Theoretical excessive excitation pressure.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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The authors present a fairly comprehensive arrangement of this very active area of research, with its past changes and present position and outlooks. Discussions are presented regarding photocatalysis, fabrication of solar cell devices and their stability, lead-free materials, as well as thermoelectric and piezoelectric applications. In view of the present status of perovskite materials, I am assured that each chapter of the book will be of boundless encouragement for researchers, scientists, and academicians working in this field.",isbn:"978-1-78985-666-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-665-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-678-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87690",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"perovskite-and-piezoelectric-materials",numberOfPages:228,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,hash:"8fa0e0f48567bbc50fbb3bfdde6f9a0b",bookSignature:"Someshwar Pola, Neeraj Panwar and Indrani Coondoo",publishedDate:"January 27th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9881.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1728,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 11th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 9th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 8th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 27th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 25th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"177037",title:"Dr.",name:"Someshwar",middleName:null,surname:"Pola",slug:"someshwar-pola",fullName:"Someshwar Pola",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177037/images/system/177037.jpg",biography:"Dr. Someshwar Pola has been working as an Assistant Professor\nin the Department of Chemistry, University College of Science,\nOsmania University since 2018. He worked as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemistry, Nizam College, Osmania University from 2013 to 2017. He received his B.Sc. from\nKakatiya University, M.Sc from P.G Center, Mirzapur, Osmania\nUniversity, and Ph.D. in chemistry from Kakatiya University,\nWarangal, Telangana State, India. Dr. Pola worked as a visiting faculty member\nat the Institute of Chemistry, Academic Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan for two months in\n2017. He also worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow (PDF) at the Institute of Chemistry,\nAcademic Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan from August 2008 to April 2012. During this period, he focused on the synthesis and characterization of organic functional materials\ntowards single-crystal field-effect transistors. During the period of his doctoral research work (2002 to 2006), he developed various methodologies in inorganic and\nanalytical chemistry. He also has industrial experience in medicinal research and\ndevelopment (AR&D), GVK Biosciences Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad, India. Dr. Pola has\npublished over 48 research papers in reputed international and national journals\nand has one book chapter to his credit. He has also presented research papers at 35\nnational and 25 international conferences. He has delivered guest/invited lectures\nin various colleges/conferences. He is a Life Member of the Society of Materials\nChemistry (SMC), Materials Research Society of India (MRSI), Indian Science\nCongress Association (ISCA), India, and a member in the American Chemical\nSociety (ACS). He is a reviewer for Elsevier, ACS, and RSC journals. He has 8 years\nof teaching and 20 years of research experience. His research focuses on supramolecular chemistry, solar cell device fabrication studies, organic field-effect transistors, photocatalysis of organic pollutants in the presence of titanates, perovskites\nand related semiconductor and metal-organic frameworks. Under his supervision,\n6 postgraduate students have completed their dissertation work, 3 Ph.D. students\nhave been awarded and 8 scholars are currently working for their Ph.D. degree.\nHis research activities are supported by various funding agencies like NSC-Taiwan,\nUGC, DST and CSIR, New Delhi, India.",institutionString:"Osmania University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Osmania University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"289829",title:"Dr.",name:"Neeraj",middleName:null,surname:"Panwar",slug:"neeraj-panwar",fullName:"Neeraj Panwar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289829/images/system/289829.jpeg",biography:"Neeraj Panwar, Ph.D., is presently a Senior Assistant Professor in\nthe Department of Physics, Central University of Rajasthan India. He has postdoctoral research experience from the University\nof Puerto Rico, U.S.A. and the University of Aveiro, Portugal. He\nhas had several research collaborations at the international and\nnational levels. He has guided two Ph.D. theses and several master’s and undergraduate students for their dissertation work. He\nhas published more than seventy international research papers. His areas of interest\ninclude magnetism and lead-free piezoelectric and electroceramic materials. 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The unicellular green alga Chlorella is a popular nutraceutical that is produced industrially in Taiwan. Chlorella requires a moderate climate, including ample sunshine and high temperatures of about 25–38°C for optimal large-scale outdoor growth. However, in winter, the temperature can range from 4 to 15°C, which is unsuitable for algal growth. In order to maintain productivity, it would be helpful to understand how green algae overcome chilling temperatures and a mimicking high irradiance resulted from chilling temperature [1, 2, 3].
\nPhotosynthesis is the energy source for the growth and development of photosynthetic organisms. Photosynthetic efficiency is reliant on environmental conditions such as light and temperature. At low temperatures, algae experience reduced photosynthetic efficiency, whereas in high-light environments, they absorb more energy than they can consume in the photosynthetic processes [4]. The absorption of too much energy can lead to an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage the photosynthetic apparatus and further decrease photosynthetic efficiency [5]. Therefore, in response to wide daily and seasonal fluctuations in temperature and light, algae must possess some protective and regulatory systems to avoid this “energy excess” [6, 7, 8, 9].
\nUpon initial exposure to low temperature or high irradiation, excessive excitation pressure may be induced between the rate of energy absorbed via the photosynthetic antenna and energy utilization [4, 5, 10, 11, 12]. One of the protection mechanisms that algae and higher plants employ to avoid receiving too much light energy is to adjust their chlorophyll (Chl) a/b ratios and the structure of the photosystem I and II (PSI and PSII) antenna complexes in response to different combinations of light intensity and temperature [2, 13, 14, 15]. Light-harvesting complexes (LHCs) with modified Chl composition have the ability to absorb different levels of light energy depending on the environmental conditions [16, 17, 18]. Another protective mechanism of algae and plants after receiving too much light energy is to adjust the antioxidant response of the scavenging system such that any excess excitation pressure is transferred to the superoxide radical (O2·−) pathway and other derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) [19]. Superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1) is known as the first line of cellular defense against oxidative stress, and it catalyzes the dismutation of O2·− to H2O2 and O2. There are three distinct types of SOD classified on the basis of their metal cofactors: the copper/zinc (CuZnSOD), iron (FeSOD), and manganese (MnSOD) isoenzymes [20]. SOD activity increases in cells in response to diverse environmental stresses including high light and chilling temperatures [21, 22, 23].
\nThe primary objective of this present work was to explore combinations of light and temperature in algal cultures that may inform optimization of production system in manufacturing [24, 25]. The two warm-climate green algae, Chlorella sp. DT (DT) and Chlorella pyrenoidosa 211-8b (8b), were compared in their photosynthetic activity and antioxidant enzymatic responses under relatively high irradiance and various chilling temperatures [26, 27]. To determine the capacity of these algae to absorb light, their Chl contents and Chl a/b ratios were measured. Photochemical efficiency and the extent of photodamage were assessed by quantifying the chlorophyll fluorescence emission of PSII [28, 29]. The responses of SOD antioxidant enzymes to chilling and high-light acclimation were also examined because they enabled correlation with cell growth and photosynthetic activity [30].
\nChlorella sp. DT (DT) was discovered on the surface of power transmission cables near a mountain in central Taiwan, and Chlorella pyrenoidosa 211-8b (8b) was acquired from the Algal Collection Center at the University of Gottingen, Germany [26, 27]. Stock cultures were maintained at an initial concentration of 4 μg Chl mL−1 in 200 mL Chlorella medium in a 6 × 50 cm column at 32 ± 1°C in a water bath with continuous irradiance of 120 μmol photons m−2 s−1 and bubbling of 4% CO2. In this study, six different temperatures and two different irradiance levels were used, but the growth conditions were similar.
\nThe growth of algal cultures was monitored by measuring the total Chl (Chl a + Chl b) content according to the method of Hoffman and Werner [28]. An algal culture of 5 mL was centrifuged for 5 min at 2000 × g (Sigma, MK-201, Germany). After the supernatant was removed, the algal cell pellet was collected, 5 mL of 100% methanol was added, and the mixture was heated at 60°C for 3 min. After centrifugation at 2000 × g for 10 min to remove any cell debris, the Chl extract was obtained. To determine the total Chl and Chl a/b ratios, the concentrations of Chl a and Chl b were measured spectrophotometrically according to Hoffman and Werner’s equations:
\nThe cell specific growth rate (μ, day−1) was derived from the difference in cellular Chl content over time as follows:
\nwhere [Chl]t1 and [Chl]t2 are the initial and final concentrations, at time t1 and t2, respectively.
\nChlorophyll fluorescence was measured using a modulated chlorophyll fluorometer (Hansatech Instruments Ltd., Norfolk, UK). Algal samples were collected at the indicated times, adjusted to a concentration of 4 μg Chl mL−1, and dark adapted for a period of 10 min at room temperature before measurement. The fiber-optic probe of the fluorometer was then placed into the chamber with 2 mL of the algal samples. The minimum fluorescence (F0) with all open PSII reaction centers was determined by a weak non-actinic modulated light (<0.1 μmol m−2 s−1). The maximum fluorescence (Fm) with all closed PSII reaction centers was induced by a saturating pulse of white light (1 s, 13,000 μmol m−2 s−1) and measured after applying the actinic light (300 μmol m−2 s−1). The variable fluorescence (Fv) was calculated as Fm-Fo, and the ratio of the variable to maximum fluorescence (Fv/Fm) represented the maximal photochemical efficiency [29, 30].
\nAlgal cells from the log phase were collected by centrifugation. The cell pellet was washed three times and resuspended with extraction buffer (100 mM K2PO4 and 5 mM EDTA, pH 7.0). Algal cells were then broken down by sonication (V500, SONIC, USA) and centrifuged at 10,000 × g (MK-201, Sigma, Germany) for 15 min. The supernatant obtained was the algal crude extract. Protein concentrations of algal crude extracts were determined by the method of Lowry et al. [31] using BSA as the standard. The algal crude extracts were then subjected to a SOD assay.
\nThe activity of the SODs was determined by measuring the inhibited reduction of cytochrome c (cyt c) because the SOD competed with cyt c for superoxide radicals, thus inhibiting cyt c reduction [32]. The reduction of cyt c was measured by monitoring the change in absorbance at 549 nm (cyt c absorption) when xanthine oxidase was added to a reaction mixture of K2PO4 (pH 7.8), xanthine, and cyt c (oxidized) at room temperature. After a few seconds, the algal crude extract was added to the reaction mixture. SOD activity was then calculated as 50% of the inhibited reduction rate of cyt c. An extinction coefficient of ε549nm = 21 mM−1 cm−1 for cyt c was used.
\nAbout 5–20 μg of protein from algal cell crude extracts suspended in sample buffer comprising 12.5 mM Tris–HCl (pH 6.8), 0.02% (w/v) bromophenol blue, and 4% (v/v) glycerol was loaded into each well. SODs in the algal extract were separated by native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (native PAGE) (10%). After electrophoresis the gels were washed with 100 mM K2PO4 buffer (pH 7.8) for 10 min and incubated in staining buffer composed of 20 mM K2PO4 buffer (pH 7.0), 0.05 mM riboflavin, 0.1 mM nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT), and 0.2% (w/v) TEMED in the dark at room temperature for 30 min [33]. Then gels were washed twice with 100 mM K2PO4 butter (pH 7.8) and exposed to light until the development of colorless bands. The colorless bands on the purple-stained gel indicated the existence of SOD because the free radicals produced by riboflavin are removed by the SOD, and as a consequence the colorless oxidized NBT in the SOD band is not converted into its purple reduced form. The reaction was then stopped by immersing the gels in deionized water. The SOD isoenzymes were identified on the basis of their sensitivity to KCN (5 mM) or H2O2 (10 mM), which were added into the staining buffer when required. MnSODs are resistant to both inhibitors, Cu/ZnSODs are sensitive to both inhibitors, and FeSODs are resistant to KCN but sensitive to H2O2.
\nThe Chl content was monitored during acclimation because it represented not only the level of cell growth but also the capacity for light absorption [34]. Under a moderate irradiance of 120 μmol photons m−2 s−1 at 32°C (Figure 1A), the Chl content of DT algal culture increased with acclimation time. The DT culture exhibited a maximum specific growth rate of 2.2 μg Chl mL−1 day−1 and reached a stationary phase on Day 3 at a content of 92 μg Chl mL−1. At 20°C, DT growth was inhibited on Day 1, but growth resumed at a slower rate than the control on Day 2. When the temperature was lowered to 15, 10, or 7°C, DT stopped growing and even showed negative growth rates; 15°C seemed to be a critical temperature at which no net growth was observed. Under a doubled irradiance of 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1 at 32°C (Figure 1B), DT cells exhibited a maximum specific growth rate of 2.7 μg Chl mL−1 day−1 and reached the stationary phase on Day 1 at a content of 70 μg Chl mL−1. At 20°C, DT cells initially ceased growth under this doubled irradiance but resumed growth on Day 3. Transferring cultures to temperatures below 20°C promoted cell death, while the critical temperature for avoiding the negative growth rate now rose to 17°C, two degrees higher than for moderate irradiation.
\nChanges in the Chl content and photosynthetic activity of DT under irradiance of 120 or 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1 during cultivation between 32 and 7°C. the total Chl content (A, B), the Chl a/b ratio (C, D), and the Fv/Fm ratio (E, F) of DT were measured each day. The initial cultivation concentration was 4 μg Chl mL−1. Each point represents the mean ± SD (n = 4) from duplicate cultures (where not visible, error bars are smaller than the symbol).
A similar response was observed in 8b cells during acclimation at the various temperatures. The 8b exhibited maximum specific growth rates of 2.1 and 2.7 μg Chl mL−1 day−1 at 32°C on Day 1 under irradiance of 120 and 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1, respectively, and reached the stationary phase at about 98 and 69 μg Chl mL−1 on Day 3 (Figure 2A,B). However, once moved to temperatures below 20°C under 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1, the 8b culture after Day 3 produced slightly lower Chl content than DT after Day 3. For 8b, the critical temperatures below which no net cell growth occurred and cell death was observed under both 120 and 240 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance were 15°C and above 17°C, respectively.
\nChanges in the Chl content and photosynthetic activity of 8b under irradiance of 120 or 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1 during cultivation between 32 and 7°C. the total Chl content (A, B), the Chl a/b ratio (C, D), and the Fv/Fm ratio (E, F) of 8b were measured each day. The initial cultivation concentration was 4 μg Chl mL−1. Each point represents the mean ± SD (n = 4) from duplicate cultures (where not visible, error bars are smaller than the symbol).
Therefore, although a slightly higher maximum specific growth rate was observed initially at 32°C, lower temperatures induced enhanced inhibition of cell growth in both DT and 8b, and this was further inhibited under doubled irradiance.
\nIn order to understand the influence of Chl composition on excitation energy transfer, the Chl a/b ratio was analyzed. Under 120 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance, the variation in the Chl a/b ratios of DT (Figure 1C) and 8b (Figure 2C) had similar trends at various temperatures. At 32°C, during acclimation, the Chl a/b ratios of both strains decreased slightly with time but remained between 2.4 and 2.1. When the cultures were moved to lower temperatures, the Chl a/b ratios changed dramatically. At 20°C, the Chl a/b ratios of both strains decreased to 1.7 by Day-1 but climbed back to about 2.1 by Day 2. At 15°C, the Chl a/b ratios of both strains were reduced to 1.0 on Day 1 and then remained at this value until the end of the experimental period. Under the lower temperatures of 10 and 7°C, the Chl a/b ratios of both strains rapidly declined to 0.4.
\nUnder 240 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance, the Chl a/b ratios of DT (Figure 1D) and 8b (Figure 2D) acclimated to 32°C were similar to the ratios observed under 120 μmol photons m−2 s−1. At lower temperatures, the Chl a/b ratios decreased with time, while it returned to a value of 2.6 on Day-3 and was higher than the value of 2.4 recorded for 8b.
\nTo assess the photochemical efficiency of PSII, the ratio of the variable to maximum fluorescence (Fv/Fm) was measured [28, 29]. In both algal cultures, the Fv/Fm ratios of the DT and 8b controls stayed initially in the 0.83–0.85 range at 32°C with an irradiance of 120 μmol photons m−2 s−1, but decreased slightly to 0.74–0.75 by the end of the acclimation period (Figures 1E,2E). The Fv/Fm ratios of both Chlorella strains were higher than those of most green algae but close to those of healthy green leaves of higher plants [28, 35, 36, 37]. This may be due to the antenna sizes of Chlorella PSII being different from those of other algae but similar to higher plants because the measured Chl fluorescence is assumed to originate from PSII [29, 38]. Algal cells grown at 20°C exhibited almost constant Fv/Fm ratios, which were similar to those at 32°C, although the cell growth rates were slower than those at 32°C. Once the cultures were transferred to 15°C, a significant decrease in the Fv/Fm ratios was observed, first falling to 0.40 for DT and 0.42 for 8b on Day 1 but by Day 2 recovering to 0.57 and 0.60 and staying at this value throughout the rest of the cultivation period. When the cultures were transferred to lower temperatures, the Fv/Fm ratios of DT and 8b fell rapidly to 0.08 and 0.10 at 10°C and 0.04 and 0.03 at 7°C, respectively, on Day 1 and continued to decrease to nearly zero by the end of the acclimation period.
\nUnder 240 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance, at 32°C the Fv/Fm ratios of the DT and 8b strains also remained in 0.79–0.80 range (Figures 1F,2F). However, the Fv/Fm ratios changed dramatically with lower temperatures. At 20°C, the Fv/Fm ratio of DT decreased to 0.20 on Day 2 but returned to 0.70 on Day 3, while in 8b it decreased to 0.40 but returned to 0.65 on Day 3. At 10 or 7°C, the Fv/Fm ratios of both strains declined to zero on Day 1, indicating that photosynthetic activity was immediately and completely inhibited. The Day 2 Fv/Fm ratios of both 8b and DT at 17°C and 7°C (Figures 1E,F,2E, F) showed peaks that were probably due to experimental variations.
\nIn order to understand whether the initial concentration of algal cells affected light absorption during chilling acclimation, cell growth was measured at different initial concentrations of 2, 4, and 6 μg Chl mL−1 under the doubled irradiance of 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1.
\nBy Day 3 following the initial cessation of growth at 20°C (Figure 3A,B), the DT and 8b cultures that started at concentrations of 4 and 6 μg Chl mL−1 were quicker to resume growth than those at 2 μg Chl mL−1 (Figure 3A,B). The Chl a/b ratios of DT decreased to 1.2, 1.7, and 2.0 with respect to initial concentrations of 2, 4, and 6 μg Chl mL−1 by Day 1, but then they increased close to control values by Day 3 (Figure 3C). The Chl a/b ratios of 8b showed similar variations with concentration to DT, with the exception of 2 μg Chl mL−1 (Figure 3D). The Fv/Fm ratios of DT and 8b initially decreased to 0.58 and 0.60 on Day-1; however, the ratios soon recovered and by Day-3 were 0.67 for DT and 0.63 for 8b (Figure 3E,F).
\nEffect of initial cultivation concentration on photosynthesis under 20°C and 240 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance. The total Chl content (A, B), the Chl a/b ratio (C, D), and the Fv/Fm ratio (E, F) of Chlorella DT and 8b were measured in cultures with initial concentrations of 2, 4, and 6 μg Chl mL−1 at 20°C with irradiation of 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1. Each point represents the average of two measurements from duplicate cultures (where not visible, error bars are smaller than the symbol).
At 15°C, the cell growth of DT and 8b gradually declined with time regardless of the initial Chl concentrations. Nevertheless, at initial concentrations of 4 and 6 μg Chl mL−1, both strains were slower to die than cultures starting out at 2 μg Chl mL−1 (Figure 4A,B). Neither DT nor 8b at 2 μg Chl mL−1 resumed growth at 15°C, and no significant difference was recorded between the two strains. The Chl a/b ratios of DT and 8b (Figure 4C,D) rapidly decreased on Day 1 from 2.32 to 0.50, 1.03, and 1.65 with respect to the initial concentrations of 2, 4, and 6 μg Chl mL−1, and no increases were observed for the duration of the acclimation period. The Fv/Fm ratios of DT and 8b fell dramatically to near zero on Day 1 regardless of the initial concentrations, and no significant recovery was seen (Figure 4E,F).
\nEffect of initial cultivation concentration on photosynthesis under 15°C and 240 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance. The total Chl content (A, B), the Chl a/b ratio (C, D), and the Fv/Fm ratio (E, F) of Chlorella DT and 8b were measured in the cultures with initial concentrations of 2, 4, and 6 μg Chl mL−1. Each point represents the average of two measurements from duplicate cultures (where not visible, error bars are smaller than the symbol).
The results suggested that the initial concentration (2, 4, and 6 μg Chl mL−1) of algal cells did affect light absorption, but temperature was the major factor determining cell growth (Figures 3, 4). DT had a slightly greater tolerance at 20°C than 8b because its Chl a/b ratios attained levels higher than the control (Day 0), even though the Chl a/b ratios of 8b also returned to slightly above the control level. However, neither DT nor 8b could overcome the stress of low temperatures of 15°C and below combined with the doubled irradiance of 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1.
\nFor the duration of the 15°C acclimation with 120 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiation, the specific growth rate of algal cells remained zero, implying that the energy input and output seemed to reach a critical point. To understand the contribution of antioxidants in scavenging ROS produced during chilling acclimation, the SOD activities were assayed with a spectrophotometrical method. It was found that DT had an approximately twofold higher rate of SOD activity (0.46 μmol mg−1protein sec−1) than 8b (0.21 μmol mg−1 protein sec−1). Moreover, when the expression of SOD isoforms was examined after activity staining on native PAGE, three distinct colorless bands were observed in DT (Figure 5) while only two bands were observed in 8b (Figure 6). The SOD activities of both strains were generally amplified with time and decreasing temperature. At the same time, some new SODs were induced, and some were diminished.
\nNative PAGE analysis of SOD from a crude extract of DT grown at 15°C under 120 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance. In each well 5 μg of crude extract proteins was loaded. In comparison to the control (A), SOD isoforms were recognized by adding the inhibitors H2O2 (5 mM) (B) and 2 mM KCN (2 mM) (C). In total, nine SODs were induced differentially in DT with regard to six FeSODs and three MnSODs. The numbers represent the order of discovery.
Native PAGE analysis of SODs from crude extracts of 8b grown at 15°C under 120 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance. In each well 5 μg of crude extract proteins was loaded. In comparison to the control (A), SOD isoforms were recognized by adding the inhibitors H2O2 (5 mM) (B) and 2 mM KCN (2 mM) (C). Seven SODs were induced differentially in DT with regard to original four FeSODs and three MnSODs in 8b. The numbers represent the order of discovery.
As shown in Figure 5, the DT control contained two DTMnSODs and three DTFeSODs, which were verified with inhibitors of H2O2 and KCN. Once the culture was moved to 15°C, the SOD activities of the DT increased greatly on Day-1 and reached a maximum on Day 2. By Day 4, at least 10 SOD isoforms were observed in DT including two new DTMnSODs and three new DTFeSODs. However, by Day 8, SOD activities declined, and some isoforms disappeared, leaving only three DTFeSODs and two DTMnSODs present. Similarly, as shown in Figure 6, the 8b control contained two 8bMnSODs and two 8bFeSODs. The SOD activities of 8b were amplified on Day 2 and reached a maximum on Day 4, while one new 8bMnSOD and two new 8bFeSODs were induced. At the end of acclimation, the SOD activity declined, and only two 8bFeSODs and two 8bMnSODs were present. These results suggest that DT and 8b utilize different strategies for scavenging O2·−. We found that MnSOD1 and FeSOD1 were the most abundant isoforms in both Chlorella strains, accounting for about 60–70% of the estimated total SOD activity. The other 30% is made up of other isoforms. The main FeSOD in both strains was particularly responsive to temperature [39]. Although there are three distinct types of SOD isoenzymes, only FeSOD and MnSOD were found in both Chlorella stains. Our observation of no CuZnSOD in either strain agrees with Asada et al. [40].
\nFor further identification of which SOD isoforms responded to light stress and to temperature stress, the SODs were analyzed under lower temperature or doubled irradiance. In the DT culture, the original SOD isoforms of DTFeSOD1, DTFeSOD2, DTMnSOD1, and DTMnSOD2 were amplified in response to both the lower temperature of 10°C (Figure 7A) and to a doubled irradiance of 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1 (Figure 7B). DTFeSOD3 disappeared on Day 1, probably because it was sensitive to both higher light and lower temperature. A newly induced DTFeSOD4 appeared on Day 1 in response to doubled irradiance, but it was not detected until Day 1 under moderate irradiance, implying that DTFeSOD4 was probably more sensitive to light than to low temperatures. In 8b culture, in addition to the original SOD isoforms of 8bFeSOD1, 8bFeSOD2, 8bMnSOD1, and 8bMnSOD2, some new isoforms were induced. They were amplified in response to the lower temperature of 10°C (Figure 7A) and the doubled irradiance of 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1 (Figure 7B) on Day 1. However, 8bMnSOD1 declined on Day 2. In spite of new SOD isoforms being amplified and in spite of the expectation that the SODs would prevent cell death, under the two combined stresses, the algal cells were still dying.
\nNative PAGE analysis of SOD from crude extract of DT and 8b grown at 10°C under 120 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance (A) or 15°C under 240 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance (B). In (A), 15 μg of crude extract proteins was loaded in each well; in (B), 10 μg of crude extract proteins (except 1 μg proteins of DT on Day-2) was loaded. The numbers represent the order of discovery.
The specific growth rates on Day 1 from DT and 8b were plotted as a function of the cultivation temperatures (Figure 8). This showed that the specific growth rates decreased exponentially with decreasing temperatures from 32 to 10°C. Our results did not follow the previous observation of Sandnes et al. [41] where the specific growth rate of the green alga Nannochloropsis oceanica increased linearly with increasing low irradiance in the 17–26°C range. The curves fitted for the 120 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance data are dispersed from the 240 μmol photon m−2 s−1 doubled irradiance data. Obviously, doubling the irradiance did not simply double the effect of the temperature reduction on the specific growth rate.
\nPlots of measured and theoretical specific growth rates versus temperatures in DT and 8b. The solid line curves represent the measured specific growth rates at 120 (●, DT; ▲, 8b) and 240 (○, DT; Δ, 8b) μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance. The dotted line curves represent theoretical specific growth rates at 120 (+) and 240 (×) μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance.
Furthermore, the relationship of specific growth rates versus cultivation temperatures was theoretically simulated in accordance with the excessive excitation pressure. The temperature coefficient (Q10) represents the factor by which the speed of a biochemical reaction approximately doubles for every 10°C rise. Although some evidence indicated that Q10 in plants is temperature dependent [42], a Q10 of 2 was used here to theoretically estimate excessive excitation pressure. Therefore, the excessive excitation pressure due to the reduction in biochemical processes was calculated as \n
Irradiation at 120 μmol photons m−2 s−1 | \nIrradiation at 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1 | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temperature | \nTheoretical excessive excitation pressure (fold) | \nDT cell specific growth rate (μ) on Day-1 (μg Chl day−1) | \n8b cell specific growth rate (μ) on Day-1 (μg Chl day−1) | \nTemperature | \nTheoretical excessive excitation pressure (fold) | \nDT cell specific growth rate (μ) on Day-1 (μg Chl day−1) | \n8b cell specific growth rate (μ) on Day-1 (μg Chl day−1) | \n
33°C | \n1-fold | \n2.15 | \n2.07 | \n33°C | \n2-fold | \n2.66 | \n2.71 | \n
20°C | \n2.5-fold | \n0.25 | \n0.27 | \n20°C | \n4.9-fold | \n0.13 | \n0.16 | \n
15°C | \n3.9-fold | \n−0.01 | \n0.01 | \n17°C | \n6.1-fold | \n−0.14 | \n−0.36 | \n
10°C | \n4.9-fold | \n−0.13 | \n−0.04 | \n15°C | \n7.0-fold | \n−0.36 | \n−0.35 | \n
7°C | \n6.1-fold | \n−0.69 | \n−0.11 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
Theoretical excessive excitation pressure.
Excessive excitation pressure was calculated upon the assumptions of temperature factor Q10 equaling to 2 for biochemical processes and light pressure factor equaling to 2 for double irradiance.
In our experiments, under a moderate irradiance of 120 μmol photons m−2 s−1, DT and 8b showed no significant differences in growth rates and photochemical efficiency when subjected to various low temperatures. However, under a doubled irradiance of 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1, DT had a slightly higher growth rate than 8b at temperatures below 20°C. This suggests that DT might possess a more efficient energy dissipation system against the combined stress of low temperatures and high irradiation than 8b. These results are in agreement with reports that the impact from photoinhibition due to low temperature and high light varies greatly across different green algal species [41, 43, 44, 45]. Although a greater specific growth rate was obtained under 240 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance compared to 120 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance, neither DT nor 8b favored high irradiance because a smaller Chl content was found during the stationary phase, that is, less biomass was generated.
\nIn order to control light energy absorption and transfer, the LHC must modify the pigment composition of the Chl a/b ratio, and this is related to alterations in the photosynthetic apparatus under various conditions [16, 17, 18]. In the present study, decreases in both the Chl content and the Chl a/b ratio under low temperatures and high lights occurred simultaneously, suggesting a degradation of Chl molecules or the rearrangement of the LHCII complex [12]. A Chl a/b ratio of about 2.5 was obtained in both DT and 8b, which was similar to the green alga Dunaliella salina (2.3) [16], smaller than in Chlorella vulgaris (7.2) [2], and larger than in Bryopsis maxima (1.5) [38]. The lowering of Chl a/b ratios in DT and 8b is likely a mechanism to avoid absorbing too much light during acclimation [17]. The restoration of the Chl a/b ratio to 2.6 during 20°C acclimation might derive from the bleaching of Chl b, which is expected to absorb higher light excitation energy.
\nDespite the apparent decrease in the Fv/Fm ratios in our 10 and 7°C acclimation experiments, an initial increase and then a quenching of Fo was observed (data not shown). This phenomenon has been found in C. vulgaris and is suggested as being due to a rise in the xanthophyll cycle for dissipating excessive energy [43]. The reduction in both Fm and Fo implied changes in antenna size, thereby minimizing the absorbance of incident light [43]. Because Fo originates from the Chl a of the PSII-associated antenna, an increase in Fo is indicative of decreased energy transfer from LHCII to PSII. A large reduction in Fo has generally been regarded as a symptom of serious damage to the photosynthetic apparatus.
\nSince SOD is the first line of cellular defense against oxidative stress to remove O2·−, monitoring how SOD responds to photoinhibition during acclimation may provide more information about photoprotection [20]. It is known that SOD activity increases in cells in response to diverse environmental stresses including high light intensities and low temperatures and that SOD isoforms are expressed differently to protect against a subset of oxidative stresses under various environmental conditions [46, 47]. In particular, each of the SOD isoforms is independently regulated according to the degree of oxidative stress experienced in the respective subcellular compartments [48].
\nAt 15°C acclimation and 120 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiation, which was the point where the specific growth rate of the algal cells was zero, DT possessed higher SOD activities and more isoforms than 8b. To clarify further which SOD isoform responded to light or temperature, SOD activities were measured under the lower temperature conditions of 10°C and 120 μmol photon m−2 s−1 irradiance (Figure 7A) and at 15°C under the doubled irradiance of 240 μmol photon m−2 s−1 (Figure 7B). The results showed that the original SOD isoforms, which are likely sensitive to low temperature, were amplified by at 10°C and the newly induced SOD isoforms, which are likely sensitive to light, appeared under the doubled irradiance treatment.
\nOur data also suggested that the regulation of the antioxidant response to chilling was different from the response to irradiation. This raises the interesting question of why the regulation of antioxidant defenses is so highly complex and varied under a range of oxidative stresses even though they are targeting the same O2·− substrate [20, 21, 22, 23].
\nThe green algae Chlorella species DT (DT) and Chlorella pyrenoidosa 211-8b (8b) were very alike in their cell growth rate (total Chl), light energy absorption regulation (Chl a/b ratio), and photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) under optimal conditions of 120 μmol photons m−2 s−1 and as temperatures decreased from 32 to 7°C. Upon exposure of the cultures to a doubled irradiance of 240 μmol photons m−2 s−1, DT exhibited higher cell growth rates than 8b at chilling temperatures of 20°C and 15°C. It was also found that under the combined stresses of chilling temperature and relatively high irradiance, DT possessed higher SOD activity and more new SOD isoforms for removing free radicals than 8b.
\nThe authors acknowledge that this work was partly supported by grants to Lee-Feng Chien from the National Science Council (now Ministry of Science and Technology) of Taiwan (NSC89-2312-B-005-007 and NSC93-2311-B-005-017). This article is dedicated in memory of Professor Pao-Chung Chen.
\nPS | photosystem |
Chl | chlorophyll |
Fm | maximum fluorescence |
Fv | variable fluorescence |
LHC | light-harvesting complex |
SOD | superoxide dismutase |
ROS | reactive oxygen species |
Coastal zones refer to areas where land and sea meet. The coastal zone of Bangladesh is delineated in various ways. Drawing upon a five years long empirical research (2001–2006), the three basic natural system processes and events that govern opportunities and vulnerabilities of the coastal zone of Bangladesh are tidal fluctuations; salinities; and cyclone and storm surge risk [1]. Based on these criteria, the boundary of the coastal zone of Bangladesh consists of 19 districts, where around 42 million people of 158.9 total population of Bangladesh [2] live, with a density of 743 people per sq.km, in a land area of 47,201 sq.km, which is 32% of total land area (147,570 sq.km) of Bangladesh [3]. The projected population of the coastal zone in 2050 is 58 million [1]. There is around 34,775 sq.km area of agriculture land, which is 28% of the total agriculture land area (122,954 sq.km) of Bangladesh [2].
It is widely argued that water scarcity throughout the world will put mounting pressure on one of the most abundant freshwater ecosystems on earth. Like many large water basins, the Great Lakes water tension has already begun [4], and water tension in the Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh has been on escalating trend. As long as coastal water used to be managed by the local people using their wisdom, ecosystems of all forms were functioning naturally. Until the introduction of hard civil engineering designed plans (since 1961), the ecosystems of both freshwater and tidal saline water were as active as is it naturally possible in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh. These structures are popularly known as ‘Polder’ under the Coastal Embankment Project. Their purpose was to protect the wetlands from saline water intrusion towards allowing farmers to grow rice at least two seasons a year. But these poorly planned water projects inherited issues like water scarcity, crisis, tension and conflicts in the coastal region. To address the issues generated by the immediate previous projects, one after another structural engineered projects were implemented under the policy arguments of the government, which nothing but magnified the issues.
However, water has always been an emotional issue in the region for thousands of years, but the structural engineered-dominant projects have been creating confusion among the different stakeholders – farmers, fishers, environmentalists, sociologists, and many others. Now the question is, are the millions of people living in this region can be freed from these confusions? It is argued (Ibid), though water issues often vexing, the public is obligated to understand them because water is the foundation of the ecosystem that keeps humans alive. But the abundance of freshwater in the region has been converted into scarcity and uncertainties by the influences of engineering structural water projects over the decades. It is important to help the general public bring the water into focus. Attempts are needed to engage the citizen and the young scientists, academics, professionals in this most important challenge/effort to protect the globally significant waters of the respective region for the next century and beyond.
This article is written using data of the author’s fieldwork mostly focused on the southwest coastal region of Bangladeshduring the 1991’s post-cyclone period, ICZMP project during 2002–2005, post-cyclone Sidr in 2007, IWRM research project in 2007–2012, peri-urban water security research project in 2013–2015, ESPA-Delta research project in 2014–2017, women in aquaculture research project in 2014, and the author’s post-doctoral research project in 2013–2014 in the coastal zone. The author has interviewed nine key informants among academics, NGO leaders, environmental activists, government officials, and journalists. Rigorous consultations of literature were done to complement the findings from the field research.
The Coastal Water Resources System is defined as an integrated system, which performs various functions that refer to the capacity to support and control either natural systems such as storage of floods, facilitation of fish migration or assimilation of wastes; or human and economic activities, e.g., supplying water for domestic purposes, or providing navigable conditions in rivers. The coastal water resources system is naturally a productive system that produces goods and services for meeting up human needs as well as for the maintenance of ecosystems. It has got an extensive range of water bodies including water resources sub-systems, which are an interlinked system of tidal rivers and channels; riverine flood plains including wetlands; intertidal lands along the coast and estuary branches; lakes and man-made ponds; the groundwater aquifer; and the sea [1]. The Bay of Bengal is the reservoir of seawater (saline water) along the Bangladesh coast. It is a northern extended arm of the Indian Ocean. The total area of the Bay of Bengal is about 510,000 sq.km.
The main sources of fresh surface water are the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Upper Meghna. These mighty rivers drain a basin of about 16,550,000 sq.km, which provides more than 92% fresh surface water to the coastal zone of Bangladesh [1]. The Coastal Zone has a capillary network of rivers and channels, most of them under a season-dependent tidal regime with twice daily variations of water levels and salinities. Ponds are common features in the coastal zone of Bangladesh as the reservoir of freshwater. Ponds are manmade and of different size and shape and depth and are used for different purposes like fish culture, household purposes, drinking water.
Salinity is defined as the salt concentration, e.g., sodium and chloride in water, which is measured in the unit of PSU (practical salinity unit. Generally, the average salinity in the global ocean is 35.5 PSU, while freshwater like rivers or inland lakes has salinity close to 0 PSU. Observation of river salinity in the coastal zone of Bangladesh is around 10 PSU to 30+ PSU [5]. Salinity plays a significant role in the processes of the water resources system in the coastal zone. The landward intrusion of saline water determines its usefulness for drinking, household purposes, irrigation, aquaculture and other purposes. Salinity distribution in the estuary is strongly influenced by seasonal changes. During the monsoon (June through mid-October), salinity in the estuary drops and water becomes almost fresh. Salinity increases forthe rest of the time of the year with the effect of low discharges of freshwater from river Meghna, or due to further penetration of tide into the river system [1].
Salinity increases have also been caused by the effects of human interventions, e.g., upstream withdrawal of water and reducing the size of flood plains, dry season flow of the Ganges River has decreased since the Farakka barrage was built in India. Farakka Barrage is across the River Ganges located in Murshidabad district in the Indian state of
Another driving force of the increasing trend of salinity is ‘Polderisation’ in the coastal zone. After the devastating flood of 1954 and 1955, the United Nations commissioned an international mission (known as ‘Krug Mission’) to solve the flood problem of the country. Following recommendations of this mission, the government implemented the Coastal Embankment Project (CEP) during the 1960s, which included the construction of ‘Polders’ to protect coastal flood plans from saline water intrusion and tidal surge. A Polder includes [earthen] embankment, sluice gates, and canals. Polderisation follows a process of first: construction of embankment/dike around a low lying area; then the construction of sluice gates to regulate water in and out; excavation of canals to keep internal drainage system active, and to replace the water in the reclaim area with freshwater. Empoldering can be carried out in coastal and inland areas such as lakes. Polders are enclosed by dikes to keep out the sea. To prevent the polders from being waterlogged, they are managed by drainage canals and pumps. Pumps and drainage canals are used to drain the area.
However, the ‘polders’ and subsequent flood control and irrigation projects converted the wetlands to dry land to facilitate the introduction of high-yielding variety rice which requires controlled irrigation. These interventions disconnected the wetlands from the rivers and prevented sediment formation inside the wetlands which gradually caused the drainage congestion of the rivers as the sediments deposited on the river bed and the river bed became higher than the wetlands in the surrounding basins. Nature’s reaction against the intervention was already building up, siltation started getting deposited at the water entry point of the sluice gates, and rivers and canals’ bed height began to increase, which resulted in water logging for huge areas and salinity in soil and water of all sources increased up to a level that they were unusable.
Diversion of the Ganges water at Farakka has caused increased river salinity in the southwest region of Bangladesh to intrude further inland. Both the coastal polders and the Farakka barrage had contributed to the gradual siltation of the coastal rivers and are the principal factors contributing to the tidal water level extremes. The coastal agriculture, forestry, industry, and drinking water sectors have suffered enormously as a result of salinity changes in recent years [7, 8].
Saltwater shrimp farming contributes increasingly higher salinity in the coastal zone, especially the southwest region of Bangladesh, since the 1990s. During this time there was a high demand for shrimp in the export market. The outside businessmen, in collaboration with political power and partnership with local large landowners, initiated shrimp farming displacing rice cultivation. Over the 10 years, almost a hundred percent polderised flood plains/agriculture fields got transformed into saltwater shrimp farms. This practice of shrimp farming is continuing. The permanent existence of saltwater in the flood plains generated extreme salinity in soil and surface and groundwater. However, surface salinity is relatively high across the coastal zone. It is projected that salinity will increase in river channels. This increase is more pronounced in the central and western regions with implications for agriculture, shrimp farming and local well-being [5].
Until the 1960s, there was no ‘development intervention’ in water resources development in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. Coastal people enjoyed the ecosystem services of water to meet up their needs. Ponds were used as a source of drinking waterand also as the rainwater reservoir that served the villagers around with freshwater round the year. Open water fisheries were highly adequate. Almost every villager caughtenough fish from floodplains, canals, rivers for their consumption. Farmers grew one crop (Rice) a year. They created seasonal earthen dykes to protect their cropland from saline water intrusion and after harvesting, they abolished the dykes. Farmers also grew some other crops like lentil, mastered seeds, etc. in high lands that are free from tidal surge. This environment refers to a statement that the coastal zone is an attractive place to live and work, with more than 500 million people, including 40 million in Bangladesh coastal zone, living in this environment worldwide [9]. The ecosystem services in the coastal zone, until dominant development interventions, provided for and enhanced the well-being of its human populations. Of course, the benefits to society from nature are dependent on biotic and abiotic earth systems and how these systems interact with social-economic and governance structures (ibid).
The following decade of dominant development intervention in the form of polderisation in the coastal zone in the 1960s experienced social-economic and governance structures’ interactions with ecosystems services. The central purposes were served – tidal floodplains were protected from tidal surge and saline water intrusion; three crops of rice in a year in polderised flood plains. Food security was ensured. But, the next decades until the present time, the ecosystems, particularly water and land, experienced destructive interactions with social-economic and governance structures by the massive increasing expansions of saline water shrimp aquaculture in the polderised flood plains displacing rice cultivation.
Increasingly massive shrimp aquaculture influenced changes in water and land use - altering agricultural lands into shrimp farms bringing saline water into freshwater fed croplands. Since the 1980s, shrimp aquaculture was started in the ghers - ghers are shrimp farms surrounded/impounded by earthen dykes, situated by riversides [10]. Two main factors together provided a catalyst to the process of accelerated shrimp farming: strong international market demand and high prices for shrimp product; and it was no longer financially viable to cultivate rice because the polders had become waterlogged due to poor drainage [11, 12].
Changes in government policies made the shrimp business highly lucrative, shrimp took over as the biggest export earner of Bangladesh [12]. The yearly revenue of saltwater shrimp (Penaeus monodon, locally known as Badga) were high compare to agriculture. The price for 1 kg of shrimp was up to BDT800 ($10), compared to BDT 25 (32 cents) per kg of rice, with much lower labor and input costs for shrimp. Shrimp was widely considered as ‘white gold’ that would lead to economic growth and the large farmers converted their agricultural land to shrimp aquaculture farms without considering the negative impacts in long run [13, 14]. With this economic incentive, gher owners moved their operations inside the polders by taking land on lease from medium and small farmers, applying muscle power and coercion. Against the law, the gher owners bring saline water into the polder by breaching the embankment, saltwater (Bagda shrimp) shrimp aquaculture, which was the beginning of the non-reversible loss of ecosystem services other than saltwater shrimp [15].
Although shrimp farming has a significant impact on the economy of Bangladesh, it has high environmental costs, including the destruction of green vegetation, reduction in crop production, especially rice. Shrimp farming has altered the physical, ecological (aquatic and terrestrial), and socio-economic environment.
Over the decades of the 1980s and 1990s and beyond, shrimp farming has emerged as a major industry in Bangladesh, which has impacts on economic, social and environmental dimensions. The increased salinity in water has created good conditions for shrimp cultivation, a practice that is now the main reason for the increasing soil salinity in Bangladesh. The salinity of shrimp cultivating areas is approximately 500% higher than in non-shrimp cultivating areas, which is extremely contradictory to official purposes/objectives of polderisation under the Coastal Embankment project [16].
‘Water, water everywhere, but not usable for agriculture’, pointed by the farmers of Paikgacha of the southwest coastal region dramatically. This is a common situation concerning the availability of freshwater for irrigation. Saltwater aquaculture, waterlogging, storm surge, salinity in groundwater generated water crises for agriculture activities like plowing/tilling the cropland, raising paddy seedlings, etc. Farmers are to use low quality and inadequate water for irrigation, which reduced the crop yield to the extent that the farmers lost interest in cultivating crops because they cannot afford it. It is also a condition that the growth of rice plants decreases with increased salinity in irrigation water. The groundwater is highly affected by salinity and sodium and continuous use of such irrigation water, causes high sodium soils, breaks down the soil structure, and reduces soil aeration and water infiltration [16, 17, 18, 19]. Rainwater is the only source for irrigation of Aman rice for most farmers. Heavy rain is required to wash out the soil salinity at the beginning of the rainy season. But, in recent years the rainfall pattern has changed. Rainfall has become erratic and there is a decreasing pattern of rain in the early monsoon which is unfriendly to agriculture. The amount of rainfall is decreasing particularly in the pre-monsoon and monsoon periods.
In the past, farmers used canal water for irrigation, which was fresh. But, since the recent past, the canal water cannot be used for irrigation purpose anymore because of its salinity, which is the contribution of saline water shrimp farms. The condition of pond water is also the same. Besides, the ponds and the canals are occupied by the shrimp farm owners through the means of manipulations and merged with shrimp farming. This practice refers to the absence of good governance and practices of mal-governance of water resources management and denial of rights to use of water resources for many purposes of the local people.
One alternative source of freshwater is groundwater, which is not easily available in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. The freshwater table is so deep (250–350 meters, is mostly unavailable) [20]; installation costs of a deep tube well are costly, most farmers cannot afford it. Large farmers privately install deep tube well and supply irrigation water to others on payment, which is also expensive for the medium and small farmers and sharecroppers. The consequences of the excessive amount of water pumped up from the ground/aquifer with the amount recharging it increases the entry of saltwater into freshwater aquifers [16, 19, 21].
Water is Life. No one can disagree with this discourse, as long as we are respectful of ‘water wisdom’. Wisdom here refers to responsibility that uses in multiple senses: responsible use of water resources; reasonableness towards other uses of water; awareness of what our actions and interventions mean to others, particularly the poor and disadvantaged; and responsibility towards future generations, other forms of life and nature [22].
Livelihoods refer to ‘poor’ people’s living. For them, earning bread is a livelihood. Earning to meet up the basic needs (food, cloth, shelter, health care, and education) is livelihoods. The term livelihood is associated or relevant or applicable only for the ‘poor people’. It is applicable only in addressing ‘needs’. If it is beyond that, meaning fulfilling ‘wants’, then it refers to economic growth, which in other words ‘economic development’. Economic growth and development refers to meeting up ‘wants’, which are unlimited, endless, and known as man’s greed.
The Coastal zone of Bangladesh was once prosperous fisheries and agricultural hub. Freshwater was available; saline water was beneficial because it flows naturally; the forest was full of resources to serve local people: and the villages were rich in having trees of fruits, timbers; households had have cows, chicken and duck. Overall, the ecosystem services were available at a level that served local people’s livelihoods. This inspired me to recall Mahatma Gandhi, “Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed”. Water ecosystem services were available in ample quantity – fishers could catch fish from open water enough for their consumption and to sell for earning cash income; other villagers could catch fish enough for their consumption; villagers could collect vegetables of many types from the crop fields for their consumption. Due to sufficient natural siltation, there were enough crops; there were practices of shared cropping, which provided the landless and small farmers to grow rice that was enough for their annual food stock. Rich bio-diversity and natural environment supported livestock. Farmers were depended on each other for their agriculture work, which kept them tightened in collective initiatives. Thus they lived in harmony; there was little space for inequality and limited power exercise between themselves or by external forces; rich bio-diversity and open access to the natural food sources allowed the poor and disadvantaged people to avoid conflicts with landlords or big farmers [23]. The family structure was simple, joint family – everyone worked and earned for the joint family, work between men and women were segregated; the females looked after the household and in addition to that grew vegetables, fruits and took care of livestock adjacent to their household (ibid).
Today, communities face a regional depletion of natural resources including safe drinking water, and struggle to maintain livelihoods. Both natural and polderisation-induced disasters and the effects of climate change place increasing pressure on the region, hindering livelihoods. Over the past 40 years, development interventions made modifications to the natural environment by controlling the tidal water/rivers. But they failed to control storm surge which is a driving force of ecosystems destructions. On top of that, sponsoring shrimp farming displacing rice production, sponsoring aquaculture in rice fields that centralized the controlling of natural resources in hands of the rich and powerful elites; constructions of engineering infrastructures (roads, bridges that improved transportations to do marketing of industrial products to coastal zone), created huge drainage congestions of rivers, canals, channels. The introduction of tube wells and PSF (pond-sand-filter) technology for drinking water supply by displacing the thousands of years of practice of using [protected] ponds as a dependable (sustainable) source of drinking water. These modifications have caused extensive environmental damage to the point where we are today. Livelihoods are under big threats and the natural environment is extremely fragileand under increasing pressure.
Livestock makes vital contributions in the rural livelihoods in respect to both diet (milk and meat) and generation of income. Livestock faces mainly two types of vulnerabilities due to increased shrimp farming: reduced sources of fodder, and increased mortality rates because of salinity. Saltwater shrimp farming occupied state-owned lands where the people grazed their cattle and also reduced the quantity of fodder and other cattle feed. The current number of cattle had decreased significantly compared with the number of cattle before the period of shrimp farming. The poor farmers either sold their livestock or took them outside of shrimp farming areas [24].
The people’s practice of conflicting livelihoods that the contestation between saline water and freshwater in the southwest coastal zone in Bangladesh, can be traced in history in the way water has been managed and the way political-economic forces influenced water systems [25].
The unique tidal wetlands of the southwest have always maintained some level of salinity yet the soil remained fertile and rice production was high. It was not until the introduction of the embankment system and subsequent, promotion and proliferation of shrimp farming that salinity became such a serious problem. Today, the southwest faces a development-induced disaster as salinity infiltrates soil and watertablesthreatens crops andkills vegetation. Shrimpfarming perpetuates and increases salinity levels in the region, reducing options for livelihood diversification and day-laboring opportunities. People are now often forced to migrate to cities for work [26].
It was in 1987. I went to Patharghata, an offshore island, under the Borguna district located on the southwest border of the Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh for a study purpose. I was having a meeting with a youth club. There was a tube-well (suction pump) in front of the club office. I asked for water to drink. The youth leader asked one member to go to his house and bring water for me. He brought water in a jug and offered me a glass of water. I was surprised to see that they did not offer me the tube-well water. I asked them, why not tube-well water? They said it is not drinkable, because it is too salty. I went to the tube well and tested its water and I was extremely shocked by the taste of water, which was too salty. I drank water that they offered me and found a bit different taste that we do find in tap water in the cities. I asked them the source of that water. That was pond water. They told me, people of this island use pond water as drinking water for thousands of years. After the meeting, they brought me to the pond side. A big pond, full of green with coconut trees on the banks, no other trees, and water was looking so clean. This pond is used only as a source of drinking water, no other purpose. Everyone is abided by this unwritten rule, the youth told me.
My second visit to this island was in 2005 for another study purpose. I met the same person, the then youth club leader, and asked him (after we discussed water and sanitation on the island) about that pond which they used to use as a source of drinking water. He answered me, we were just standing on the bank of that pond, where I saw, at that moment, 10 to15 men were taking bath in the pond, few were washing clothes, one man was cleaning his cow on another side, the water looks unclean, and the ghat is with concrete steps and platform for villagers convenient for bathing and washing. He showed me some more concrete work, which is the structure of PSF (pond-sand-filter), constructed by a local NGO with funding and technical supports of an international NGO around three years back. Since then the pond is open to all for uses. But the PSF is not working anymore (after working for about two years). So, the pond water is no longer usable for drinking. The only source of drinking water is few Deep Tube Wells, which is far away from many and saline too.
Historically, people in the coastal zone of Bangladesh, especially the Southwest region, all along used to use pond water for drinking. The community collectively excavated the pond deep as the reservoir of rainwater, constructed earthen banks strong and high to protect the pond from saline water intrusion, planted coconut trees on the blinks for shade on the water to keep the water cool. One pond did serve neighboring two-three villages, even more. Zamindars also excavated ponds to supply drinking water for their citizens/people. But with the influences of ‘development interventions’ of public health programs on the government using ADB/WB loan, since the mid-1980s, a massive shift from surface water to groundwater sources for domestic water supply. Sadly, in around two decades, the situation turned to reverse: availability of safe drinking water reduced because of arsenic poisoning in tube well water, resulted in the dealing with saline groundwater by the people of coastal areas. The availability of safe drinking water is poor for the coastal communities, as fresh groundwater is only available at great depths, if at all [1].
Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) of Bangladesh Government, spending loan fund supports from multilateral organizations, especially the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank, IDBand funding supports of DANIDA, UNICEFimplementeda number of water supply projects include installation of Deep Tubewells, ‘Pond-Sand-Filter’ (PSF) system since the late 1990s. NGOs have been implementing their PSF projects since 2000.
Despite all these initiatives of development interventions in drinking water supply during the last more than four decades, the coastal people are not ensured with safe drinking water supply. Study [27] shows, at least two-third of coastal rural households fell into the water scarcity and the root causes are saline water intrusion, reduction of upstream flow, sea-level rise, disasters, polder, arsenic contamination, shrimp cultivation in brackish water, excessive use of underground water and lack of appropriate aquifer were highly influential for the disturbance of potable water supply. Water scientists [28] argue that uses of deep tube-wells render the aquifers to overdrawing, which is a potential cause for upcoming. The overdrawing of groundwater is also contributing to declining the capacity of freshwater in flushing out the saline water from the aquifers. This is becoming a great concern in this region [28]. It is argued that recharge to deep aquifers is extremely low in southwest coastal Bangladesh. Water at a depth between 100 and 300 m in this area is a few thousand to >10 thousand years old, suggesting that these aquifers are not receiving any current recharge [28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. It is so unfortunate, this scientific knowledge of groundwater dynamics is often ignored in the development interventions in the water supply sector in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh leading to high risks of water shortage and water crises.
Currently, the coastal rural households are dependent on tube well water, which is not saline and arsenic-free; PSF water, which is available only for monsoon months and only where PSF projects were implemented; rainwater that villagers harvest; and open pond water. One study shows, in some cases, 97% of local people collect their drinking water directly from ponds [33]. Ministry of Water Resources of Bangladesh Government has recently initiated a new project of excavation deeghi (big pond) in the southwest coastal region to ensure safe drinking water supply for the local people.
The whole experience of development interventions inthe ‘coastal water supply’ sector of Bangladesh can be denoted as capillary chaos of projects and programs initiated by the outsiders, which generated permanent water crises in the coastal zone. Water crises refer to ‘grossly inequitable distribution of the available water; the decline of traditional water management and conservation systems; the disappearance of once-numerous water bodies; the damage to ecological systems from the interventions in nature in the form water resources development projects; the infliction of hardship, inequity and injustice on poor, disadvantaged communities particularly the ethnic groups, and on women; and uncontrollable, unmanageable generation of waste of all kinds, and the consequent reduction in the availability of water’ [22].
Drinking water in the southwest region, both surface and groundwater, has become unfit for human consumption since the salinity has exceeded the recommended level of 960 μmho/cm for potable water since 1987 [7, 34]. Drinking water from natural sources in coastal Bangladesh has become contaminated by varying degrees of salinity due to saltwater intrusion from rising sea levels, cyclone and storm surges, and upstream withdrawal of freshwater [13].
In the pre-shrimp farming period, pond water could be used for drinking purposes even in the dry season, but after the introduction of shrimp cultivation, the pond water becomes too salty to use even for bathing in summer. There are deep tube wells, which are privately owned by the large and the middle farmers. The poorer households depend on these deep tube wells for drinking water. In the previous time, the scarcity of drinking water was not as much as it is at present [25]. As per the opinions of the specialists, the main causes of drinking water scarcity are salinity, arsenic, and the shortage of groundwater. The sea level of this region is rising 3–4 ml per year and it creates new salinity affected areas, which creates further scarcity of drinking water [35]. The average estimated sodium intakes from drinking water ranged from 5 to 16 g/day in the dry season, compared with 0.6–1.2 g/day in the rainy season. The average daily sodium excretion in urine was 3.4 g/day (range, 0.4–7.7 g/day). Women who drank shallow tube-well water were more likely to have urine sodium >100 mmol/day than women who drank rainwater [odds ratio (OR) = 2.05; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.11–3.80]. The annual hospital prevalence of hypertension in pregnancy was higher in the dry season (OR = 12.2%; 95% CI, 9.5–14.8) than in the rainy season (OR = 5.1%; 95% CI, 2.91–7.26). The estimated salt intake from drinking water in this population exceeded recommended limits. The problem of saline intrusion into drinking water has multiple causes and is likely to be exacerbated by climate change-induced sea-level rise [13]. This study finding suggests that the mean sodium intake in pregnant women is well above WHO/FAO–recommended levels and above those of many other countries. Hypertension in pregnancy is associated with increased rates of adverse maternal and fetal outcomes, both acute and long term, including impaired liver function, low platelet count, intrauterine growth retardation, preterm birth, and maternal and prenatal deaths. The adverse outcomes are substantially increased in women who develop superimposed (pre)eclampsia. It further suggestshypertension in pregnancy is associated with increased rates of adverse maternal and fetal outcomes, both acute and long term, including impaired liver function, low platelet count, intrauterine growth retardation, preterm birth, and maternal and prenatal deaths. The adverse outcomes are substantially increased in women who develop superimposed (pre) eclampsia [36].
Coastal people are naturally resilient to natural hazards. They are educated by nature. They are knowledgeable about the coastal context up to a higher level. Their knowledge is rooted in ‘learn by doing’. They are born to win over the challenges of exploiting the opportunities of livelihoods. Their day-to-day life-world is full of risks, threats, pressure along withthrills, joys, and happiness. Philosophy and Forms of their initiatives of exploiting natural resources – ecosystem services of all forms are embedded in fulfilling needs, not wants. They have followed this discourse for thousands of years until the ‘development interventions’ were introduced on the coast in the recent past (the 1960s). I have discussed these interventions in the previous sections.
Local people, from their full understandings of possible consequences of the proposed development projects, opposed, protested, and non-cooperated the implementations of the projects. For example, while implementing the Coastal Embankment Project (CEP) local people registered their protest against the project identifyingthe wrong design and irrelevance of the project. Violent protests were also there. But the CEP was implemented and contributed dramatic increases in rice production in the embanked/polderised area. Farmers were able to harvest two or even three bumper crops per year. But nature’s reaction against the intervention was already building up. Within 15 years of the construction of embankments, siltation started at the water entry point of the sluice gates and rivers and canals’ bed height began to increase. As a result, the polderised flood plains started getting waterlogged one after another.
The local people first contested one of the projects of the Coastal Embankment Project (CEP): one five-vent sluice gate became nonfunctioning because the link canal got silted up, in six years of its construction in 1967, resulting in waterlogged areas in 1973. People demanded a solution, but no response was there from the government side. People waited for three years but no action was taken. Then local people (in 1976), especially the farmers were organized and excavated an alternative canal (because people have no access to government built structure to do any repairing work) and connect it directly to the link river (Bhadra river), which released the waterlogging of 65,000 hectares land and 54 villages. In this case, water-logging is referred by FAO technically to a situation when the level of groundwater meets the plants’ root zone [37]. This may last for at least three months and may prolong up to 8–9 months or even become perennial. The depth of flooding varies, according to the topography of the area, and can reach up to 3 m. This study grouped the effects of water-logging into two categories: (a) immediate loss of life, property, and access to essential services such, e.g., potable water and food, humanitarian assistance, and (b) damage to infrastructure and other assets which underpin livelihoods, health, and sanitation, shelters, etc. They further assessed, at the homestead level, the direct impacts of water-logging is the loss of shelter/house, loss of animals, plants, trees, and access to safe food and water. The affected communities are deprived of basic services such as health, children’s education. Over the longer term, as water stands and stagnates, health risks go higher. This study suggests that during waterlogged periods both the poverty and nutrition situation quickly worsens, negative coping strategies, e.g., sale of assets, are adopted, that insecurity due to waterlogging may be a factor in early child marriage, and that spread of disease and social breakdown combine to aggravate underlying vulnerability.
Some other studies showed that within 10 years of implementation, the ill effects of the polder surfaced in massive areas such as many drainage canals became inoperative due to siltation, rendering vast tracts of lands waterlogged all year round [38]. The civil engineering structures impeded vast volumes of sediment-laden monsoon flood flows. The floodwaters caused consequently deposited silt and sediment in the riverbeds and channels. The effect caused a reduction in the bulk-carrying capacity of the water by the rivers and channels, leading to further flooding due to severe congestion of drainage, which progressively led to water-logging. It is classed as a man-made disaster. The cumulative impacts were increased salinity, loss of soil fertility, a decrease in income, worsening of sanitation conditions, loss of livelihoods, and problems in gaining access to residents’ homes, agricultural land, and infrastructure facilities. Many people were compelled to move onto embankments and roadsides. Educational institutions were severely damaged and remained closed; children were forced to discontinue schooling. Biodiversity and livestock were adversely affected. Safe drinking water became scarce. Waterborne diseases like diarrhea and scabies became epidemic. Moreover, unemployment forced many people to migrate to cities. Strong competition for the rapidly diminishing resource base heightened tensions and conflicts between sectors of society and created a volatile social situation.
However, collective initiatives and actions of local people to address the issues like waterlogging continued. One of the other experiences of contestations occurred in 1986. After 15 years of construction of two parallel large sluice gates on a deep river (Hari river in 1965), the river was silted up and resulted in waterlogging, which flooded 139 villages and croplands around. Local people of all strata demanded the removal of waterlogging but got no response from the govt. side. So, thousands of villagers collectively cut the embankment at an appropriate point that resulted in releasing waterlogging from this area.
Immediate and continuous consequences of the engineering structure dominant ‘flood control’ projects over water systems in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh compelled the local people contesting the interventions that work against interests of naturally grown natural systems of ecosystems of all forms, which provide local people with services to meet up their needs. But these outsiders’ designed projects, ignoring and undermining the science and wisdom of ecological systems, embrace explicit notions of befitting the outside professionals, businessmen, politicians, and civil bureaucrats both immediately and in long run. These contestations exist since the project’s interventions until now for the survival of the local people. These include organized protests, collective actions to solve the issues, and local initiatives of managing ecosystem services for local people’s livelihoods and reducing disaster risks. For example, among many collective actions, one action took place in July 1988. More than 20 thousand people were organized and made a ‘public cut’ of an embankment, released a big shrimp farm from logged saline water, and brought the land back to rice cultivation. The govt. parties engaged hired terrorists and police against the mob, one farmer and policeman were killed. Govt party sued 300 farmers. Another historical people’s movement against a system rehabilitation project, which took place in 1990. Knowing the project design/plan, the local people were convinced that this project would not help in releasing waterlogging in large wetlands, locally known as BeelDakatia. The govt. line agency Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) started the project into action on people’s protests. At one point the project river dredger got trap by siltation in the river (Solmari river). Mass agitation inoculated against the project, which was eventually withdrawn after completing only 11% of the required construction. Then in September 1990, a large number of people gathered and cut the embankment to release waterloggedBeelDakatiathrough connecting regular tide with the link river (Hamkura river in the area). Through regular tidal actions and the accumulation of alluvium, the land formation process of the Beelresumed [39].
Conflicts of disciplinary boundaries, as well as professional knowledge versus local knowledge and people’s wisdom, exist in the polderisation processes all along with the project life. Repeated failure of the ‘system rehabilitation’ approach throughout the 1980s, 1990s, and beyond invoked public protests and collective actions. In cases of implementation of Drainage Rehabilitation Projects, defying army deployment, local people took civil actions that included road blockades, burning cars of the project officials and government high officials visiting project sites; public cut of the embankment to release the stagnant floodwaters and at the same time, to allow tidal inflows to let the natural circulation of water. These contestations worked up to a certain level protecting local interests and popularized in the whole coastal zone and the knowledge world. Following lessons learned and experiences, the local people demanded that their knowledge of ‘Tidal River Management’ - to allow tidal flow in the basin to increase tidal volume, to store floodwater during flood current and to trap sediment during the long storage period of sedimentation–must be taken into account of project processes, particularly in coastal drainage improvement project design. But the government line agencies keep denying it. Rather the government line agencies and their development partners together have been undertaking projects one after another showing justifications of addressing issues generated by the previous projects. One may easily argue, next projects are taken up by the government to deal with the problems caused by the previous projects but very project generates new problems and escalate the water-related complexities to a further higher level (See the Figure 1). The processes of coastal water projects and funding are complex and not easy to understand. Many seek to profit from it and would wish it to continue [37]. But it is expected that the local people’s demand together withthe pressure of intellectual work from home and abroad, and negotiations of the civil society remain continued for the interests of protecting coastal zone ecosystems.
Structural engineered water projects over the years in the southwest coastal regions of Bangladesh.
Historically, the management of coastal water resources was in hands of local people for thousands of years. Water is life, water for life – for humans, animals, trees, fish, biomass, and so on are naturally relevant to coastal overall life-world. Coastal nature is grown naturally and water is the life of this nature. Coastal life-worldis rooted in water systems. Water is the dominant system of overall biophysical systems that embraces major opportunities and vulnerabilities of the coastal people.
Water means to coastal people is surface water – sea, river, canal, pond, beel/floodplains, and rainwater. Other than rainwater, all the systems are guided by a unique natural system which is called ‘Tidal System’. If any external intervention is designed in technical/engineering science or even social science or multidisciplinary approach, it is essential to understand this tidal water system. Otherwise, you are absolutely wrong, and if you implement any project, which is designed ignoring and undermining the deeply rooted complexities of the tidal water system, you generate water-related problems of all forms in the coastal zone permanently. And it happened to the coastal zone, particularly in the southwest region of Bangladesh.
Water was a natural resource, which required no economic investment for its management for thousands of years in the case of Bangladesh’s coastal zone until the 1960s. Heavy interventions by development projects began in the 1960s, which resulted in problems of so many kinds for the insiders that required more projects to address those problems, and implementations of new projects generated further problems, which required further projects. The coastal water has been using as a commodity of development projects business of outsiders- the politicians, businessmen, professionals, multilateral moneylenders, international and national NGOs, consultancy firms, water industries, and so on.
Coastal water is made a ‘commodity’ from ‘natural resource’ with the influences of water sector projects. ‘Water Resources Management’, which was in hands of local people for thousands of years, has been shifted to the ‘Water Development’ paradigm, which ensured the protection of outsiders’ interests at the costs of continued and sustained sufferings of the insiders. Costal water is no longer within the control of insiders, but a central control of outsiders has been already established, which will remain established unless the government draws a hard-line of “Tradeoff”.
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