\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tGamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter of the nervous system, with specific binding sites to drugs as benzodiazepines, barbiturates, neurosteroids, and ethanol, among others. The actions of GABA on its receptors are related to a broad range of neurophysiological and behavioral processes, while the pharmacological manipulation of the GABAergic system is useful for the treatment of anxiety disorders, sleep disorders, epilepsy, alcohol withdrawal and other pathologies.
\r\n\r\n\tThe scope of the book project is to gather an updated review of specialized literature about preclinical and clinical science contributions to the understanding of the role of GABAergic effects that underlie normal functioning of the CNS in healthy organisms and the role of GABA in neuropsychiatric disorders, together with exploration of the detailed mechanism of action of several psychopharmacological agents acting on the GABAergic system. The book will be focus mainly in neurobiological and neuropharmacological bases of anxiety, depression, epilepsy, and addiction disorders; but would also include other disorders related to the GABAergic system and their potential treatments.
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For microfluidics, a common thread between all of these components is that they are micro-sized, so size will be briefly discussed first. The dimensions shown in Figure 1 are approximate because size of naturally-occurring objects (and of some manufactured-things) varies, for example the diameter of a human hair is between 50 and 100 μm; the diameter of the tip of a rollerball pen is between fine, medium and bold (e.g., between 0.5 and 0.7 mm); and of a 1 cent coin with its diameter varying slightly depending on the jurisdiction the penny was minted (typically around 20 mm or somewhat more).
Examples of an approximate scale of things. The boundaries between micro and nanofluidics and between micro and millifluidics are fuzzy. In many cases, the strict definition adopted by the National Science Foundation (NSF) of the US for nano as anything with one critical dimension ≤100 nm is not strictly adhered to, thus there is a gap between 100 nm and 1 μm. Similar arguments apply to the NSF definition for micro (defined as one with a critical dimension between 1 and 100 μm). In many cases, the micro-scale is arbitrarily widened to ~1 mm and sometimes slightly more. The term millifluidics has recently been used for channels (or structures) with one critical dimension of a few mm.
Microfluidics has been defined [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17] as the study of the behavior of fluids (or whatever is in them, e.g., colloids, discrete nanoparticles or individual cells), in micro or in sub-millimeter channels or around microstructures. Although microchannels can be relatively long (e.g., several 10’s of mm), they are still called microchannels as long as one critical dimension (e.g., channel-width or channel-depth or tube radius) is in the micro scale. Microfluidic channels can be used for example to confine or to guide or to mix or to manipulate fluids.
The science of scaling as applied to microfluidics: a number of physical properties of fluids change as size gets smaller [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47], to quote “smaller brings new capability” [31]. These changes are often non-linear and have been discussed in books [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17] and in journal papers [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. A non-exhaustive list of size-dependent phenomena and effects is outlined below.
The length-cube relationship: the geometrical scale of length varies linearly but volume varies as length-to-the-power-of-three. As a consequence, volume changes rapidly as length decreases. Typical volumes of fluids in microfluidic channels range between nano-liter (nL) and femtoliter (fL). At the μm-scale, some properties of fluids change (as compared to a mesoscale, arbitrarily defined as the intermediate scale between the micro-scale and the macro-scale). Example properties that dominate at a micro-scale and that are different than those observed at the meso and macroscales include dominance of laminar-flow, diffusion-dominated mixing and capillary action. To highlight one such effect, a counter-intuitive example (from an every-day scale point of view) involves two parallel-flowing fluid-streams that come into contact in a microchannel. Since there are no eddy currents or turbulence (due to laminar flow), the only mixing that occurs is a result of slow-occurring diffusion at the interface between the two fluid-flows. Since there is no bulk mixing, mixture-separations in microchannels are faster and have shorter separation times.
The square-cube law: states that volume increases faster than surface area. In microfluidics, fluid-flows in microchannels are influenced or controlled or are a function of surface area (e.g., surface tension) while others (e.g., weight) are a function of volume. Typically, in microfluidics there are no gravity effects but dominance of surface tension and of interface effects.
Examples of other phenomena influenced by size and expressed by dimensionless numbers: these include laminar flow expressed by the Reynolds number; surface tension expressed by the Bond number; transient thermal effects expressed by the Fourier number; viscous heating by the Brinkman number; and fluid compressibility by the Mach number.
As a result of channel-size, microfluidics enables one to probe individually whatever it is in a fluid constrained in a microchannel (e.g., a single cell), thus providing additional avenues for scientific inquiry and discovery (important especially in the bio-analytical sciences).
Overall, the relevant literature [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47] describes efforts at exploring and understanding the Physics of flow-related phenomena. Developments enabled by microfluidics will be highlighted in this chapter, with emphasis on ionized gases (e.g., Paschen’s law for electrical gas breakdown; plasma sheaths and the Debye length) as applied to microplasmas formed inside fluidic channels.
Microfluidics refers to a variety of approaches that enable exploitation of the phenomena mentioned above by fabricating microfluidic channels on a variety of substrates. For instance, on crystalline Silicon (of c-Si) wafers, on amorphous glass or on polymeric substrates. Due to the advantages of confining flow in microfluidic channels, several fabrication technologies have been developed and tested and will be briefly reviewed. These technologies are often collectively called micro Total Analysis Systems (μTAS) or Lab-on-a-Chip (LoC) or Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS). Microfluidics or whatever acronym is used to describe it, has attracted significant attention in books [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17] and in journals [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. While in the topic of publications, older references have been purposely included in this chapter followed by some recent publications. Where possible, the citations in the reference list have been grouped either according to fabrication technology or according to the type of substrate used (e.g., c-Si, amorphous, polymeric) or according to application. Within each technology, the reference list has been sorted out chronologically to help interested readers follow the origin and evolution of ideas and technologies. Despite of the relatively large number of references included, this is not a comprehensive review. The reference list simply offers starting points. Getting back to the main theme, the question still remains: why does microfluidics continue to receive increased attention? What are the advantages of using microfluidics, especially for chemical analysis applications?
The science and technology mentioned above are widely exploited and applied to give microfluidics a host of advantages. A brief list includes use of small volumes of sample and reagents (thus reducing cost per analysis and minimizing waste disposal); rapid sample processing; potential for automation (thus reducing cost); reduced risk of contamination; short analysis time (e.g., by increasing speed of separations); small footprint and light-weight thus enabling development of future portable microfluidic-based, portable micro-instruments that can be employed on-site or for personal use or for personal dosimetry; potential for massive parallelism (for high sample throughput); and overall, lower ownership and operating costs (vis-à-vis conventional, lab-sized systems). Application areas (to name but a few), include analytical chemistry, synthetic chemistry (including nanomaterials synthesis), microbiology, biotechnology, point-of-care diagnostics, drug delivery, immunoassays and medicine, health-monitoring and health-diagnostics, agriculture, food safety and environmental monitoring [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47].
Microchannel fabrication technology has been borrowed from the semiconductor industry. Initially, bulk micromachining [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 48, 49, 50, 51] was employed on crystalline Si (c-Si) substrates and on amorphous glass. To use it, a photolithographically patterned wafer was dipped into a chemical etching solution to etch-away (or subtract) material from the substrate, thus forming microchannels of desired geometry. This method is often referred to as wet chemical etching [48, 49, 50, 51]. Inadequate control of channel depth (resulting unevenly etched channels) due to spatial etch-rate variations and to pyramid formation when crystalline-Si (c-Si) substrates and deep microchannels were etched are two key disadvantages. In contrast, surface micromachining [52, 53, 54] involves repetitive patterning, thin layer deposition and selective etching of sacrificial layers. The challenge here stems from the many photolithography steps involved and from the precautions required so that previously deposited layers are not damaged.
We used (as far back as the 1990’s) cleanroom-based photolithography, bulk micromachining and wet chemical etching [48, 49, 50, 51] to fabricate shallow-depth microchannels (with relatively low width-to-depth aspect ratio). This approach is often referred to as 2D sculpting of Manhattan-like structures and it offers a planar, 2D- rather than a 3D-perspective. Some examples will be briefly discussed later.
For completeness, other methods of microchannel fabrication on inorganic substrates (either crystalline or amorphous) have been described. A short list includes laser machining [55, 56, 57, 58]; lithographie galvanoformung adformung (LIGA) or lithography electroplating molding [59, 60, 61] which is well suited for fabrication of high aspect ratio channels; deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) [62, 63, 64, 65] often used for fabrication of microchannels with a high aspect ratio; and, SU-8 (an epoxy-based negative photoresist) and its variants such as SU-8 series 2000 and SU-8 Series 3000) [66, 67, 68].
Technologies involving polymeric substrates [69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83] include replication via imprinting [69, 70, 71, 72, 73] or embossing [74, 75, 76]. Polymeric substrates are selected due to their bio-compatibility or to reduce cost of ownership. Examples will be shown later. The terms disposable or recyclable microfluidic devices is often used for microfluidic channels on polymeric substrates. Soft lithography [77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83] (defined as a collection of fabrication techniques for replication of microchannels) is a technology that does not require access to a clean room. It is called soft because it uses soft and flexible (primarily) elastomeric materials such as poly di methyl siloxane (PDMS) and often cyclic olefin copolymer (COC).
There are other techniques that are rather difficult to classify either according to fabrication technology or according substrate. Despite of being brief, the list includes droplet microfluidics [84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89], in which discrete droplets or small volumes of immiscible liquids are guided through microchannels. In the early literature, this approach was often called digital microfluidics. As it is known now, digital microfluidics [90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95] is an outgrowth of electrowetting [90, 92] and it involves use of discrete droplets on arrays of electrodes, with individual droplets manipulated by electrical means. The list also includes centrifugal microfluidics [96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101], a technique that enables micro-flow manipulation by using rotational forces (e.g., Coriolis) obtained by spinning a CD on top of which there are microfluidic channels. This technique is often called “lab on a CD”. It also includes paper microfluidics [102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108], a technique that uses paper for development of microfluidic approaches intended for use in resource limited situations (e.g., remote geographical areas or resource-limited locations).
Rapid prototyping via 3D-printing [109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122] involves both a technology (e.g., a 3D printer) and a materials platform (e.g., a polymer) for formation (primarily) of mill-sized fluidic (and recently) micro-sized channels [115, 117, 120]. An example of 3D printing will be discussed later in this chapter.
To highlight substrate-dependence of fabrication, the fabrication steps required for microchannels on c-Si and on amorphous glass or quartz substrates are compared and contrasted in Figure 2. It should be noted that depending on crystallographic orientation of the substrate and of the chemical cocktail used in the etching solution, isotropic or anisotropic etching may be obtained [48, 49, 50, 51].
Example 1: Planar 2D-chips and wet chemical etching for fabrication of microchannels on crystalline and amorphous substrates (Figure 2).
Simplified steps used for fabrication of microchannels on a) a c-Si wafer as a substrate and on b), a wafer made from an amorphous material (abbreviated as a-wafer-above, such as glass).
For completeness, an example of wet chemically etched microchannels on glass is shown in Figure 3.
(a) Part of a 14.5 mm by 25.6 mm chip of an etched microfluidic channel on corning 7059 glass with the photoresist removed and (for clarity) without a cover plate. Also omitted are pipette-tips used as sample reservoirs that are attached to the sample well. A coin was included for size. (b) Part of a Mylar mask used for photo-lithography. (c) Part of a washed meandering microchannel shown under 10x magnification and (d) shown under 60-fold magnification. (e) an unwashed microchannel immediately after etching showing etching by-products inside the microchannels, thus requiring their removal. (f) a sample-well and a washed microchannel showing the quality of etching, in particular for the round sample-well. For (d), (e) and (f) the photoresist was not removed to provide contrast for the photographs.
The quality of the etched microchannels depended on the composition of the etching solution and on the geometric-primitives that were used to define the channels. To enclose the microchannel of Figure 3, a cover plate was used (but is not shown in Figure 3). Depending on the required optical transparency, a UV-transparent quartz cover plate was employed for most of the work described here. Furthermore, depending on the substrate (e.g., c-Si or glass), a variety of bonding methods can be employed [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
Despite of the ability to fabricate low aspect ratio microchannels, wet chemical etching has shortcomings arising from costs, from limited access by many to photolithography and to cleanrooms, and from time-delays between mask-design (Figure 3b) and receipt of finished prototype (e.g., Figure 3a). At present, access to cleanrooms is not required because microfluidic chips can now be ordered from specialized foundries. In spite of this, there are still costs and time-delays involved. There is another limitation if microchannels are to be used with biological samples, because many biosamples adhere to substrates. Thus, functionalized surfaces or microfluidic channels on polymeric substrates are preferred.
Example 2. Imprinting microchannels on planar polymeric 2D-chips. 2D-microchannel fabrication on polymeric substrates is one way of overcoming some of the limitations mentioned above. But polymers may contain additives, fillers or plasticizers that may contaminate the samples, and they may display auto-fluorescence. As for fabrication (Figure 4), it may be achieved by using Si-stamp imprinting (Figure 4) or by imprinting (by pressing) a wire on a substrate [69] (Figure 5). In the example shown in Figure 4, a c-Si stamp (or master or hard mold) was developed and was employed for replication by imprinting.
Example 3: 3D-printed, milli-sized fluidic channels on polymeric materials for hybrid 3D chips. 3D printing technology [109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122] using polymeric materials is receiving attention for rapid prototyping [109] including fabrication of mm channels (often called millifluidics) and more recently for sub-mm channels (using specialized printers) [120, 121]. We used 3D-printing due to reduced fabrication and ownership costs and due to quick turn-around times (often from concept to prototype in hours). A simple, hybrid, 3D-printed 3D-chip containing a millifluidic channel is shown in Figure 6. The word hybrid was used because the two needle electrodes and the quartz cover plate were not 3D-printed.
(a) Mask; (b) mask on c-Si chip, coin has been added for size; (c) chemically etched c-Si chip (serving as a stamp), the meandering pattern is protruding from the surface of the chip; (d) imprint generated by pressing the stamp and the polymeric chip together by placing them in a hydraulic press and by applying pressure at room temperature; (e) imprinted sample-well on a polymer chip shown under magnification; and (f), part of an imprinted meandering channel shown under magnification. For (d) and (e) and (f) different polymeric materials were used.
(a) Imprinted channel on a polymeric chip (60x magnification), (b) sample-well (60x magnification) and (c) Venturi micropump with no moving parts and no electrical power requirements fabricated by imprinting (coin included for size) [73].
Sugar cube-sized, 3D-printed hybrid-chip with a millifluidic channel to be fitted with a quartz cover plate (selected for UV transparency). A sample introduction system is also shown and it has been included to provide an overall size for this “critical” component of a potential future micro-instrument. An actual sugar-cube (~1 cm by ~1 cm) has been included for scale comparisons.
In my laboratory, some of the fabrication technologies discussed thus far have been used to constrain plasmas in microfluidic or in millifluidic channels. But why plasmas and why microplasmas?
There are four states of matter: gases, liquids, solids and plasmas [123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131]. To generalize, atmospheric pressure plasmas are ionized gases that are either hot or cold (about room temperature or somewhat above it). Plasmas occur in nature, for example those found in inter-stellar space, in the ionosphere, in auroras and in lightening. There are also artificially-generated plasmas that are being used in many every-day-life applications. Neon signs and fluorescent lights in which low-pressure plasmas are formed either in Neon (Ne) gas or in Argon (Ar) gas) are two such examples. Other examples include plasmas employed for device fabrication by the semiconductor industry or for materials synthesis in nanoscience and nanotechnology [129, 130, 131]. It has been estimated that over 50% of whatever goes inside any electronic device (e.g., a tablet, a smartphone, TV) is fabricated using a low-pressure plasma.
Conventional-scale (or lab-scale) atmospheric pressure plasmas are widely used in chemical analysis, primarily in the form of atmospheric-pressure, 6000–10,000 K hot Inductively Coupled Plasmas or ICPs [132]. Due to their size and weight (e.g., in the few 100’s of pounds), their gas consumption (e.g., ~20 L/min), their power usage (e.g., 1–2 kW) and their need for cooling, ICPs are primarily used in a lab.
A plasma is an ionized gas [123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131]. The term plasma was coined by Langmuir in the 1920’s and it is derived from the ancient Greek word πλάσμα (plasma), freely translated to something “moldable”. A plasma consists of ions (with ion number density ni) and electrons (with an electron number density ne), and on the average it is quasi-neutral, and for singly ionized gases ne≈ni. Thus, a prerequisite for plasma formation is ionization. Singly-charge ionization (in the form of ion-electron pair formation) is done by detaching an electron from a neutral gaseous atom or molecule. Although there are other ways of detaching an electron (e.g., thermally), one way doing it is by placing a gas between two electrodes and by applying an electric field with a sufficiently field-strength to ionize the gas (Figure 7), thus forming an electrical gas discharge. Because neutral gaseous atoms or molecules (ordinarily insulators) become ion-electron pairs, they also become (partial) conductors. Partial because to an approximation, conductivity depends on the degree of ionization (this is important for weakly ionized plasmas).
Ideal plasma formed in a gas-tight and pressure-controlled enclosure. The plasma is formed between two conducting plates or electrodes positioned at a distance (or gap) d from each other. For dc operation, pertinent literature should be consulted [124].
To obtain electrical gas breakdown, the dielectric strength of the gas must be exceeded. The dielectric strength is the maximum electric field-strength (in V/m) an insulating gas can endure without breaking down into ions and electrons. If there is a sufficiently large field-strength, breakdown of the dielectric strength will cause formation of (typically) a low-current spark (i.e., a momentary electrical discharge, an example is electrostatic discharge from static electricity), or formation of a continuous electric-arc requiring continuous application of an electric field from an external power supply (Figure 7) capable of providing high-current (often in the Amp range). Arcs find applicability in welding of metals.
Conditions for sustaining continuous plasma operation: Following gas breakdown, there must be continuous application of external power to sustain a plasma. Other criteria include an electrode distance d that must be > > λD and that neλ3D must be > > 1 (this is easy to satisfy for the plasmas of interest to this work), where λD is the Debye length [133, 134, 135, 136, 137]. These will be briefly discussed later in this section.
For microplasmas formed inside fluidic microchannels, in addition to gas breakdown and to continuous application of power, a microplasma must be formed in a constrained microchannel.
Arbitrarily defined, microplasmas are those with one critical dimension in the micro-meter (μm) or in the sub-milli-meter regime [138, 139]. The words “critical dimension” (i.e., one dimension such as channel depth or width or radius) are important here: an atmospheric pressure microplasma in a microfluidic channel can range in length from μm to a 10’s of mm, as long as its critical dimension fits the definition above. But as the critical dimension is reduced to sub-mm and depending on operating conditions, atmospheric pressure plasmas transition from thermal and 10,000°C hot (e.g., lab-scale ICP [132]) to non-thermal and cold [133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139] (e.g., microplasmas). They also transition from equilibrium to non-equilibrium (to an approximation, to those with gas temperature Tg << Te (electron T). There are scientific implications due to these transitions (e.g., for nanomaterials synthesis) and for excitation mechanisms (e.g., for chemical analysis). In terms of technology-implications, cold plasmas enable use of inexpensive polymeric substrates that do not melt because microplasmas are cold and they do not require cooling; and they allow use of inexpensive 3D printing technology for fabrication.
Why miniaturize atmospheric-pressure plasmas? Operation at (or near) atmospheric-pressure is preferred because it obviates the need for heavy-weight and power-consuming vacuum pumps. By reducing weight and power consumption, atmospheric-pressure operation enables microplasma portability for chemical analysis on-site (i.e., in the field). By bringing a microplasma-based instrument to the field, microplasmas are expected to cause a paradigm shift in classical chemical analysis in which samples are collected in the field and are brought to a lab for analysis [140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148].
Due to plasma miniaturization, a number of questions arise. For example, how small can microplasmas be made? And, how small analytical microplasmas should be made? From a technology perspective, what is the minimum voltage required to ignite and sustain a microplasma? Would substrates tolerate the required high voltage? And, what is the preferred fabrication technology?
A plasma (Figure 7, regardless of its size) consists of two plasma sheaths (located in the vicinity of two electrodes bathed in a gas-of-interest in a gas-tight container) and a bulk plasma [133, 134, 135, 136, 137]. Shielding (or damping or screening) of the electric field arises from the presence of charged species in the plasma and from the unequal mobility of ions and electrons in the vicinity of the electrodes. Inside the plasma sheath, macroscopic electrical neutrality is likely not maintained. But outside of it (labeled bulk plasma in Figure 7), macroscopic neutrality is maintained and (time-averaged) electron and ion fluxes are roughly equal. Thus (on a time-average and per unit-volume), ne≈ni (for singly charged species). The distance (or thickness) a sheath screens electric fields is called the Debye length (λD), given by Eq. 1.
where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the electron temperature, ε0 is the permeability in vacuum, ne is the electron number density and e is the charge of an electron.
To generalize, a key assumption is that sheath thickness is about the same magnitude as the Debye length. A few, what-if type thought-experiments will be used to obtain an indication on how λD changes as T and ne vary. For example, for an atmospheric pressure plasma when T = 10,000 K (with 1 eV = 11,600 K) and ne = 1016 m−3, then λ D = 110 μm. But when T = 5000 K and assuming that there is no thermal ionization (thus the degree of ionization is constant and the same as in the example above) with ne = 1016 m−3, then λ D = 80 μm. For less than atmospheric pressure operation and assuming that ne = 5 x 1014 m−3 and (for simplicity, assuming that the degree of ionization is unchanged) and that T = 5000 K, then λ D = 350 μm. Because plasmas cannot be made smaller than their boundary layers (per conditions outlined in Section 3.1), plasma sheaths (and Debye length) set a fundamental limit as to how small the inter-electrode distance d (Figure 7) can become, in other words, how small a microplasma can be made.
Since inter-electrode distance d must be >> λD, and for the example with λD = 110 μm and for a two-electrode operation, then the microplasma must be larger (or much larger) than 2 times λD or (for this example) it must be >> 220 μm). As d becomes ~2 times the length of the sheath, the sheath-bulk plasma structure must disappear and thus the plasma must become devoid of a bulk plasma (Figure 7), that is to become a sheath-only plasma. But in a strict interpretation of the definition of a plasma, can such an ionized gas still be called a “plasma” [134]? There are published reports of microplasmas formed in constrained cavities that are smaller than 10 μm by 10 μm [133, 134, 135, 136, 137]. This has been explained by considering that sheath-thickness scales as inter-electrode distance decreases. Several open-ended questions in this research area still remain unanswered for instance, would microplasmas the size of 10’s of μm be useful for chemical analysis? To obtain insights, perhaps this question must be re-phrased to read “how small analytical, atmospheric pressure microplasmas should be made”?
There are two answers to this question. One is that microchannels can be 10’s of mm long ([48, 49, 50, 51] and cited literature). Since there does not seem to be a fundamental reason why microplasmas should be constrained in μm-size cavities, microplasmas can occupy part of mm-long microchannels (Figure 8). Therefore, such microplasmas are not limited by Debye length or by plasma sheaths.
(a) Simplified diagram of a microplasma and (b) microplasma formed at the end of a needle electrode (OD: 470 μm, ID: 130 μm) inside a microfluidic channel on a microfluidic chip. A Canadian 1 cent coin (about the same diameter as that of a US one-cent coin, or UK’s one-pence, or a one-cent euro) has been included for size.
The other answer involves residence time of an analyte in a microplasma (analyte = the chemical species of interest in a sample to be used for chemical analysis). Residence time (important in elemental chemical analysis) is defined as the time an analyte resides in, or is in contact with or it interacts with a microplasma. In general, as microplasma length (dictated by the inter-electrode distance or gap) decreases, so does residence time. But as residence time decreases, so does signal intensity from an analyte introduced into a microplasma. This is mainly due to a reduced interaction-time between an analyte and a microplasma. Thus, from an elemental analysis viewpoint, decreasing the length of a microplasma (e.g., by fabricating microplasmas in μm cavities) may not necessarily be beneficial in terms of signal intensity. This is significant because as signal intensity worsens, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) degrades, thus degrading the detection limit (defined as the minimum amount or concentration that can be detected with a stated statistical confidence). The detection limit is a key figure of merit in chemical analysis. From the foregoing it can be concluded that mm-long microplasmas formed inside microfluidic channels (e.g., Figure 8) will likely be beneficial for elemental chemical analysis.
Conceptually, there are two steps involved in forming and sustaining a continuously-operated atmospheric-pressure microplasma. For instance, a microplasma must be first initiated (or “ignited”) and then it must be sustained. The minimum “ignition” (or sparking) voltage (Vb) for which the entire discharge gap is fully formed (often called “bridged”) when a uniform electric field is applied between two flat electrodes at a distance or gap (d) immersed in a gas of interest under pressure (p) can be determined using Paschen’s law (Eq. 2).
A and B are constants that depend on the properties of the gas in which the electrodes are immersed in (not accounting for any ionization due to background radiation). The values of A and B are either determined experimentally or they are calculated from literature values [139]. The coefficient γ (also known as Townsend’s coefficient) incorporates properties of the electrode material (e.g., work function) and it assumes that gas breakdown is predominantly a function of electron emission from the electrodes. In short, the two key variables in this equation are pressure (p) and inter-electrode distance (d). The product of p times d is often called “pd scaling.” An example of a Paschen curve is shown in Figure 9.
Paschen curve for argon gas and for a 2.8 mm inter-electrode gap (d) as a function of pd.
Paschen’s law applies to electrical discharges formed at low-pressures. In high-vacuum or at high pressures (e.g., atmospheric), Paschen’s law fails ([139] and references herein). There are also deviations from the behavior predicted by Eq. 2 when kHz or MHz ac voltages are used or when μm inter-electrode distances (or gaps d) are employed [139]. Undeniably, there are limits to applicability of Paschen’s law. Despite of these limitations, Paschen’s law (presumably, the only choice) can be used to obtain rough estimates of the magnitude of the voltage required to ignite (or initiate) an atmospheric pressure plasma. Thus it can be used as an aid in the design of appropriate power supplies. For instance, when the electrodes are made from Iron (Fe) and the inter-electrode distance d is 2.8 mm, and the discharge gas is Argon (Ar) at (or near) atmospheric pressure, the minimum voltage (Vb) required for gas breakdown (or for microplasma ignition) is about 6000 V. As the inter-electrode distance d decreases from 2.8 to 1 mm (and by keeping all else constant), Vb drops to about 2400 V, and when d further decreases to 0.5 mm, Vb drops to about 1400 V. It should be emphasized that gas breakdown at the minimum voltage Vb is not always necessary and that (once ignited), to sustain a microplasma lower voltages are typically required. An example is the ballast used in fluorescent lights.
The key idea behind microplasma miniaturization [138] is to obtain analytical performance about equal to that of lab-scale ICP-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) systems [132] but by using self-igniting, low-power, low-cost, small-size, light-weight, continuous-flow and low gas-consumption (e.g., 250 mL/min) atmospheric-pressure microplasmas. The expectation is that such microplasmas can be used for “taking part of the lab to the sample” types of applications [140, 141, 142].
Based on these ideas, we fabricated and tested a variety of battery-operated, atmospheric pressure, self-igniting, mm-length microplasmas in fluidic channels [143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156]. Due to their mm-length, plasma sheath and Debye length are not of a concern. In addition to being “cold”, their high surface area-to-volume ratio further facilitates heat dissipation, thus facilitating use of polymeric substrates and 3D-printing fabrication methods. Example microplasmas fabricated in a variety of substrates will be discussed next.
For microplasmas formed inside a microfluidic channel on a chip, a dual substrate approach was used (Figure 10). Briefly, cleanroom-technologies (Figure 2) were employed to define and to sputter-deposit Au electrodes E1 and E2 (Figure 10a). Holes were drilled for the inlet and the outlet. On the bottom wafer, a chemically etched microchannel was formed. The top and bottom wafers (Figure 10a and b) were aligned so that the central part of the etched channel matched the protruding part of electrodes E1 and E2. Then the wafers were bonded together (Figure 10c) [143] and glass-tubes were affixed to the inlet and outlet holes (Figure 10d). The inlet was connected to a gas-supply (Ar-3%H2) that was used as the microplasma gas and as the sample-introduction carrier-gas. Upon application of electrical power, the microplasma self-ignited, it was formed between electrodes E1 and E2 and was sustained by continuous application of electrical power (~10 W). To avoid electrode breakage, a high-voltage ac [143] was used.
(a) Top chip showing electrodes E1 and E2, (b) bottom chip showing the etched microchannel, (c) the top and bottom chips bonded together (the microplasma was formed between electrodes E1 and E2, and (d) an “angle” view of the two bonded chips.
To reduce ownership, operation and fabrication costs, we developed and evaluated a variety of microplasmas on polymeric substrates (e.g., Figures 11 and 12) [144, 145, 146]. Although a critical microplasma dimension was in μm-meter regime (Figure 11), these microplasmas were formed inside millifluidic channels (e.g., ~2 mm wide). This was done for rapid prototyping [109] and to avoid accidental contact of the microplasma with the channel-walls (important during testing). Once prototypes were produced, channel width was never revisited. Although polymeric substrates have high dielectric strength, to address poor transmission of polymers in the UV, the channels were fitted with a quartz plate (Figure 11b).
(a) Postage stamp-sized polymeric 3D-chips and (b) microplasma formed between electrodes E1 and E2. Depending on operating conditions, microplasmas with diameters of (b) ~750 μm, (c) ~400 μm and (d) ~200 μm were formed. A 1 cent coin was included for size, the microplasma fit inside the letter a of the coin.
3D printed microplasma on a hybrid 3D-chip formed between electrodes E1 and E2 (coin has been included for size, the microplasma fit inside the letter a of the 1 cent coin).
3D-printing [109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122] was accomplished using a 3D-printer (~$1000) to rapidly prototype 3D-chips in a few hours (or less), thus obviating the need for cleanrooms and lithography. We used 3D-printing to fabricate hybrid chips (fitted with a quartz plate and needle electrodes) for microplasma formation in millifluidic channels [146, 147, 149]. An example is shown in Figure 12.
The nanoscale [157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194] is a natural extension of the microscale (Figure 1) and it is defined as the science, technology and application of transport phenomena and of fluid-flow in channels ≤100 nm or around nano-size objects [158, 170]. This is not universally accepted, many consider nano-size as anything with one critical dimension ≤1 μm. The range between 100 nm and 1 μm is sometimes referred to as “extended nanofluidics” [181]. Nanofluidics is not new, although the name is [159, 160].
In nanofluidics, size (or scale) is important, likely more so than in microfluidics. For instance, at the nano-scale many dimensions of molecules are of similar size as the nano-fluidic channels that constrain them (Figure 1). A few scientific questions that being addressed include: How do properties of individual atoms, ions or molecules, manifest themselves as they are confined in spaces (roughly) of their own size? Would quantum effects become important [173]? Since pressure is not used to force fluids through nanochannels, should electrokinetic flow be preferred? And, as surface-to-volume ratio increases significantly (over microchannels), what is the effect of surface-charge on ions or molecules confined in nanochannels? What is the effect of surface roughness on fluid-flow? And, how do surfaces interact with ions or molecules so close to them? What are the best surface modification approaches? What is the effect of van der Waals forces and of the electric double layer (EDL) at the nm-scale? Some questions arising from technology include: how would one introduce very small volumes of analytical samples into nanofluidic channels? To facilitate discussion, assume a cylindrical nanochannel with 100 nm diameter and 1 μm length. In this case, the volume is 100 atto Liter (aL). How would one introduce an aL volume sample into a nanochannel without evaporation of some of the analyte or of the solvent? Due to the infinitesimal volumes used, would single atom, ion or molecule measurement techniques be essential? In support of this, it has been estimated that in a liquid the volume of a cube with dimensions 100 nm by 100 nm by 100 nm, there are only ~6 analytes when the concentration of the analyte is 1 μm [160]. Would sample separation, pre-concentration and use of highly-sensitive detection techniques (e.g., laser induced fluorescence or LIF) become essential?
According to the National Science Foundation (NSF) in the US and its National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI), nanotechnology involves “the application of scientific knowledge to manipulate and control matter in the nanoscale” [158, 170], more or less arbitrarily defined at ≤100 nm [158, 170]. Nanofluidics often falls under nano electro mechanical systems (NEMS) [164, 177, 178, 179, 184] typically fabricated using complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology [177, 178].
For nanofabrication, many technologies have been described [159, 160, 161, 162, 165, 166, 169, 171, 172, 180]. Some of them are nano-specific [159, 169] for example, scanning probe lithography (SPL) [161], etching using a focused ion beam (FIB) [171] and nanoimprinting [159]. In many cases use of a cross-sectional area of a nanochannel is preferred (e.g., 10 nm by 10 nm) rather than aspect ratio. Nanofluidic channels can be nanofabricated using either top-down or bottom-up approaches.
Top down methods of fabrication of nanochannels: By analogy to micromachining, these fabrication methods include bulk nanomachining; surface nanomachining; and, imprinting (as is typical of soft-lithography) [159, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 169]. A top plate is typically used to cover nanochannels but due the nanosize of the channels and unless precautions are taken, channels may plug-up during bonding.
Bottom up methods of nanostructure formation: in some cases molecules can be “convinced” to self-assemble into nanostructures by controlling chemical conditions [160, 162].
Associated nanofabrication technologies include scanning probe lithography (SPL) [161], electron beam lithography (EBL) [159] and dip-pen nanolithography [185]. Such approaches are typically used to bypass the diffraction-limit of photolithography or to provide new capabilities.
In addition to enabling fundamental studies of fluid-flow and of transport phenomena (with many studies aimed at the study of naturally occurring processes in biological nanochannels), many applications are aimed at bio-sciences, bio-nano-technology and bio-analytical chemistry where applications exist in abundance [166, 167, 168, 169]. Applications outside of classical nano-fluidics include nano-pores (e.g., for bio-applications and DNA sequencing) [186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192] and even for the study of fluid-flow in nano-porous media [193, 194]. For chemical analysis, NEMS have been developed for single protein mass spectrometry [174] and for airborne nanoparticle detection [176]. From this short list it can be concluded that nanofluidics has the potential to become a disruptive technology worthy of further investigation.
Microfluidics continues to receive attention in science and technology due to its many applications. And as shown, it has the potential to find applicability in constraining atmospheric-pressure microplasmas in 2D-microfluidic channels (Figures 8 and 10) or in 3D-millifluidic chips (Figures 11 and 12). Future developments include coupling of standard CMOS fabrication technology [179, 183, 184, 195, 196, 197] with microfluidics or millifluidics, thus allowing integration of fluidics with electronics. Microinstruments are those with at least one critical (or essential) component operating in the micro-regime. For nanofluidics as may be applied to chemical analysis, it appears that it will be best if nanofluidic channels was packaged alongside microfluidic channels.
It is envisioned that future fluidics (Figure 1) will be embedded within portable micro- or nano-instruments for measurements on-site (i.e., in the field). Such instruments will have (some) energy autonomy [198, 199, 200], will incorporate some “smarts” [201] (e.g., based on Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning) and will have wireless capability [202] so that they can become a part of the Internet of Things (IoT) [200, 201, 202, 203]. Clearly, fluidics (e.g., milli-, micro- or nano-) have the potential to become critical components of mobile (or even wearable) instruments that are “cheap, smart and under wireless control” [139].
Financial assistance from NSERC (Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council) of Canada is gratefully acknowledged. A special thank you to Professor (now Emeritus, ETH Zurich, Switzerland) Dr. Henry Baltes for the many enlightening discussions we had on MEMS and on miniaturization.
In Germany, approx. 6–7 billion EURO is invested every year in the renovation or new construction of buildings and plant technology in the municipal water and sanitation sector [1]. The German water and wastewater infrastructure has developed socially and spatially balanced in the past and has grown over many decades and guarantees today a comprehensive disposal with high drainage safety combined with an extremely long technical and economic service life. In opposite it results in a lack of operational flexibility for sewer network and sewage plant operators, e.g. in the event of extreme weather events as an effect of climate change, changed consumer behavior or the consequences of demographic change. Experts and decision-makers are therefore looking for ways to adapt the dimensioning and calculation of future investments more closely to real usage requirements and to dispense with previous inaccurate estimates. At the same time, the existing systems must be operated more flexibly and thus more efficiently, even under described changed conditions.
\nInnovative digital developments from industry like autonomous machine controls based on intelligent data acquisition, collection and evaluation, promises better adapting municipal infrastructure systems to changing conditions. When the technology initiative KOMMUNAL 4.0 was developed as an idea in 2015, digitalization was not a central topic in German water management. As Industry 4.0 was present everywhere at these time the idea of transferring suitable parts of the basic idea of Industry 4.0 to municipal water management was born. In particular, it was necessary to implement consistent IT and IoT communication at all levels of water management tasks (Figure 1). The aim was not only to create a uniform structure for networking a wide variety of applications, but also to round off KOMMUNAL 4.0’s complete range of services with IoT for existing and newly developed products and solutions. Regardless of whether it concerns measurement and data technology applications, smart machines, SCADA or asset management systems, all application solutions contain a standardized core that guarantees standard data communication and also complying with safety and cybersecurity requirements.
\nConsistent IT and IoT communication of digital products and systems [2] (translation: IT-Sicherheit, Asset Management und Digitalisierung, Betriebsführung, Recht = IT security, asset management and digitization, operations management, law; Fernwirkung, Fernüberwachung = remote control, remote view; Automatisierung, software = automation, software; mess-und Datentechnik = measurement and data technology).
Another important requirement was (and is) that all applications work as individual and independent solution. This enables the user to go down the path to digitization in individual steps, which are, however, coordinated with each other right from the start. The purchase of a complete system at the beginning of a digital process is not absolutely necessary. The user can start where there is currently the most urgent need at daily work without losing the network compatibility of individual elements that have to be adding later. One of the most important tasks in municipal water management, for example, is an effective and efficient management of the entire infrastructure. Data plays an increasingly important role at this topic. Only where data from different sources can be usefully related to each other real added value can be created. Various IT systems such as GIS, process control (SCADA) or asset and maintenance management systems are used for this purpose in water management. Systems are desirable which, like MS Office, function in both ways as individual solutions and offer high benefits by networking with each other. And just as every printer today communicates perfectly with MS Office smart products, measurement and data technology applications as well as Smart Machines should be integrated in a plug & play manner. Some of the products and solutions belonging to KOMMUNAL 4.0 already offer these requirements already today.
\nThe digitization offensive of the industry, known since 2013 in Germany as Industry 4.0 and initiated by the Federal Government, is intended to turn simple machines using the Internet into so-called Smart Machines. These are self-regulating production units (they are also called CPS = Cyber-Physical Systems) which leads to significant cost savings. For example, they are fed with orders directly from commercial databases, receive their technical instructions directly from CAD/EPLAN tools of development engineers, order necessary materials independently from suppliers, coordinate their interdependencies and report the completion of the manufactured products to logistics for dispatch. The entire industrial value chain is recorded in data form, analyzed and controlled or optimized by automatic processes. Can this approach be transferred to the level of water infrastructures as a model?
\nIn water management, the possible applications of intelligent and smart solutions are being intensively discussed and are already being used (see e.g. at [3, 4, 5, 6]). Modern automation technology for water management already has elements in its core that need not fear comparison with Industry 4.0 solutions. Real-time-based control or monitoring solutions are just as much in use as numerous intelligent sensor technologies. They form an important basic framework for future digital strategies. In order to obtain innovative and thus sustainable digitization solutions, such automation and IT systems must be extended by suitable analysis and evaluation tools (Big and Smart Data). Only this enables an intelligent networking of several objects with each other.
\nFor the municipal user, the question now arises with whom he can start digitization. There are many specialist providers for individual application solutions, but how will be done a well integration into a future platform solution? Whoever is faced with the procurement of new IT systems, e.g. in the GIS/PLS-SCADA/ERP/BFS areas, that is not an easy task to master. If there is a high degree of network compatibility due to a close technological relationship between the individual solutions (see example MS Office), this facilitates the start incl. a step-by-step development of a complete digitization.
\nIn the fields of municipal water management that are eligible for digitization, there are already a large number of established providers whose solutions in principle include these useful and expected functions. With regard to the basic functions, normal companies are moving forward in small steps. The differences in the functions can be recognized and evaluated more precisely after intensive use. If providers have several applications, there is concern on the user side not to obtain the supposedly best software for every task. If, however, a provider understands the current requirements of networking and has its own development of its product lines, this also has significant, clear advantages for the user compared to the sole availability of a special function. These range from interoperability up to the elimination of un-useful complex parameterizations. The importance of standardized user interfaces and dialogs, administration, data formats, menu navigation, etc., can be seen again when considering the development of the office world. For the KOMMUNAL 4.0 product lines, the overall system selection is based on the aspects of secure investment through technological sustainability as well as networking and usability. In this case, the technology is concerned with the methods, technologies and resources used in product development itself. They are essentially responsibilities for what is working today, in the future and what does not fit. At this point the user must inform himself accordingly early enough in order not to wait too long or also in vain for the necessary adaptations of his (special) provider in the future.
\nIn particular, the currently pending change through digitalization is a good way to orient himself comprehensively and to make new decisions if necessary. If the user succeeds in procuring systems from one platform and possibly from one provider, the networkability and operability of the overall solution will be simplified. The solution should also offer the possibility to integrate already existing software applications. The conversion and renewal of software and its entire technological basis also requires a lot of orientation, strength, competence and investment at the providers side. A changeover from classic client-server software to web systems, for example, also requires new thinking in development. As a result of the high challenges, only small steps or adaptations of the outer shell are often successful but no innovative progress or better results have to be achieved. Fitting usability and an intuitive using of a software can only be determined after several days of practical work. On the other hand users expect more today. They want deep horizontal and vertical networking of the systems, e.g. with asset/maintenance and SCADA systems. This has taken on a new and higher significance and it is the most discussed topic of interfaces or integration capability or networkability of the systems. Synchronization functions, uniform grammar, file formats, reliability and warranty are more and more in focus. Regarding these requirements the KOMMUNAL 4.0 world is already one step ahead and offers compatible web systems for GIS/PLS-SCADA/ERP/BFS tasks as well as integrated measurement and data technology applications and smart machines. The company HST (consortium leader of KOMMUNAL 4.0) for example has converted all its systems to platforms and web technology in recent years and comprehensively networked its systems. The widely used asset/maintenance management system KANiO and the process control system SCADA.web are today highly communicative networkable solutions with open standard interfaces as well as integration and synchronization functions also for third-party systems. Reliability and optimal operability have priority.
\nAn IT-supported ISMS (Information Security Management System) is already available (KANiO-ISMS) for secure compliance with the requirements of the IT German Security Act. It represents an important building block for the individual steps on the way to a legally compliant IT security structure and is available as a separate application and also as a component of the KANiO system. The use of the tool avoids uncoordinated individual measures that do not guarantee sufficiently secure IT operation. In addition, the tool ensures that the company’s own efforts to ensure secure IT operation can be proven to customers or legislators. Earlier measures can thus also be better aligned with the current security standard. In addition, almost all process engineering machines of HST are gradually being equipped with sensors and actuators (so-called IntelliSystems) so that SCADA and asset/maintenance management system can be directly networked and collaborated. This means that there are already solutions for integrated IT and IoT communication across all application levels, as shown in Figure 1.
\nClassical engineering-based research does not fully reflect the comprehensive developments of digitization. With digitization, something very big has happening with increasing speed. It has now also reached the water industry. An analysis of publications, studies and research carried out in the context of KOMMUNAL 4.0 in the field of industry 4.0 has shown that, in addition to technology patterns, other subject areas are important which will also have a serious impact on the water management. This applies, for example, to data sovereignty, data law and public procurement law.
\nThanks to the accompanying research of the federal technology program “Smart Service World”, in which the KOMMUNAL 4.0 project is embedded, and the associated networking with other Industry 4.0 research networks such as the federal technology program “Smart Data”, the project partners in KOMMUNAL 4.0 are able to access the current state of knowledge and expected developments not only at the field of IT security and legal issues. These coming topics, some of which have not even been discussed in the water industry until today, are already the subject of KOMMUNAL 4.0.
\nPrevious technology flows primarily arose from development ideas that were examined in individual objects or tasks. An example of this is the extended elimination of nitrogen in sewage treatment plants. When this aspect was investigated and applied broadly after being anchored in legislation, the effects were limited to the respective sewage treatment plant or the responsible organization. The other departments of a municipality, city or association were not affected. The same can be noticed for example for the so called fourth sewage treatment stage. From this point of view, research institutes and plant operators were able to investigate into such issues independently to get an isolated developed solution. Consequences of a lack of communication between research institutes were not significant due to low need of interdisciplinary interfaces. Although the existing scientific-technical exchange among experts is maintained and also inspires research initiatives, a mutual agreement on the research and development contents was not absolutely necessary for the previous form of technology development.
\nIn opposite to aforementioned situation the appearance of digitization must be judged differently. Since as a cross-sectional technology it has an almost unlimited influence on all technological and organizational environments. At the horizontal level individual objects such as rain basins, flood reservoirs, water treatment plants or sewage treatment plants have to be connected more and more with the entire infrastructure systems across city and municipal boundaries. At the organizational level (vertical level) different departments and organizations have to be linked to each other. In addition, regional and supra-regional administrative and authority units should also be integrated into these networking efforts.
\n“It also applies to water management that everything that can be digitized has to be digitized”. This comment made by Martin Weyand, BDEW Managing Director Water/Wastewater [7] confirms the cognitions of KOMMUNAL 4.0. Previous technological developments in water management have had only a limited impact on organizations and working methods, but in contrast to this, digitalization is expected to bring about massive changes in the everyday working lives of individuals as it unfolds its full potential. Already from individual elements as part of growing complex systems more far-reaching effects are to be expected. This leads to the conclusion that an examination of new digital solutions must be more comprehensive and must go beyond the previous horizon of knowledge and understanding. This is where the holistic approach of KOMMUNAL 4.0 comes in, in which all relevant individual modules and their interaction with each other were taken into account from the very beginning. This approach allows a better assessment of how to deal with digitization, even if it increases the amount of work at the beginning. As a result, it is easier to assess the major consequences of individual solutions and thus enables the foresighted engineering of networked systems. Based on this, current and future products and solutions will be manufactured.
\nThe cooperation project KOMMUNAL 4.0, which is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Energy, will devote itself in a special way to the challenges described above. Current and expected future developments in the field of Industry 4.0 were examined for applicability in municipal water management. KOMMUNAL 4.0 was selected as one of the 16 winners in a pure industrial competition from 130 applicants [8]. The intended developments for digitization lead to higher efficiency, safety and control in the operation of water management plants and systems and can serve as a model for other infrastructure sectors. The current low adaptability of municipal infrastructures to changing conditions such as heavy rainfall or demographic change can be significantly increased with the help of the IT and organizational solutions from KOMMUNAL 4.0.
\nThe project consortium (see
Standardization of data acquisition and transmission from heterogeneous CPS (cyberphysical systems).
Development of a web-based data platform for collection, structuring and conversion of different data/data formats.
Development of flexible platform architecture for optional use as intranet or internet application.
Development of application tools in the areas of design/engineering, benchmarking, object/network monitoring, data fusion, procurement, end-to-end process chain and operational optimization.
Development of required IT security concepts.
Development of digital business models such as machine sharing.
Analysis of legal aspects of cloud computing.
The developments focus on modular and step-oriented solutions. It starts with individual intelligent aggregates, so-called smart machines, and lead to the linking of several objects with each other up to a completely networked infrastructure system. Essential objects of the project are so-called pilot projects. Here, the developed application tools were installed at selected municipalities or operators in a real infrastructure environment incl. comprehensively testing.
\nIn order to maintain the previous ideas and the already established network of experts in the KOMMUNAL 4.0 funding project after the end of the project (31.12.2019), the Federal Association KOMMUNAL 4.0 (
A central importance for the water sector is the establishment of a KOMMUNAL 4.0 academy. So far, the sector is not be able to offer any application-related further training courses. The Federal Association KOMMUNAL 4.0 will offer a corresponding service which covers the topics IT security, IT systems, operational management, process control engineering as well as measurement and automation engineering. But there will also be application-related offerings, e.g. how digitization can look specifically in water supply or wastewater disposal or in special structures such as pumps, rainwater basins, sewage treatment plants, etc. In addition, there will be special seminars for mayors, heads of offices and planners so that these industry participants can set their very special requirements in relation to the challenges of digitization.
\nEmbedded systems have been around for a long time at the water management. The state of the art is that mechanical aggregates are connected to automation technology, which takes over monitoring, control and regulation functions based on various information (mostly from measurement sensors). Automation technology is also used for data acquisition and transmission to higher-level units such as SCADA systems. They form an important part of a complete networking solution (see Figure 1).
\nThe stored specifications of a smart machine follow clear assignments and rules, especially for control. Changes to the specifications are made by the operator via set points or directly at the PLC level by a programmer. Data is linked locally by cable. And how do smart machines emerge from this? Thanks to the availability of rapidly increasing web-based application options, the monitoring, control and regulation of actuators no longer needs to be carried out in isolation with locally recorded data and locally used automation technology. For example, additional information such as current precipitation data or status information from a piping system can be transferred from a central database to the local controller via a wireless Internet connection or data line. Based on corresponding algorithms, the controller permanently analyzes the functional environment (in real time) and independently adapts the control specifications (set points) to changing environmental conditions. This is illustrated by the example of a pumping station.
\nPumps are designed for an optimal but static operating point based at only one expected operating situation. However, fluctuating water volumes and losses due to unfavorable piping or other operating conditions cause pumps to run outside their selected characteristic curve. This is also due to the fact that, unaware of the actual delivery peaks, corresponding safety surcharges/reserves are provided while dimensioning the pumps. This results in higher energy consumption and less efficiency of the overall system and thus also reduces the service life of the units. Innovative pump controllers (software solutions such as so-called IntelliPump system) permanently evaluate the entire operating situation and, by using frequency control, enable operating sequences that permit several optimum operating points depending on the requirements. This permanently guarantees the intended pumping safety and thus reduces wear and energy consumption of the pump. Another advantage is the continuous monitoring of system operation. This enables faults to be detected more quickly and a better condition assessment of the machine, thus increasing overall operational safety. The formerly simple pump becomes a smart pump system.
\nIn the near future, smart machines will become standard equipment in water management, also as a result of the KOMMUNAL 4.0 project. The connection to web-based data portals, such as the precipitation portal NiRA.web, increases the adaptability and efficiency of individual machines and the system in complete. The virtual connection of the machines with the Internet allows access to all operating data from a central location. Selected operation-relevant data supports local machine control, link systems/objects with each other and ensure efficient operation throughout the entire infrastructure system. An example of this is a sewer network with various rainwater basins, pumping stations and a central connected sewage treatment plant.
\nThe interconnection of the objects, as shown in Figure 1, permits an optimal congestion, flushing and operating regime of the entire infrastructure network. A central data evaluation of all structures decides about the right time to empty storm water tank, e.g. to keep sufficient storage capacities free for a next heavy rainfall or flood event, or to make optimum use of capacities or to control the relief events from storm water tanks in the sense of optimum water protection. The more quantitative and qualitative data are available for each structure/object, the better and more efficiently each individual machine, each object and also the entire infrastructure system can be operated. Similar applications, e.g. the intelligent basin cleaning system IntelliGrid, the self-regulating occupancy control system IntelliScreen for increasing the material retention in horizontal bar screens or the EMA flow rate recording system at rainwater overflows, are increasingly being used in water management. In the course of the KOMMUNAL 4.0 project, the prerequisites are now being created for networking individual applications across buildings in order to create a genuine, smart infrastructure.
\nIf, for example, current new installations of technical equipment are due, this can be the ideal start of digitization on the basis of individual measures. At this stage, it should be examined whether it makes sense to design the new technical equipment as a so-called smart machine or as a smart system. If digitization is started with a smart local solution, it must be ensured that this solution is also future-compatible with larger networking solutions, such as the KOMMUNAL 4.0 platform. A municipality benefits from this kind of digitization very early, for example by installing a smart machine. This is a comparatively simple way of approaching the complexity of digitization.
\nSmart machines and solutions based on the Intelli principle work autonomously with the full advantages of digitization and can therefore be easily integrated into a higher-level networking system at a later point in time, even if an overall digital strategy for the municipality has not yet been defined. Figure 1 shows the systematics of networked products that are already prepared for a platform connection and cover almost the entire range of applications on a horizontal and vertical level. The same applies to upcoming new acquisitions of software solutions in the areas of asset/maintenance management systems and SCADA. The compatibility to the (smart) machine world has to be checked. The necessary knowledge can be acquired by the KOMMUNAL 4.0 experts.
\nThe example of the selection of a computer system on a relief threshold of a sewer system will illustrate how smart systems as described can be applied. Increasingly, screening systems are being used on discharge thresholds to reduce the amount of dirt discharged into water bodies during discharge events. Conventional systems automatically clean the screen bars at fixed intervals. The focus here is on ensuring the hydraulic capacity, regardless of whether the current operating condition requires this or not. Smart rakes equipped, for example, with the IntelliScreen system (see Smart Machines IoT level in Figure 1) use networked information from local machine, operating data, webcam data and precipitation data from data portals (see Measurement and Data Technology level in Figure 1) to achieve greater operational safety and water protection.
\nWhile overflow screens have been cleaned by continuous comb and/or clearing devices up to now, screens equipped with Intelli systems have the advantage of recognizing their current and prognostic screenings. In addition, speed-controlled drives enable variable combing and clearing speeds and extended power reserves. Networking and the inclusion of precipitation data enables an even more accurate prognosis of the operating process and the combing and clearing requirements. On the basis of this expanded and improved information situation, the filter effect of the screenings is now used more intensively and for longer in terms of water protection on the one hand. On the other hand, in the case of heavy rainfall and overflow requirements, the spatial performance and thus the relief safety is increased. The machine works locally by integrating digital precipitation data from a web portal. In further steps, the machines are connected to a process control system (see level Telecontrol or remote monitoring technology in Figure 1) or integrated into an asset/maintenance management system for the organization of the necessary maintenance and repair work, in which the documentation requirements of the IT Security Act are also fulfilled by using an ISMS system (see IT Security, Asset Management and Digitization, Operations Management, Law in Figure 1).
\nThe integration of the various system modules as shown in Figure 2 into a data and service platform (e.g. KOMMUNAL 4.0) optimize the technical side of digitization. All data streams flow together at this platform and can be processed for further analyses and purposes such as Big and Smart Data or for operational support with a user-specified dashboard (see Figure 3). The system in Figure 1 can also be used in the form of a process template to derive the necessary organizational measures from the technical elements.
\nIncrease pump efficiency with IntellPump software [4] (screenshot shows real pump characteristic curve and its adaptation by software to ideal curve).
Dashboard KOMMUNAL 4.0 [9] (screenshot shows example for a KOMMUNAL 4.0—cockpit = cockpit of a smart city. It shows different data monitoring systems of water facilities that includes energy consumptions, water level, traffic, dust, alarm events incl. local weather data).
Even it is often propagated that the development of a comprehensive digital strategy is needed to start digitization, it is often better to start digitalization at a concrete and manageable practical case. Also at the beginning of KOMMUNAL 4.0, the planned application ideas were very strongly described from the perspective of an abstract digitization vision. Addressed municipal users (rightly) hardly understood these ideas and could not transfer them to their own application needs. More and more the communication of the project goals and the first results were changed to take the needs of the municipalities in clear focus. With this strategy suitable digitalization ideas could be discussed and subsequently projected. The most important result to achieve an ideal start was using a current and manageable investment project as an introduction to digitalization [10]. For this purpose, the project partners carried out an analysis of a possible “Anyway” project (investment project, which has already been determined for implementation) and examined how a KOMMUNAL 4.0 solution would serve the respective project objective. In many cases, individual measures have to be filtered out from these “Anyway” projects, in which digitization could be tested to a manageable extent. If the use of the selected digitization measures were reached, the ideas were transferred to the further measures of the “Anyway” projects or would be taken into account in future projects. One example is the above-mentioned development of standardized switchgear for digitized physical precipitation recording. In this pilot project a KOMMUNAL 4.0 idea was tested at 10 physical precipitation measuring stations. If the test run would be successful, the digitization technology of KOMMUNAL 4.0 will also be used in more than 200 measuring stations. The feasibility of more than 40 application development was checked at the project KOMMUNAL 4.0. Also corresponding application concepts and business model possibilities were examined. 20 ideas could be developed up to implementation maturity, half of which were put into practice and tested. The other half of ideas will be implemented outside of the KOMMUNAL 4.0 project starting in 2020 with the exception of four cases. This corresponds to an implementation rate of 80%. This high rate was only possible because almost all pilot projects were based on “Anyway” projects of the communal partners. Three exemplary applications are presented below.
\nAn exemplary example of a KOMMUNAL 4.0 pilot project is the so called “sinkbox management”. It was developed and tested as one of the first ideas in close coordination with the municipal partner. All sinkbox data were already stored in the HST asset/maintenance system KANiO before the project starts. However, at the beginning it was not possible on the basis of the existing data to estimate which sink boxes were under the risk of flooding during a rainfall event, so an effective preventive maintenance with regard to future heavy rainfall event was not possible. This had to be changed by the joint project.
\nOn the basis of 10 assessment criteria developed in cooperation with the operating people (Figure 4), a hazard matrix was developed that could be individually created for each sink box. The matrix was integrated into the KANiO software by connecting KOMMUNAL 4.0 platform elements. By linking the KANiO software to KOMMUNAL 4.0 platform and precipitation portal NiRA.web, an automatic data comparison of precipitation forecasts for selected urban areas with the data of the hazard matrix is now carried out. If, for example, a defined rainfall event is forecast for the selected period (e.g. >15 l/mm2 in the next 24 hours), the data of the hazard matrix is compared with the precipitation forecast of NiRA.web and those sink boxes are identified which are most at risk. The system automatically generates a work order for the endangered sink boxes so that the affected sink boxes can be emptied and cleaned as a precaution.
\nInput screen sink box management (screenshot shows the input screen for one sink box with different influencing criteria like e.g. heavy rain, leaves, high hydraulic flow, street gradient, root ingrowth snow, flow from dirt roads, drainage capacity; also geodetic and type date).
The municipality of Diemelsee in the district of Waldeck-Frankenberg/Germany is currently constructing a new biological wastewater treatment plant by using the SBR process in the holiday resort of Heringhausen. With its 400 inhabitants, the town has an estimated 4000 overnight guests and 1000 day visitors in the summer months. The large number of guests leads to an extremely fluctuating amount of wastewater monthly and daily. With the help of KOMMUNAL 4.0, the idea was developed to equip the infrastructure with digital control technology to increase the flexibility and efficiency of the sewage treatment plant and the sewer network. The idea was modeled on the pilot project “Digital Sewage Plant Söllingen”, which has already been reported on in detail elsewhere [11]. The wastewater treatment plant and the associated sewer network will be equipped with KOMMUNAL 4.0 control technology elements and networked with precipitation forecasts and tourism data. An additional innovative data analysis for the optimal coupling of the wastewater treatment plant with pressure pipes, pump stations, rainwater retention basins (which are connected upstream of the wastewater treatment plant), for the absorption of hydraulic peak loads and inlet fluctuations into the new SBR plant to be built and the associated sewer network are part of the project. A core element of the project is the Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) approach, which is a kind of artificial intelligence that learns from experience from previous events and derives improvements from it.
\nTo ensure that even small measures from the “Anyway” projects are suitable as a start into digitization, a high level of learning and transmission success should be ensured. For this reason, KOMMUNAL 4.0 tested two further developments in practice in addition to the technical pilot projects. On the one hand it is about securing the knowledge of older employees and on the other hand it is about the question how planning, variant consideration, implementation and learning can be integrative and agilely interlinked in a common project execution. In view of the increase in municipal tasks and the simultaneous shortage of personnel and skilled workers, there is a lack of human resources to try out new developments as complementary projects. In the course of KOMMUNAL 4.0, the new methodology HELIP (Highly Efficient Learning in Projects/Processes) was developed in order to meet this challenge effectively. On the basis of current research results on learning and transfer research as well as from project management, measures such as the pilot projects presented are suitable for starting practical digitization at an early stage, even if many digitization topics still need to be learned [12]. The HELIP concept is based on a 360° reflection of the tasks and necessary learning content at the beginning of the planning phase. It assigns the necessary knowledge transfer of new contents to individual organizational contexts and the task of the respective municipality/department/division and integrates them into selected “Anything” projects. The appropriate practice-related task packages are also adapted to the further decisions and planning steps of the overall process. This ensures that the learning outcomes of smaller “Anyway” projects are optimally transferable to larger digitization projects. Learning takes place in everyday working life and is not separated from practice in remote seminars or training courses. The separation of planning/implementation and further training, which has been customary up to now, is thus abolished. In addition, HELIP supports the effective implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals No. 4, 6, 8, 11 and 13 of the United Nations and can be further developed as a basic principle for management and education in projects to achieve the goals No. 7, 9, 12, 14 and 15.
\nMany small and medium-sized communities are faced with the challenge of reliably planning for the future in terms of maintaining and expanding their infrastructure in view of the consequences of demographic change. It is not unusual for the largest infrastructure assets to be hidden underground. Up to 70% of this can be accounted for by the sewer system with its special structures and sewage treatment plants [13]. Sufficient and reliable data is required to achieve optimum investment planning. Decisions, based on inaccurate assumptions and estimates, must be reduced to a minimum in the future. A major role is playing a value-preserving operation of existing plants and objects, e.g. through efficient control solutions or cost-saving condition monitoring.
\nThe basis for intelligent data management and the control and operation management is meaningful data acquisition and evaluation. This requires modern IT structures that can be used both locally and as web-based solutions. KOMMUNAL 4.0 pursues this premise and takes care of a fully comprehensive data and IT structure. This starts locally at the machines (CPS), networks the objects with each other and aims at a networked analysis and management of entire infrastructures via the web-based data and service platform. This will create a basic structure that is not limited to applications in water management alone, but will also be suitable for use in other infrastructure sectors. The start into digitization can be made from an overall strategic perspective by setting up a central data and service platform, but also on the basis of software-related or machine-related individual solutions. It must be ensured that all required individual components (see Figure 1) can be networked and thus integrated into the intended overall system.
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He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). 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His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. 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