 1–8, see Figure 1; 9, RITZ submersible pump; 10, cast-iron tubing lining; 11, TS-2 dewatering borehole.
The increasing inflow of water was diverted to the surface using only buckets. After about 2 weeks of shaft work involving the construction of a concrete curb at a depth of 635 m and the construction of an 18 m final concrete lining, water inflow into the shaft had increased to about 700 L/min. In this situation, it was impossible to continue any work in the shaft other than intensive dewatering using of buckets. Ultimately, this measure did not save the shaft from partial flooding. The water table in the shaft stabilized at a depth of 533.0 m, which means that the water column was 102 m (see Figure 2).
Due to the prolonged length of the 564 m TS-1 dewatering borehole and the water level reaching 533 m (Figure 2a), the decision was made to use a high-performance RITZ submersible pump (HDM 6723/11DPF). Installed 4 weeks later, with a capacity of 15 m3/min, the submersible pump succeeded in quickly dewatering the flooded shaft section (Figure 2b). Also, after 2 months of further work, the water inflow into the shaft was found to have reached 2.5 m3/min. The dewatering borehole TS-1 (Figure 2) was successfully completed almost at the same time the shaft was dewatered using the submersible pump. After 6 weeks of intensive and highly precise drilling work, the borehole reached the shaft bottom, located only 0.5 m from the shaft axis. By this point, the water inflow had increased to 3.0 m3/min. Since the water inflow was expected to increase further, the decision was made to drill a second dewatering borehole—TS-2 (Figure 2c). Due to the considerable water hazard associated with a water inflow of 3.0 m3/min, it was also decided that the section with a waterproof tubing lining be extended to the 650 m level. In addition, the decision was made to comprehensively grout the entire area affected by the substantial water inflow.
2.2 Removing the causes of the water inflow
The substantial water inflow forced the shaft construction company to both further redesign the shaft lining and adjust the sinking technology along the 635–650-m-deep section. Apart from the costly dewatering, one of the direct effects of the partial shaft flooding was the need to redesign the lining in the flooding area (Figure 2). The concrete panel lining was replaced by a tubing panel lining, with a concrete tube set between them (Figure 2c) [7]. Due to this replacement, it was additionally necessary to:
Demolish the completed 18 m section of the concrete lining above the curb, at a depth of 635 m, without damaging the preliminary panel lining.
Partially demolish the curb at a depth of 635 m and mount a steel ring beam on the curb’s foundations to lay the first tubing ring.
Construct the lining of 39 N-130a tubing rings from the bottom up, to a depth of 574.3 m, without damaging the preliminary panel lining, the initial step being to lay the first ring on the steel ring beam in the curb at a depth of 635 m.
Complete the grouting work above the curb, at a depth of 635 m, so that the shaft could be safely sunk along the 635–650 m interval.
Sink the shaft along the 635–650 m tubing-lined section, including constructing a curb at a depth of 650 m.
Construct the lining of N-120 cast-iron tubing rings from the 574.3 m level upwards to the point of connection between the picotage gap and the upper tubing column at a depth of 500.47 m.
In the first phase, the rock behind the lining was grouted using multiple techniques. In the first phase, 3-m-long holes were drilled in rings 309 and 310 through cement plugs in the tubing lining. A total of 26 t of cement grout were injected behind the lining through these holes to separate the upper water horizons from the problem area of the shaft.
In the second phase, the cement grout was injected behind the lining along the 617.9–635.0 m section, using 2-m-long horizontal holes drilled through the concrete plugs, 10-m-long horizontal holes drilled through the cement plugs, and 15-m-long inclined holes drilled at an angle of 40° through the concrete plugs. Due to the very substantial water inflow from this area, “Ekopur HW” quickset two-component polyurethane adhesive was used in addition to the cement grout. The grouting work is illustrated in Figure 3 [7]. Once the 635–650 m section of the shaft had been sunk, a curb was made in the tubing lining, comprising 130a tubings (9 rings) installed from the top down at a depth of 650 m, and a shaft face dewatering system was installed using boreholes TS-1 and TS-2 (Figure 2).
Figure 3.
Grouting process and shaft sinking along the 635–650 m section. (a) Grouting along the 598.4–635.0 m section, phase 1 and 2; (b) shaft sinking along the 635–650 m section, (c) grouting along the 635–650 m section, phase 3. Explanations: 1, cementation of the rock behind the lining (insulating layer) in N-130a tubing rings 309 and 310; 2, grouting of the rock behind the tubing lining through concrete plug holes in the tubing; 3, grouting of the rock and tubing lining through “cementation” holes in tubings (2-m-long horizontal holes); 4, grouting of the rock and tubing lining through “cementation” holes in tubings (10-m-long horizontal holes); 5, grouting of the rock and tubing lining through concrete plug holes (15-m-long inclined holes); 6, grouting of the rock and tubing lining through “cementation” holes in tubings (2.0-m-long inclined holes), 7, grouting of the rock and tubing lining through “cementation” holes in tubings (10.0-m-long inclined holes).
In the third phase, cement grout was injected behind the lining along the 635–635.0 m section (Table 2). Then, as part of the fourth grouting phase, the entire 574–500 m section of the tubing lining was sealed. It took a total of more than 500 t of materials (Table 2) to complete the grouting process.
Phase
Grouting materials used [Mg]
Cement
EKOPUR HW polyurethane
Total
Phase 1
45.5
24.5
70.0
Phase 2
33.3
14.8
48.1
Phase 3
16.4
0.32
16.7
Phase 4
342.7
32.4
375.1
Total
438.0
72.1
510.1
Table 2.
Grouting materials used to prevent water inflow [7].
3. Eliminating water hazards associated with the S-1.3 shaft sinking project in the Lublin Coal Basin
The hydrogeology of the Lublin Coal Basin is highly complex, and mining in this area is challenging. At 710 m from the surface, the coal measures are covered by heavily waterlogged Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Quaternary formations. This has considerable implications for mine shaft sinking. A simplified geological profile is presented in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Diagram of the S-1.3 shaft sinking using both rock freezing and rock heating. 1, boreholes for rock heating along the 0–180 m section; 2, boreholes for deep freezing along the 0–570 m section; 3, concrete plug above the Albian layer; 4, drainage boreholes in the Albian layer; 5, working with a drilling chamber at a depth of 754 m; 6, frozen rock mantle; 7, final concrete panel lining; 8, cast-iron tubing lining along the Albian formation section.
All the shafts in this basin had to be sunk using the freezing method, at least along the 0–180 m section [4, 6, 8]. The first shafts for the Bogdanka Mine were given the numbers S-1.1, S-1.2, and S-1.3. After the S-1.1 shaft had been sunk to a depth of 960 m, a disastrous water leakage occurred from the connector pipes left in the lining, which caused extensive flooding. Consequently, it was necessary to fill in and abandon that shaft. Drawing on the S-1.1 experience, the S-1.2 shaft was sunk to the target depth of 995 m without any major difficulties. Although the flooding of the S-1.1 shaft had also caused partial flooding of the S-1.2 shaft through the galleries already sunk to a depth of 960 m, the dewatering proved to be fairly easy. The sinking of the S-1.3 shaft might be the most interesting and perhaps the only such case in the global history of shaft construction, as it ultimately required simultaneous rock freezing in the lower section and rock heating in the upper section. Below is a detailed discussion of how this was done.
3.1 The S-1.3 shaft sinking
The experience gained sinking the S-1.1 and S-1.2 shafts indicated that it was possible to use a different technology, more based on the traditional sinking method, which is much less costly. A decision was made to freeze the rocks along the 0–180 m section before constructing the first section, as it passed through the Quaternary strata and the highly waterlogged layers of Cretaceous formations, with a maximum depth of 162 m (see Figure 4). Below the 180 m level, the plan was to sink the shaft to a depth of 570 m using conventional method, i.e., without rock freezing. This would substantially reduce costs. The biggest puzzle, and, as the construction company would see, the greatest challenge involved in this shaft sinking project was the thin (≈2.9 m) Albian layer (Figure 4), which was composed of sandy-lime quicksand with a water pressure of about 5.5 MPa. An assumption was made that a shaft working could pass through such a thin layer of waterlogged formation once the layer had been provided with borehole drainage system (Figure 4) drilled in the working at a depth of 754 m. With the drainage system in place, the pressure could be reduced, making it possible to petrify both the Albian formations and the Jurassic formations deposited underneath, all the way to the Carboniferous roof. This way, the shaft could be sunk conventionally down to the target depth of 1035.45 m.
Here, we should warn those who are enthusiastic about using grouting, regardless of the conditions. In this specific case, the company constructing the shaft failed to provide the mentioned formations with a drainage system. In effect, it became impossible to chemically petrify the Jurassic formations any further, and the only viable sinking option left was the freezing method. At this point, the expected substantial savings stemming from the use of a different shaft sinking method were no longer viable. In addition, the construction company faced the problem of refreezing within the 0–570 m zone, where the final lining had already been laid. The Polish engineers involved in the project knew that the refreezing of rocks would produce a great pressure surge on the lining, effectively destroying it [6].
The engineers considered it necessary to drill 43 additional boreholes at a depth of 610 m. These had an unusual diameter of 308 mm and were drilled in an 18 m diameter circle [3, 8]. Also, an unprecedented decision was made to use sectional freezing—an approach which, although theoretically known and viable, had not been applied in shaft construction before. Thus, the boreholes were fitted with two freezing pipe columns and a column of downcomer tubes inside a 139.7 mm diameter column. They were properly sealed so that the brine could circulate only in the lower parts of the boreholes, below 570 m.
Regrettably, this plan failed, too. The shrinkage stress in the steel due to the low temperature of the brine caused the outer column to leak, allowing water to enter the borehole. This complicated the whole process of section freezing, making it necessary to reconsider freezing along the entire depth of the shaft. As feared, the freezing caused damage to the lining along the 0–570 m section soon after commenced. At this point, the decision was made to apply a globally unprecedented solution, in which the lower section of the shaft was frozen, while the upper part of the shaft, along the 0–180 m section, was heated with warm water. To provide the inflow of warm water, the engineers used the boreholes drilled to freeze the first section of the shaft along a circle with a diameter of 14 m. The work diagram is presented in Figure 4.
Ultimately, this unprecedented project proved a technological success. However, although the shaft was eventually sunk, the project can hardly be described as successful, given the completion period of almost 10 years and the substantial energy costs involved. The substantial costs of sinking the S-1.3 shaft are reflected in the amount of energy consumed in the process of rock freezing and heating. These parameters are shown in Table 3. It should be noted that the actual values were much lower (by about 38%) than the design values.
Parameter
Design
Actual
Freezing time, months
9.2
About 7
Amount of energy consumed to create the frozen mantle, MJ
71,310,951
45,638,000
Heat supplied through the boreholes along the 14 m diameter circle (0–180 m), MJ
15,323,000
12,509,800
Heat supplied through the air supply duct to the warm-air shaft, MJ
23,197,000
16,130,000
Total energy consumed, MJ
109,830,951
74,277,800
Table 3.
Projected and actual energy consumption in the process of rock freezing when sinking the S-1.3 shaft [3].
4. Conclusions
This paper shows how changeable and unpredictable hydrogeology can lead to challenging and very costly problems in shaft sinking projects. In the case of the polish shafts, a water hazard that had not been accurately identified by hydrogeological surveys led to a number of adverse effects. These included the substantial amount of grouting materials used, the extended project completion period (it took almost an additional year to finish the project), and the need to replace the concrete panel lining with tubing lining along a 150-m-long section of the shaft.
This paper presents case histories that should serve as the ultimate warning against underestimating the projected inflow of water into a shaft during its sinking. A number of shaft construction projects recently implemented in Poland further illustrate this point. Since water inflow projections proved inaccurate, it is necessary to improve the accuracy of hydrogeological surveys in the areas where mining is planned. Poland has extensive and highly informative experience in successfully dealing with water hazards related to shaft construction.
\n',keywords:"mining shaft, water hazard, grouting, dewatering",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72733.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72733.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72733",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72733",totalDownloads:94,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"May 27th 2020",dateReviewed:"June 9th 2020",datePrePublished:"July 6th 2020",datePublished:"February 17th 2021",dateFinished:"July 6th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The geological structure of most Polish mining regions is rich in groundwater, making shaft sinking difficult. In recent years, more than a dozen shafts, some almost 700 m deep, have been sunk in Poland using various methods of water hazard elimination. The vast majority of shafts that pass through aquifer formations have been sunk using artificial rock freezing, waterproof tubing, and concrete lining. Generally, this system has proven to be very effective. However, there have been cases of complications during sinking, including occasional flooding. This paper presents two cases of highly problematic flooding in shaft sunk using the freezing method, both leading to considerable construction delays and a significant increase in shaft sinking costs. The first case involved water inflow into the bottom section of the R-XI shaft at KGHM with rocks near the melting point of ice. In the other case, problems occurred passing through an Albian layer in the S. 1.3 shaft sunk for the Lubelski Węgiel Bogdanka S.A. mining corporation, where the freezing process was carried out while it was necessary to heat the rocks in the upper part of the shaft to protect the final lining from damage.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72733",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72733",book:{slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future"},signatures:"Piotr Czaja, Paweł Kamiński and Artur Dyczko",authors:[{id:"318919",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paweł",middleName:null,surname:"Kamiński",fullName:"Paweł Kamiński",slug:"pawel-kaminski",email:"pkamin@agh.edu.pl",position:null,institution:{name:"AGH University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"323409",title:"Prof.",name:"Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Czaja",fullName:"Piotr Czaja",slug:"piotr-czaja",email:"czajap@agh.edu.pl",position:null,institution:{name:"AGH University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"323410",title:"Dr.",name:"Artur",middleName:null,surname:"Dyczko",fullName:"Artur Dyczko",slug:"artur-dyczko",email:"arturdyczko@min-pan.krakow.pl",position:null,institution:{name:"Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Diversion of increased water inflow into the R-XI shaft during sinking",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Project specification and the effects of the water hazard",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Removing the causes of the water inflow",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Eliminating water hazards associated with the S-1.3 shaft sinking project in the Lublin Coal Basin",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 The S-1.3 shaft sinking",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ciania Z, Lekan W, Wójcik J. Planned and interventional cementation treatments in shafts sunk within the Lublin Coal Basin. In: Proc Symp: Experiences in the Use of the Grouting Technology in Rock Sealing, Reinforcing and Petrification in Underground Construction and Workings. Katowice: SITG; 1988'},{id:"B2",body:'Czaja P, Kohutek Z, Wichur A. The water-related problems and difficulties encountered when exposing deposits – Coping methods. In: The Hydrogeology of Polish Mine Deposits and the Water-Related Problems in Mining. Kraków: Uczelniane Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Dydaktyczne AGH; 2003. pp. 146-200'},{id:"B3",body:'Kohutek Z, Wichur A, Wilk Z. Water-related issues when exposing deposits. In: Wilk Z, editor. The Hydrogeology of Polish Mine Deposits and the Water-Related Problems in Mining. Kraków: Uczelniane Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Dydaktyczne AGH; 2003. pp. 424-435'},{id:"B4",body:'Krywult J, Wichur A. A simplified method for designing preliminary linings for shafts sunk using rock freezing. Przegląd Górniczy; 1993. p. 5'},{id:"B5",body:'Stachowiak-Maciejowska K, Rożek R. The R-XI shaft is the 29th shaft of this Polish copper mining company, sunk by PeBeKa S.A. Nowoczesne Budownictwo Inżynieryjne. 2005;09:35-36. Available from: http://www.nbi.com.pl/assets/NBI-pdf/2005/2/pdf/9_pebeka.pdf'},{id:"B6",body:'Wichur A, Czaja P, Poprawski W. Guidelines for designing the frozen mantle thickness. OBRBG Budokop w Mysłowicach, Konferencja naukowo-techniczna Budownictwo górnicze i podziemne w nowych warunkach gospodarowania, Materiały konferencyjne i referaty problemowe, Kokotek k/Lublińca 16-17. IX. 1991. pp. 32-38'},{id:"B7",body:'Kosmalski M, Kulicki J, Stróżyński M. The elimination of increased water inflows into the R-XI shaft in the Zakłady Górnicze Rudna mine. Geoinżynieria i Tunelowanie. 2005;1:46-54'},{id:"B8",body:'Kicki J, Dyczko A. 30 years of LW “Bogdanka” S.A. In: The History and the Future. Krakow: Bogdanka;2012'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Piotr Czaja",address:null,affiliation:'
Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Polish Academy of Science, Poland
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Cabanelas",slug:"juan-c.-cabanelas"}]},{id:"36179",title:"Use of FTIR Analysis to Control the Self-Healing Functionality of Epoxy Resins",slug:"use-of-ft-ir-analysis-to-control-the-self-healing-functionality-of-epoxy-resins",signatures:"Liberata Guadagno and Marialuigia Raimondo",authors:[{id:"106836",title:"Prof.",name:"Liberata",middleName:null,surname:"Guadagno",fullName:"Liberata Guadagno",slug:"liberata-guadagno"}]},{id:"36180",title:"Infrared Analysis of Electrostatic Layer-By-Layer Polymer Membranes Having Characteristics of Heavy Metal Ion Desalination",slug:"infrared-analysis-of-electrostatic-layer-by-layer-polymer-membranes-having-characteristics-of-heavy",signatures:"Weimin Zhou, Huitan Fu and Takaomi Kobayashi",authors:[{id:"110384",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaomi",middleName:null,surname:"Kobayashi",fullName:"Takaomi Kobayashi",slug:"takaomi-kobayashi"}]},{id:"36181",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy as a Tool to Monitor Radiation Curing",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-as-a-tool-to-monitor-radiation-curing",signatures:"Marco Sangermano, Patrick Meier and Spiros Tzavalas",authors:[{id:"112286",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Tzavalas",fullName:"Spiros Tzavalas",slug:"spiros-tzavalas"},{id:"114382",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Sangermano",fullName:"Marco Sangermano",slug:"marco-sangermano"},{id:"114384",title:"Dr",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Meier",fullName:"Patrick Meier",slug:"patrick-meier"}]},{id:"36182",title:"Characterization of Compositional Gradient Structure of Polymeric Materials by FTIR Technology",slug:"characterization-of-compositional-gradient-structure-of-polymeric-materials-by-ft-ir-technology",signatures:"Alata Hexig and Bayar Hexig",authors:[{id:"20867",title:"Dr.",name:"Bayar",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Bayar Hexig",slug:"bayar-hexig"},{id:"111986",title:"Dr.",name:"Alata",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Alata Hexig",slug:"alata-hexig"}]},{id:"36183",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy - Useful Analytical Tool for Non-Destructive Analysis",slug:"fourier-trasform-infrared-spectroscopy-useful-analytical-tool-for-non-destructive-analysis",signatures:"Simona-Carmen Litescu, Eugenia D. Teodor, Georgiana-Ileana Truica, Andreia Tache and Gabriel-Lucian Radu",authors:[{id:"24425",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Litescu",fullName:"Simona Carmen Litescu",slug:"simona-carmen-litescu"},{id:"24429",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel-Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",fullName:"Gabriel-Lucian Radu",slug:"gabriel-lucian-radu"},{id:"108318",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia D.",middleName:null,surname:"Teodor",fullName:"Eugenia D. Teodor",slug:"eugenia-d.-teodor"},{id:"108323",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgiana-Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Badea",fullName:"Georgiana-Ileana Badea",slug:"georgiana-ileana-badea"},{id:"136337",title:"Ms.",name:"Andreia",middleName:null,surname:"Tache",fullName:"Andreia Tache",slug:"andreia-tache"}]},{id:"36184",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Building and Construction Materials",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-cementitious-materials",signatures:"Lucia Fernández-Carrasco, D. Torrens-Martín, L.M. Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez"}]},{id:"36185",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy Techniques in the Characterization of SOFC Functional Ceramics",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-techniques-in-the-characterization-of-sofc-functional-ceramics",signatures:"Daniel A. Macedo, Moisés R. Cesário, Graziele L. Souza, Beatriz Cela, Carlos A. Paskocimas, Antonio E. Martinelli, Dulce M. A. Melo and Rubens M. Nascimento",authors:[{id:"102015",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Macedo",fullName:"Daniel Macedo",slug:"daniel-macedo"},{id:"112309",title:"MSc",name:"Moisés",middleName:"Romolos",surname:"Cesário",fullName:"Moisés Cesário",slug:"moises-cesario"},{id:"112310",title:"Ms.",name:"Graziele",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Graziele Souza",slug:"graziele-souza"},{id:"112311",title:"MSc.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Cela",fullName:"Beatriz Cela",slug:"beatriz-cela"},{id:"112312",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Paskocimas",fullName:"Carlos Paskocimas",slug:"carlos-paskocimas"},{id:"112314",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Martinelli",fullName:"Antonio Martinelli",slug:"antonio-martinelli"},{id:"112315",title:"Prof.",name:"Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",fullName:"Dulce Melo",slug:"dulce-melo"},{id:"112316",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubens",middleName:"Maribondo Do",surname:"Nascimento",fullName:"Rubens Nascimento",slug:"rubens-nascimento"}]},{id:"36186",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy of Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-functionalized-magnetic-nanoparticles",signatures:"Perla E. García Casillas, Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez and Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",authors:[{id:"104636",title:"Dr.",name:"Perla E.",middleName:null,surname:"García Casillas",fullName:"Perla E. García Casillas",slug:"perla-e.-garcia-casillas"},{id:"112440",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos A.",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Pérez",fullName:"Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",slug:"carlos-a.-martinez-perez"},{id:"112441",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia A.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez Gonzalez",fullName:"Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez",slug:"claudia-a.-rodriguez-gonzalez"}]},{id:"36187",title:"Determination of Adsorption Characteristics of Volatile Organic Compounds Using Gas Phase FTIR Spectroscopy Flow Analysis",slug:"determination-of-adsorption-characteristics-of-volatile-organic-compounds-using-gas-phase-ftir-spect",signatures:"Tarik Chafik",authors:[{id:"107310",title:"Prof.",name:"Tarik",middleName:null,surname:"Chafik",fullName:"Tarik Chafik",slug:"tarik-chafik"}]},{id:"36188",title:"Identification of Rocket Motor Characteristics from Infrared Emission Spectra",slug:"identification-of-rocket-motor-characteristics-from-infrared-emission-spectra",signatures:"N. Hamp, J.H. Knoetze, C. Aldrich and C. Marais",authors:[{id:"112229",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Aldrich",fullName:"Chris Aldrich",slug:"chris-aldrich"},{id:"112232",title:"Prof.",name:"Hansie",middleName:null,surname:"Knoetze",fullName:"Hansie Knoetze",slug:"hansie-knoetze"},{id:"135327",title:"Ms.",name:"Corne",middleName:null,surname:"Marais",fullName:"Corne Marais",slug:"corne-marais"}]},{id:"36189",title:"Optical Technologies for Determination of Pesticide Residue",slug:"optical-technology-for-determination-of-pesticide-residue",signatures:"Yankun Peng, Yongyu Li and Jingjing Chen",authors:[{id:"113343",title:"Prof.",name:"Yankun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Yankun Peng",slug:"yankun-peng"},{id:"116636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongyu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Yongyu Li",slug:"yongyu-li"},{id:"116637",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingjing",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Jingjing Chen",slug:"jingjing-chen"}]},{id:"36190",title:"High Resolution Far Infrared Spectra of the Semiconductor Alloys Obtained Using the Synchrotron Radiation as Source",slug:"high-resolution-spectra-of-semiconductor-s-alloys-obtained-using-the-far-infrared-synchrotron-radi",signatures:"E.M. Sheregii",authors:[{id:"102655",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Sheregii",fullName:"Eugen Sheregii",slug:"eugen-sheregii"}]},{id:"36191",title:"Effective Reaction Monitoring of Intermediates by ATR-IR Spectroscopy Utilizing Fibre Optic Probes",slug:"effective-reaction-monitoring-of-intermediates-by-atr-ir-spectroscopy-utilizing-fibre-optic-probes",signatures:"Daniel Lumpi and Christian Braunshier",authors:[{id:"109019",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Braunshier",fullName:"Christian Braunshier",slug:"christian-braunshier"},{id:"111798",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Lumpi",fullName:"Daniel Lumpi",slug:"daniel-lumpi"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"65325",title:"Development of a Method for Prediction of Risk of Surface and Groundwater Contamination with Pesticides and Their Dangerous Aspects for Human Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83600",slug:"development-of-a-method-for-prediction-of-risk-of-surface-and-groundwater-contamination-with-pestici",body:'
1. Introduction
Growing of world population, agriculture, and industrial development led to the increase of ecotoxicants in environmental pollution. Among these ecotoxic substances, pesticides have a special place [1, 2]. Migrating through the soil profile, pesticides create the danger of groundwater contamination that requires their constant control and monitoring [1, 2]. Some older and cheap pesticides, whose application is forbidden in developed countries but are still used in a lot of developing countries, can persist in soil, ground, and surface water for years [3].
At the present time, around 65% of European and 70% of Ukrainian rural and urban population have been using ground (shaft wells) and middle water (artesian wells) for drinking.
As groundwater forms in two ways, (1) water from atmosphere precipitations filtrates through soil or (2) condensation of vapors into the ground, the possibility of groundwater chemical contamination is rather high [4].
That is why prediction of the risk of groundwater contamination with different classes of pesticides, as well as hygienic assessment of their impact on public health is very actual nowadays.
2. Prediction of the risk of ground and surface water contamination with pesticides and its danger to human health in areas with irrigation farming
The prediction of migration opportunities in groundwater of pesticides in different soil and climatic conditions could be carried out by a number of indices.
For example, leaching potential index [groundwater ubiquity score (GUS)] [4] is calculated using the below formula:
GUS=logτ50×[4-logKoc],
where τ50—half-life in soil, days; and
Кос—sorption coefficient of organic carbon.
For the assessment of GUS values, we have used net approach: probability of pesticide leaching into groundwater is present (GUS > 2,8); probability of pesticide leaching into groundwater is possible (GUS < 1,8); pesticides possibly not leached into groundwater (GUS = 1,8–2,8) [5].
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed SCI-GROW screening method for the determination of maximum pesticide concentration in groundwater [6], and this model is widely used. SCI-GROW index counts the substance’s half-life period in soil, organic carbon sorption coefficient, and pesticide application rate and frequency. The calculation gives the highest possible groundwater concentration of substance in mg/l.
Unfortunately, GUS index has disadvantages. For example, not all significant parameters that can influence the behavior of pesticide in the system “ground-water” are taking into account; run-off to surface water cannot be assessed using this value.
LЕАСН index is better. It determines also the possibility of river contamination and takes into account the maximum number of parameters that can influence the transition of pesticides from soil into other mediums.
The index of potential contamination of groundwater and river water LEACH was calculated according to the below formula [7]:
LEACHmod.=Sw×DT50fieldKoc,
where Sw—water solubility, mg/l;
DT50 field—half-life period substances in the soil in natural conditions, day; and
Evaluation of the index: 0,0–1,0-low risk of pollution (3 class), 1,1–2,0-average (moderate) risk (2 class), and >2,0-high risk (1 class).
But all the above listed indices characterize only the potential of pesticide penetration into groundwater and surface water without the possibility of evaluation of risk for human organism while consumption of contaminated water.
So, method of comprehensive assessment of pesticides leaching into the water possible adverse effects on humans developed by us has been used for the SCI-GROW evaluation [8]. The principle of complex hygienic regulation takes into account the possibility of pesticide intake through inhalation, with drinking water and food and its safe levels, is in the base of this method. Pesticide acceptable daily intake with water (PADIW) compares with pesticide maximum possible daily intake with water (PMDIW), which ways of calculations in 3 steps is given below (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
A method for assessing the risk of adverse effects of pesticides on human health when consuming contaminated water. Notes: SCI-GROW—screening concentrations of pesticides in groundwater, μg/l; V—daily intake of water by human, l (3 l—in temperate climate, 5–10 l—in hot climate); ADI—acceptable daily intake of pesticide, mg/kg; М—average weight of person (60 kg); 1000—factor for conversion in micrograms.
Initially, one needs to calculate the SCI-GROW using computer program from EPA official Website. This indicator is based on the actual results of field studies; therefore, it gives the most realistic values. In order to obtain the maximum possible value of pesticide intake with water (PMDIW) by humans, SCI-GROW index is multiplied by the average daily consumption of water (for persons living in temperate climate-3 L, for those living in hot climate-5 to 10 L).
To evaluate the obtained indicator, it is necessary to calculate the permissible level of pesticide intake with water (PADIW). For this, firstly, the allowable daily dose (ADI) must be multiplied by the average weight of a person (M) (60 kg for nonprofessional contingents and 70 kg for professionals). Based on the principles of complex hygienic regulation, the amount of pesticide that entered the human body with water should not exceed 20% of the permissible daily intake. Therefore, the indicator obtained earlier is multiplied by 0.2.
Finally, the values of PMDIW and PADIW should be compared (R). If the R value is ≤1, risk is considered to be acceptable; and if R > 1, risk is not acceptable.
Also, we recommend integrated assessment of the potential hazard of pesticide exposure on the human organism when consuming contaminated drinking water to use the scale with four gradations (Figure 2). The scale includes three indices: LEACН, τ50 in water, and acceptable daily intake (ADI) [9, 10].
Figure 2.
Method of hazard prediction of contaminated water by pesticide water effect on human body. Note. Evaluation of the LЕАСН index: 0,0–1,0—low risk of pollution (3 class), 1,1–2,0—average (moderate) risk (2 class), and >2,0—high risk (1 class).
These three indicators mostly reflect the danger of a pesticide, when ingested with water. LЕАСН displays the maximum possible risk of contamination of water supply sources, both underground and surface, taking into account, the physical properties of the main pesticide and stability in soil. τ50 displays the possibility and duration of the presence of the pesticide in the potentially drinking water. ADI, the main and integral pesticide toxicity index, shows the possibility of the realization of the toxic effects of a substance, when it is present in water for a long period.
For testing proposed by us, methods of risk assessment of pesticide-contaminated drinking water, we have studied widely used in agriculture representatives of the most perspective chemical classes of herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides (Tables 1–3). The main physical and chemical properties of studied compounds are given in Table 1–3.
mixture of 2 isomers 3-(difluoromethyl)-1-methyl-N-[(1RS.4SR.9RS)-1.2.3.4-tetrahydro-9-isopropyl-1.4-methanonaphthalen-5-yl]pyrazole-4-carboxamide and 2 isomers 3-(difluoromethyl)-1-methyl-N-[(1RS.4SR.9SR)-1.2.3.4-tetrahydro-9-isopropyl-1.4-methanonaphthalen-5-yl]pyrazole-4-carboxamide
Racemate comprising (R)-α-cyano-3-phenoxybenzyl (1S)-cis-3-(2.2-dichlorovinyl)-2.2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate and (S)-α-cyano-3-phenoxybenzyl (1R)-cis-3-(2.2-dichlorovinyl)-2.2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate
6.94
0.004
57,889
Lambda-cyhalothrin
(R)-a-cyano-3-phenoxybenzyl (1S)-cis-3-[(Z)-2-chloro-3.3.3-trifluoropropenyl]-2.2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate and (S)-a-cyano-3-phenoxybenzyl (1R)-cis-3-[(Z)-2-chloro-3.3.3-trifluoropropenyl]-2.2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate
Mix of: (aRS.1S)-2-chloro-6′-ethyl-N-(2-methoxy-1-methylethyl)acet-o-toluidide and (aRS.1R)-2-chloro-6′-ethyl-N-(2-methoxy-1-methylethyl)acet-o-toluidide
Physical and chemical properties of the studied herbicides [11].
Active ingredient (a.i.)
Maximum application rate of a.i., kg/ha
DТ50 soil, day
DТ50 water, day
Acute oral LD50 (mg/kg) (rat)
ADI, mg/kg
PDI, mg/day
Fungicides
Difenoconazole
0.250
85 (20–265)
3.0
1453
0.01
0.6
Tebconazole
0.175
47.1 (25.8–91.6)
42.6
1700
0.03
1.8
Penconazole
0.160
90 (22–115)
2.0
>2000
0.03
1.8
Pyraclostrobin
0.100
32 (8–55)
2.0
>5000
0.03
1.8
Azoxystrobin
0.200
180.7 (120.9–261.9)
6.1
>5000
0.20
12.0
Trifloxystrobin
0.175
7 (2–12)
1.1
>5000
0.10
6.0
Metiram
1.750
7 (∼7)
0.7
>5000
0.03
1.8
Mancozeb
1.625
18 (1)
0.2
>5000
0.05
3.0
Fludioxonil
0.250
20.5 (8–43)
2.0
>5000
0.37
22.2
Cyprodinil
0.375
45 (11–98)
12.5
>2000
0.03
1.8
Pyrimethanil
0.480
29.5 (23–54)
16.5
4150
0.17
10.2
Valifenale
0.306
1.9–12.0 hours
5.0
>5000
0.07
4.2
Fluxapyroxad
0.126
151 (53–424)
4.4
>2000
0.02
1.2
Isopyrazam
0.450
72 (9.11–173)
2.3
2000
0.03
0.6
Penthiopyrad
0.390
47 (0.8–33.3)
9.9
>2000
0.10
6.0
Sedaxane
0.025
170 (54.6–188.0)
17.3
>2000
0.10
6.0
Benalaxyl-M
0.400
44 (36–124)
38.0
>2000
0.04
2.4
Boscalid
0.668
118 (28–208)
9.0
>5000
0.04
2.4
Herbicides
Acetochlore
2.700
12.1 (7.0–17.0)
40.5
1929
0.0036
0.220
Dimetachlor
1.200
3.2 (2.3–15.6)
10.0
1600
0.1
6.000
Propizochlor
2.160
7.63 (10.0–15.0)
8.5
2290
0.025
1.500
S-metolachlor
1.920
21.0 (11.0–31.0)
9.0
2577
0.1
6.000
Metasachlor
1.250
6.8 (26.0–114.0)
216.0
3480
0.08
4.800
Thiencarbazone-methyl
0.045
17.0 (14.0–45.0)
118
>2000
0.23
13.80
Topramezone
0.075
26.1 (10.8–69.3)
30
>2000
0.001
0.060
Isoxaflutole
0.1125
1.3 (0.5–2.4)
11
>5000
0.02
1.200
Mesotrione
0.110
5.0 (3.0–7.0)
>30
>5000
0.01
0.600
Foramsulfurone
0.045
5.5 (12.0–15.0)
10
>5000
0.25
30.00
Iodsulfurone methyl-sodium
0.0015
3.2 (0.8–10.3)
31
2448
0.03
1.800
Glyphosate
1.6654
23.79 (5.7–40.9)
2.5
>2000
0.3
18.00
Tritosulfuron
0.0500
12 (3–21)
20.0
>5000
0.15
9.0
Prosulfuron
0.0150
11.9 (3.8–38.9)
173.0
546
0.02
1.2
Metsulfuron-methyl
0.0060
13.3 (7.3–37.1)
224.3
>5000
0.22
13.2
Triasulfuron
0.0062
38.5 (16.1–92.4)
217.0
>5000
0.01
0.6
Tribenuron-methyl
0.0188
10 (5–20)
139.0
>5000
0.01
0.6
Rimsulfuron
0.0125
10.8 (5.6–17.7)
6.0
>5000
0.1
6.0
Nicosulfuron
0.0600
19.3 (8.9–63.3)
65.0
>5000
2.0
120.0
Chlorimuron-ethyl
0.0094
28 (14–42)
21.0
>4102
0.02
1.2
Imazapyr
0.0550
11 (5.9–16.5)
30.0
>2000
2.5**
156.0
Imazamox
0.0400
16.7 (8.1–14.0)
233
>5000
9.0
540.0
Imazethapyr
0.1200
51.0 (14.0–290.0)
520
>5000
0.44
26.4
Bispyribac-sodium
0.0450
6.3 (2.1–7.6)
35.3
2635
0.01
0.6
Diflufenzopyr
0.0680
4.5 (8.0–18.0)
24.0
>5000
0.26
15.6
Insecticides
Chlorpyrifos
0.720
27.6 (0.32–88.9)
36.5
66
0.001
0.060
Dimethoate
0.600
7.2 (4.6–9.8)
15.5
245
0.001
0.060
Bifenthrin
0.060
86.8 (5.4–267.0)
161.0
54.5
0.015
0.900
Cypermethrin
0.075
21.9 (14.0–199.0)
17.0
287
0.05
3.000
Alpha-cypermethrin
0.030
42.6 (14.0–112.0)
21.0
40
0.015
0.090
Lambda-cyhalothrin
0.0424
26.9 (10.1–47.5)
15.1
56
0.0025
0.150
Thiamethoxam
0.150
39.0 (7.0–72.0)
40.0
>1563
0.026
1.560
Imidacloprid
0.060
174 (104.0–228.0)
129.0
131
0.06
3.600
Tebufenpyrad
0.160
4.5 (0.05–22.4)
90.0
>202
0.01
0.600
Chlorantraniliprole
0.050
204.0 (123.0–561.0)
170.0
>5000
1.56
93.60
Novaluron
0.060
96.5 (33.0–160.0)
17.5
>5000
0.01
0.600
Table 4.
The conditions of studied pesticides’ application and stability [9, 10, 11, 13, 14].
Note. PDI: permissible daily intake of pesticide.
**The table gives the initial data for the evaluation and shows the results of calculations of the index proposed by us (testing the method).
The conditions of studied pesticides application and stability are given in Table 4.
International IUPAC classification [15] was used to assess the literature data about the stability and mobility of substances in the soil. The first includes three classes: 1-highly persistent (with DT50 more than 100 days), 2-moderately persistent (30–100 days), and 3-low persistent (less than 30 days).
According to IUPAC classification [15], most of fungicides and insecticides by persistence in soil may be attributed to moderately persistent (2 class); all herbicides, to low persistent (3 class). Exceptions are highly persistent insecticides, imidacloprid and chlorantraniliprole; fungicides, sedaxane, boscalid, fluxapyroxad, and azoxystrobin; and moderately persistent herbicides, triasulfurone and imazethapyr (Table 3). It should be noted that these literature data are very average. For example, in the soil and climatic conditions of the southern and southeastern European countries, including Ukraine, the transformation of the studied substances occurs much faster due to microbiological degradation (typical for these regions, black soils are rich in microflora) [8].
Half of the studied herbicides and insecticides are resistant or highly resistant in water, as they are poorly decomposed by photolysis and hydrolysis. Fungicides are much less resistant (Table 3).
It was found that according to GUS index, there is no risk of leaching into groundwater for most of the studied herbicides; for the rest, it is low. Only for one fungicide (topramezone) and most of insecticides, the risk of groundwater leaching is high (Table 5). It could be explained by their high toxicity (very low ADI values) and relatively high persistency in soil and water (Table 4).
Active ingredient
GUS
SCI-GROW (μg/l)
Leach
IGCHI
Value
Class
Value
Class
Fungicides
Difenoconazole
0.9
1.79 × 10−2
3.391 × 10−1
3
6
3
Tebconazole
2.0
2.77 × 10−1
1.9599 × 10+0
2
7
2
Penconazole
1.36
3.38 × 10−2
2.9796 × 10+0
1
3
4
Pyraclostrobin
0.05
5.52 × 10−3
6.500 × 10−3
3
5
3
Azoxystrobin
2.60
1.98 × 10−1
2.0555 × 10+0
1
4
4
Trifloxystrobin
0.53
1.43 × 10−5
1.800 × 10−3
3
5
3
Metiram
0.00
5.35 × 10−3
1.40 × 10−2
3
5
3
Mancozeb
−1.00
2.84 × 10−6
2.000 × 10−4
3
5
3
Fludioxonil
−2.48
5.35 × 10−3
3.000 × 10−4
3
5
3
Cyprodinil
1.01
2.33 × 10−2
2.569 × 10−1
3
7
2
Pyrimethanil
2.65
1.90 × 10−1
1.19 × 10−2
3
7
2
Valifenale
−0.68
1.97 × 10−5
0.0071 × 10−3
3
6
3
Fluxapyroxad
2.57
1.85 × 10−1
7.135 × 10−1
3
6
3
Isopyrazam
1.47
4.01 × 10−2
1.64 × 10−2
3
5
3
Penthiopyrad
2.33
1.31× 10−1
1.57 × 10−2
3
6
3
Sedaxane
2.59
1.85 × 10−4
4.46 × 10+0
1
8
2
Benalaxyl-M
0.41
9.34 × 10−3
2.024 × 10−1
3
8
2
Boscalid
2.56
2.10 × 10−1
7.031 × 10−1
3
6
3
Herbicides
Acetochlore
1.58
2.58 × 10−2
3.073 × 10+1
1
8
2
Dimetachlor
1.76
8.68 × 10−3
5.20 × 10+2
1
4
4
Propizochlor
1.36
1.26 × 10−2
4.68 × 10+0
1
4
4
S-metolachlor
1.91
4.85 × 10−2
6.581 × 10+1
1
4
4
Metasachlor
2.17
4.73 × 10−2
9.50 × 10+2
1
6
3
Thiencarbazone-methyl
2.46
1.03 × 10−1
1.962 × 10+2
1
6
3
Topramezone
5.06
0.567 × 10−1
2.336 × 10+4
1
8
2
Isoxaflutole
0.59
1.28 × 10−3
9.244 × 10+2
1
6
3
Mesotrione
1.47
4.13 × 10−3
1.400 × 10+1
1
7
2
Foramsulfurone
1.56
4.63 × 10−3
6.333 × 10+2
1
4
4
Iodsulfurone methyl-sodium
0.71
1.64 × 10−3
5722 × 10+3
1
6
3
Glyphosate
−0.36
5.35 × 10−3
1.979 × 10+1
1
3
4
Tritosulfuron
2.81
2.43 × 10−1
4.00 × 10−2
3
7
2
Prosulfuron
5.11
4.17 × 10+0
3.61 × 10+0
1
7
2
Metsulfuron-methyl
3.99
6.89 × 10−1
8.626 × 10+3
1
6
3
Triasulfuron
5.12
4.13 × 10+0
1.255 × 10+3
1
7
2
Tribenuron-methyl
2.40
4.17 × 10−2
1.419 × 10+3
1
7
2
Rimsulfuron
3.23
3.17 × 10−1
2.569 × 10+3
1
4
4
Nicosulfuron
3.25
2.38 × 10−1
1.583 × 10+4
1
6
3
Chlorimuron-ethyl
3.16
3.55 × 10−1
4.755 × 10+2
1
6
3
Imazapyr
1.98
4.02 × 10−2
1.286 × 10+3
1
5
3
Imazamox
6.76
3.92 × 10+1
2.026 × 10+2
1
6
3
Imazethapyr
6.19
2.59 × 10+1
7.808 × 10+3
1
6
3
Bispyribac-sodium
1.68
3.41 × 10−2
1.611 × 10+3
1
7
2
Diflufenzopyr
2.36
7.85 × 10−2
1.210 × 10+3
1
5
3
Insecticides
Chlorpyrifos
0.17
6.45 × 10−3
1.15 × 10−2
3
11
1A
Dimethoate
1.06
2.36 × 10−3
1.38 × 10+4
1
8
2
Bifenthrin
−2.76
5.35 × 10 − 3
1.13 × 10−6
3
9
1B
Cypermethrin
−2.19
5.35 × 10−3
1.15 × 10−5
3
7
2
Alpha-cypermethrin
−1.53
5.35 × 10 − 3
7.74 × 10−6
3
8
2
Lambda-cyhalothrin
−3.28
5.35 × 10 − 3
8.37 × 10−7
3
9
1B
Thiamethoxam
4.69
3.14 × 10+0
5.25 × 10+3
1
6
3
Imidacloprid
3.74
9.29 × 10 − 1
6.18 × 10+2
1
6
3
Tebufenpyrad
0.58
1.11 × 10−2
8.93 × 10−3
3
9
1B
Chlorantraniliprole
4.22
1.86 × 10+0
1.36 × 10+0
2
7
2
Novaluron
0.02
5.20 × 10−3
5.00 × 10−5
3
8
2
Table 5.
Ground and surface water migration parameters of studied pesticides [8, 9, 10, 13, 14].
The calculated maximum possible concentrations of the studied fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides SCI-GROW in groundwater indicate that the risk to humans when consuming such water is acceptable (Table 5). SCI-GROW values exceed 1 μg/l only for triasulfurone, imazamox, imazethapyr, and chlorantraniliprole. But the high risk will not be realized as shown in Table 5; IGHI values for these pesticides are 7, 6, 6, and 7, respectively.
According to IGCHI index, fungicides, penconazole and azoxystrobin; herbicides, dimetachlor, propizochlor, s-metolachlor, foramsulfurone, glyphosate, and rimsulfuron are less hazardous for human organism in case of consuming contaminated water. Fungicides, difenoconazole, pyraclostrobin, trifloxystrobin, metiram, mancozeb, fludioxonil, valifenale, fluxapyroxad, isopyrazam, penthiopyrad, and boscalid; herbicides, metazachlor, thiencarbazone-methyl, isoxaflutole, iodsulfuron methyl-sodium, metsulfuron-methyl, nicosulfuron, chlorimuron-ethyl, imazapyr, imazamox, imazethapyr, and diflufenzopyr; insecticides, thiamethoxam and imidacloprid are moderately hazardous (Table 5). Only insecticides, chlorpyrifos, bifenthrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, and tebufenpyrad are highly and extremely hazardous because of their high toxicity and water pollution possibility. Rest of the studied compounds is hazardous (2 class) to human organism.
The estimate presented is approximate. In each particular case, it is necessary to assess the risk of a pesticide when it enters the human body with water separately, taking into account the soil and climatic conditions of the application area, the norms of application, the groundwater depth, and other background factors.
3. Conclusions
It was determined that according to IUPAC classification, most of the pesticides pertain to low or moderate in soil, but for some of them, there is a risk of groundwater contamination.
Two methods for hazardous effect on human organism while consuming contaminated water prediction were developed by us. For integrated assessment of the potential hazard of pesticide exposure on the human organism when it enters ground and surface waters, we developed integral groundwater contamination hazard index (IGCHI), which includes assessment of three indices: LEACН, τ50 in water, and allowable daily intake (ADI) on a scale, which provides four gradations. For the evaluation of the parameters of SCI-GRW, a method of comprehensive assessment including establishment of the maximum possible daily intake of pesticide with water (PMDIW) and subsequently compared with acceptable daily intake of pesticide with water (PADIW) developed by us was used.
It was shown that when the human body reaches the majority of investigated compounds, when evaluated using first method, the risk is acceptable. According to the second method, only insecticides were highly or extremely dangerous for the human body while drinking contaminated water. The rest of the compounds are low or moderately hazardous.
\n',keywords:"groundwater, surface water, hazard, pesticide, leaching, health",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65325.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65325.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65325",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65325",totalDownloads:541,totalViews:87,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 13th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 17th 2018",datePrePublished:"January 24th 2019",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The probability of groundwater contamination is high enough because groundwater has different origins: a majority of them are formed by atmospheric precipitation filtration through soil layer or due to condensation of water vapors directly into the ground. Pesticides could be one of such hazardous groundwater pollutants. We developed two methods for the hazardous effect on human organism while consuming contaminated water prediction: risk acceptance assessment and integral groundwater contamination hazard index (IGCHI) evaluation in points according to special scale.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65325",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65325",signatures:"Anna Antonenko, Olena Vavrinevych, Maria Korshun and Sergiy Omelchuk",book:{id:"6836",title:"Groundwater",subtitle:"Resource Characterisation and Management Aspects",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Resource Characterisation and Management Aspects",slug:"groundwater-resource-characterisation-and-management-aspects",publishedDate:"May 22nd 2019",bookSignature:"Modreck Gomo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6836.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185450",title:"Dr.",name:"Modreck",middleName:null,surname:"Gomo",slug:"modreck-gomo",fullName:"Modreck Gomo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Prediction of the risk of ground and surface water contamination with pesticides and its danger to human health in areas with irrigation farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kookana RS, Baskaran S, Naidu R. Pesticide fate and behaviour in Australian soils in relation to contamination and management of soil and water: A review. Australian Journal of Soil Research. 1998;36(5):715-764. DOI: 10.1071/S97109'},{id:"B2",body:'Bartha R, Lanzilotta P, Pramer D. Stability and effect of some pesticides in soil. Applied Microbiology. 1967;1:67-75'},{id:"B3",body:'Pesticides and Water Pollution. Safe Drinking Water Foundation [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www.safewater.org/fact-sheets-1/2017/1/23/pesticides [Accessed: October 18, 2018]'},{id:"B4",body:'Zasypka LG. Health condition of the population in areas of intensive agricultural production. Medical Perspectives. 2011;XVI(1):91-96'},{id:"B5",body:'Gustafson DI. Groundwater ubiquity score: A simple method for assessing pesticide leachability. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 1989;8:339-357. DOI: 10.1002/etc.5620080411'},{id:"B6",body:'Cohen S. Recent examples of pesticide assessment and regulation under FQPA. Groundwater Monitoring & Remediation. 2000:41-43'},{id:"B7",body:'Spadotto CA. Screening method for assessing pesticide leaching potential. Pesticidas: Revista de Ecotoxicologia e Meio Ambiente. 2002;12:69-78. DOI: 10.5380/pes.v12i0.3151'},{id:"B8",body:'Vavrinevych OP, Antonenko AM, Omelchuk ST, Korshun MM, Bardov VG. Prediction of soil and ground water contamination with fungicides of different classes according to soil and climate conditions in Ukrain and other European countries. Georgian Medical News. 2015;5(242):73-84. DOI: 10.21303/2585-663.2017.00441'},{id:"B9",body:'Antonenko АM, Vavrinevych OP, Omelchuk ST, Korshun MМ. Comparative hygienic evaluation and prediction of hazard to human health of groundwater contamination by herbicides of the most common chemical classes. The unity of science: International Scientific Periodical Journal. 2015:153-157'},{id:"B10",body:'Antonenko AM, Vavrinevych OP, Omelchuk ST, Korshun MM. Prediction of pesticide risks to human health by drinking water extracted from underground sources. Georgian Medical News. 2015;7-8(244–245):99-106'},{id:"B11",body:'PPDB: Pesticide Properties Data Base [Internet]. 2018. Available from: http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/footprint/en/ [Accessed: August 25, 2018]'},{id:"B12",body:'Carisse O, editor. Fungicides. London: InTech; 2010. p. 538'},{id:"B13",body:'Antonenko AM, Vavrinevych OP, Omelchuk ST, Korshun MM. Сomparative hygienic risk assessment of groundwater сontamination by herbicides of different chemical classes and hazard prediction for human after consumption of contaminated water. Journal of Education, Health and Sport. 2016;9:873-882. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.161844'},{id:"B14",body:'Korshun M, Dema O, Kucherenko O, Korshun O, Garkavyi S, Pelio I, et al. Predicting of risks of groundwater and surface water pollution with different classes of herbicides in soil in Eastern Europe climate conditions. Georgian Medical News. 2016;11(260):86-90'},{id:"B15",body:'Categories of Fungicide Solubility, Persistence and Mobility in Soils (adapted from Karmin). US: IUPAC. Pesticide Properties Database; 1997'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Anna Antonenko",address:"antonenko1985@ukr.net",affiliation:'
Hygiene and Ecology Department № 1 of O.O. Bogomolets National Medical University, Ukraine
Hygiene and Ecology Institute of O.O. Bogomolets National Medical University, Ukraine
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6836",title:"Groundwater",subtitle:"Resource Characterisation and Management Aspects",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Resource Characterisation and Management Aspects",slug:"groundwater-resource-characterisation-and-management-aspects",publishedDate:"May 22nd 2019",bookSignature:"Modreck Gomo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6836.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185450",title:"Dr.",name:"Modreck",middleName:null,surname:"Gomo",slug:"modreck-gomo",fullName:"Modreck Gomo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"117937",title:"MSc.",name:"Eugenia",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Bernal",email:"eugenia.bernal@uca.es",fullName:"Eugenia 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Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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