A, Z, N, EBE, EBE/a, # up quarks, # down quarks, # possible bonds, and non-quantum calculated binding energy (classical CBE) for a representative sample of nuclides.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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Whizar-Lugo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6221.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",middleName:null,surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10354",leadTitle:null,title:"Current State of the Art in Cysticercosis and Neurocysticercosis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tCysticercosis, caused by the metacestode stage of Taenia solium, is a serious health and veterinary problem in many developing countries and is considered one of the most important neglected tropical diseases in developed countries. In humans, T. solium cysticerci cause neurocysticercosis, which affects ~50 million people worldwide, and it has been considered as an emergent disease in the United States. T. solium also infects pigs, its intermediate host, leading to major economic losses.
\r\n\r\n\tWhen humans ingest undercooked contaminated pork meat, the adult worm develops in the small intestine. After two months of asymptomatic infection, this tapeworm starts producing thousands of eggs, that, once released with the stools, can contaminate the environment, infecting pigs (rapidly differentiating into cysticerci mainly in the muscle) and humans (where most severe symptoms are observed due to the presence of cysticerci in the brain). Thus, maintenance of the parasite's life cycle depends on the adult tapeworm development. Even in communities which do not rear or consume pigs, human neurocysticercosis can be found, because of the presence of a tapeworm carrier. Furthermore, tapeworm development in turn depends on scolex evagination, the initial step through which a single cysticercus becomes an adult parasite with the capability of producing infective eggs. A great deal of scientific advances on the field has been producing in recent times, all on the most important fields of the disease: vaccination, epidemiology, current drug design, diagnostic and host-parasite interaction at all levels. However, to date, there is no actualized book dealing with the recent advances in such an important disease in the world.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will intend to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in cysticercosis featuring an easy-to-follow, vignette-based format that focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this critically important area.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-395-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-394-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-396-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"16dae70f4745a1873fbeb34e67007b24",bookSignature:"Prof. Jorge Morales-Montor, Dr. Abraham Landa and Dr. Luis Terrazas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10354.jpg",keywords:"Delivering Methods, DNA Vaccines, Diagnostic of Cysticercosis, Diagnostic of Taeniosis, Epidemiology of Cysticercosis, Epidemiology of Neurocysticercosis, New Drugs Available, Drug-Design, Taenia Solium, Clinical Trials, Taenia Crassiceps, Immune Response",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 19th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in Neuroinmunoendocrinology of several parasite infections, including cysticercosis. He has published over 153 papers, has edited 12 books, and written around 50 book chapters. Head of the Laboratory of Neuroimmunoendocrinology, Institute of Biomedical Research in UNAM, Mèxico.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in molecular parasitology of Taenia solium cysticerci. He was part of the team that sequenced the Taenia solium genome. He has published over 33 papers on cysticercosis. Head of the Laboratory of Molecular Parasitology in UNAM, Mèxico.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in studying the immunology of taeniasis/cysticercosis, appointed Head of the Unit of Experimental Biomedicine. Recently appointed as Director of the Office of Development and Cultural and Scientific Relationships in the School of Superior Studies Iztacala, UNAM.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.jpg",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor studied biology at the Iztacala UNAM Faculty of Higher Studies, obtaining the title in 1992. He obtained a\ndoctor’s degree in October 1997. His doctoral thesis was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser-PUIS Award to the best graduate thesis at thenational level in theareaofparasitology,a recognition that he has also later received as a tutor, since one of his doctorate students won the same award in 2008. In November 1997, he began a postdoctoral stay at theDepartment of CellularBiology at the UniversityofGeorgia, USA, in the laboratory of Dr. Raymond T. Damia´n, one of the most recognized parasitologists in the world. Dr. Morales received a grant from the Fogarty Foundation (one of the most prestigious in Ibero-America) to carry out research on schistosomiasis in the baboon, being a Pan American Fellow for 4 years. Dr. Ray Damia´n would write years later, which assured that\nwithout a doubt, Jorge Morales-Montor had been the best postdoctoral researcher with whom he collaborated in his nearly 35-year career. He was repatriated to Mexico in 2001 by CONACYT and joined the Department of Immunology of the Institute of Biomedical\nResearch of UNAM as Associate Investigator “C”. In just 9 years, he managed to climb the entire ladder of university academic positions, to receive its tenure track positionas a Definitive C Titular Researcher at the Institute of Biomedical Research. The same is reflected in the Level of Premiums for Academic Performance, where it has reached the highest level currently: Level D, for the third\nconsecutive period. Also in the National System of Researchers, he has had the same growth, starting in 1997 as a candidate, and, to date, being promoted to Level III, the highest, for the third consecutive period. Dr.Morales-Montor has been invited to participate\nin different congresses (more than 100). In addition, he is part of the editorial committee of more than 15 indexed international\njournals, nd Editor in Chief of 3. Some of his most important contributions are partially determining the role of steroid hormones in immunological sexual dimorphism, in the polarization of the immune response, and in the antigenic presentation.He has alsomade very relevant studies in relation to how different physiological stages, how the estrous cycle, age, sex, or pregnancy affect the functioning of\nthe immune, endocrinological, and nervous system, and what molecules could be the determinants in this context of net. It has been\nshown that the central nervous system is involved in the regulation of the immune response to parasitic infections, and the effect\nof this activation on various behaviors of the infectedhost. But the centralnervous system has provided interesting data about its\nimpact in the parasitology approach. For instance, a modern concept is depicted by how the central nervous system modulates\nthe gene and proteomic regulation of the different sex steroids in parasites,which are involved in important functions of parasites\nsuch as establishment, growth, and reproduction. Finally, the practical use of the knowledge acquired by the earlier mentioned\nstudies has been applied to a theory that he calls old drugs, new uses: the use of hormones and antihormones as antiparasitic\ntherapy. He has also entered the study of environmental contamination, specifically endocrine disruptors and disease, studying\ntheir role in two very important diseases in the country: cancer and obesity, projects with which he has formed two consortiums\nof investigation. Its results are a very important contribution to the health of both Mexicans and Latin Americans in general, since\nthis is where serious health problems related to parasitic infections, cancer, and obesity are concentrated.His investigations are characterized by an exhaustive and meticulous experimental work, and his scientific production already has 153 articles in international indexed journals, and the majority as the first author or corresponding author. He hasmore than 3000 citations to his works, and an h-index of 29, one of the highest in the country’s scientific community. His articles published in high-impact international\njournals include Nature, PlosOne, Journal of Immunology, Journal of Infectious Diseases, Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research,\nand among others. In fact, recently, his 2015 article, The Role of Cytokines in Breast Cancer Development and Progression, published in the Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research, was the subject of a press release released by Mary Ann Liebert Publications. This is sent all over the world, to newspapers, Journals, scientists, radio, TV, popular magazines, to what is considered as a very important contribution in a certain area of science. Very few scientific articles are released as “press release.” He is also the 4th most cited author in the area of parasitology in the country. He has also edited several books and published more than 55 chapters in books, national and foreign. In this area, recently, the chapter “The Role of Sex Steroids in the Host-Parasite Interaction,” published in the international\nbook “Sex Steroids” in 2012, reached the figure of 68,000 downloads, which means the degree of attention that has after receiving\nhis work; the foregoing makes it clear that Dr. Morales-Montor’s work is highly relevant and widespread amongthenational and international academic community, and his brilliant career has earned him more than 30 awards, such as the Miguel Aleman Valdez Award in the area of Health 2006, the Distinction National University for Young Academics in the area of Research in Natural Sciences 2006, the CANIFARMA Veterinary Prize 2007 and 2009 the Heberto Castillo Martı´nez Capital City Award for Young Latin American Academics in Basic Research, and for the third consecutive congress, in 2011, one of his works was awarded the “Dr. Jose Eleuterio Gonza´lez” Award, for the best work of and research at the XXVI National Congress of Research in Medicine, to name just a few of its achievements. He has also mentored and graduated more thn 60 students at all levels (Baccularate, Masters and Doctorate) and also been awarded many distinctions, such as joining the Mexican Academy of Sciences (2005), and being one of the few Mexican scientists to be inducted to the Latin American Academy of Sciences (2008), The National Academy of Medicine, the New York Academy of Sciences, the American Association of Immunologists are deserved recognitions for his academic quality and career. His academic leadership is reflected in the trust and respect that his peers confer on him, having been President of the Mexican Society\nof Parasitology (one of the oldest and most prestigious scientific societies in the country) and currently being President, and founding member, of the Mexican Society of Neuroimmunoendocrinology, since 2011. Due to its scientific curiosity, it is in the process of founding the Mexican Society for Translational Environmental Biomedicine. He has been invited to edit special volumes\nin various magazines with international circulation and is a member of the editorial committee of magazines of\nimportance in his area of work, such as ParasiteImmunology, The OpenParasitologyJournal, among others. He has been a jury for\nthe Arturo Rosenblueth Awards for the best CINVESTAV Doctoral Thesis, a jury for the Lola and Igo Flisser-PUIS 2010 Awards, and\na jury for the Heberto Castillo Award, for the best Latin American Researcher 2012, awarded by the Federal District Government.\nIt is noteworthy that he is an outstanding scientist, who has contributed to the scientific research of Mexico with the generation of new frontier knowledge in the world and with the training of high-level human resources.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"332210",title:"Dr.",name:"Abraham",middleName:null,surname:"Landa",slug:"abraham-landa",fullName:"Abraham Landa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:'He is a Master and Doctor of Science from UNAM, he did his post-doctorate at the Harvard University School of Public Health and his sabbatical at the Tufts University in Boston. He began his career as a teacher at the Faculty of Medicine UNAM in 1992, as an assistant in the subject of Biochemistry and Molecular biology to later be the owner of it. Is currently Full Professor "C" of T.C Definitive. It is Level “D” of the PRIDE and Level III of the National Research System. Academic-administrative positions: Representative of Postgraduate Tutors in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), Member of the Review Commission of Nonconformities of the Personnel Performance Bonus Program Academic (PRIDE, 2002-2005), Secretary of the Mexican Society of Parasitology (2010-2011), Member of the Technical Council of the Faculty of Medicine (2006-2013) and currently a Member of the Judging Commission Research and Postgraduate Program CAABQyS of the FES-Iztacala (2015-1017).\r\nAwards and distinctions won the Scholarship awarded by the McArthur Foundation (1988-1989), Second place in the IV Parasitology Prize "Lola and Igo Flisser" 1992, the "Gabino Barreda" medal for his Doctorate in Science studies, 1997 and the medal "Nayarit for Scientific and Technological Research in 2001". Contributions and Scientific Productivity His research has been directed to the study of the molecular biology of Cestodes, especially of Taenia solium. He pioneered cloning and characterization of cestode genes and participated in the Consortium that carried out the university megaproject of the Taenia solium genome and three genomes\r\nmore than cestodes that resulted in a 2013 publication in the journal Nature. He has obtained with collaborators from the Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and from UAM the first crystal and inhibitor for a protein in cestodes (Cu / Zn superoxide dismutase), developed a recombinant antibody that inhibits triose phosphate isomerase. Has characterized the 3 glutathione transferases (24, 25, 26 kDa) that form the main system of detoxification and has contributed knowledge about the regulation of transcription, the foregoing has allowed reasonable knowledge of the cestodes and the diseases they cause. As a result of your work\r\nscientist has 58 publications, 12 book chapters, plus 2 books. Teaching and Training of Human Resources: Has taught since 1991, 30 courses and topics at the Postgraduate level. He has also directed 30 undergraduate theses, 9 Master\'s, 1 Specialization and 9 Doctorate. Almost all of his students PhD students are active researchers in Mexico and abroad. Doctor Landa is an active participant in conferences, as a member of committees tutorials, professional degree examinations in all programs of Postgraduate of the UNAM.',institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"332215",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Terrazas",slug:"luis-terrazas",fullName:"Luis Terrazas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031RIzxQAG/Profile_Picture_1600754945533",biography:'He is a Master and Doctor of Science from UNAM, he did his post-doctorate at the Harvard University School of Public Health and his sabbatical at the Tufts University in Boston. He began his career as a teacher at the Faculty of Medicine UNAM in 1992, as an assistant in the subject of Biochemistry and Molecular biology to later be the owner of it. Is currently Full Professor "C" of T.C Definitive. It is Level “D” of the PRIDE and Level III of the National Research System. Academic-administrative positions: Representative of Postgraduate Tutors in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), Member of the Review Commission of Nonconformities of the Personnel Performance Bonus Program Academic (PRIDE, 2002-2005), Secretary of the Mexican Society of Parasitology (2010-2011), Member of the Technical Council of the Faculty of Medicine (2006-2013) and currently a Member of the Judging Commission Research and Postgraduate Program CAABQyS of the FES-Iztacala (2015-1017).\r\nAwards and distinctions won the Scholarship awarded by the McArthur Foundation (1988-1989), Second place in the IV Parasitology Prize "Lola and Igo Flisser" 1992, the "Gabino Barreda" medal for his Doctorate in Science studies, 1997 and the medal "Nayarit for Scientific and Technological Research in 2001". Contributions and Scientific Productivity His research has been directed to the study of the molecular biology of Cestodes, especially of Taenia solium. He pioneered cloning and characterization of cestode genes and participated in the Consortium that carried out the university megaproject of the Taenia solium genome and three genomes\r\nmore than cestodes that resulted in a 2013 publication in the journal Nature. He has obtained with collaborators from the Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and from UAM the first crystal and inhibitor for a protein in cestodes (Cu / Zn superoxide dismutase), developed a recombinant antibody that inhibits triose phosphate isomerase. Has characterized the 3 glutathione transferases (24, 25, 26 kDa) that form the main system of detoxification and has contributed knowledge about the regulation of transcription, the foregoing has allowed reasonable knowledge of the cestodes and the diseases they cause. As a result of your work\r\nscientist has 58 publications, 12 book chapters, plus 2 books. Teaching and Training of Human Resources: Has taught since 1991, 30 courses and topics at the Postgraduate level. He has also directed 30 undergraduate theses, 9 Master\'s, 1 Specialization and 9 Doctorate. Almost all of his students PhD students are active researchers in Mexico and abroad. Doctor Landa is an active participant in conferences, as a member of committees tutorials, professional degree examinations in all programs of Postgraduate of the UNAM.',institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez"}]},{id:"36185",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy Techniques in the Characterization of SOFC Functional Ceramics",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-techniques-in-the-characterization-of-sofc-functional-ceramics",signatures:"Daniel A. Macedo, Moisés R. Cesário, Graziele L. Souza, Beatriz Cela, Carlos A. Paskocimas, Antonio E. Martinelli, Dulce M. A. Melo and Rubens M. Nascimento",authors:[{id:"102015",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Macedo",fullName:"Daniel Macedo",slug:"daniel-macedo"},{id:"112309",title:"MSc",name:"Moisés",middleName:"Romolos",surname:"Cesário",fullName:"Moisés Cesário",slug:"moises-cesario"},{id:"112310",title:"Ms.",name:"Graziele",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Graziele Souza",slug:"graziele-souza"},{id:"112311",title:"MSc.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Cela",fullName:"Beatriz Cela",slug:"beatriz-cela"},{id:"112312",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Paskocimas",fullName:"Carlos Paskocimas",slug:"carlos-paskocimas"},{id:"112314",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Martinelli",fullName:"Antonio Martinelli",slug:"antonio-martinelli"},{id:"112315",title:"Prof.",name:"Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",fullName:"Dulce Melo",slug:"dulce-melo"},{id:"112316",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubens",middleName:"Maribondo Do",surname:"Nascimento",fullName:"Rubens Nascimento",slug:"rubens-nascimento"}]},{id:"36186",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy of Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-functionalized-magnetic-nanoparticles",signatures:"Perla E. García Casillas, Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez and Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",authors:[{id:"104636",title:"Dr.",name:"Perla E.",middleName:null,surname:"García Casillas",fullName:"Perla E. García Casillas",slug:"perla-e.-garcia-casillas"},{id:"112440",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos A.",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Pérez",fullName:"Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",slug:"carlos-a.-martinez-perez"},{id:"112441",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia A.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez Gonzalez",fullName:"Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez",slug:"claudia-a.-rodriguez-gonzalez"}]},{id:"36187",title:"Determination of Adsorption Characteristics of Volatile Organic Compounds Using Gas Phase FTIR Spectroscopy Flow Analysis",slug:"determination-of-adsorption-characteristics-of-volatile-organic-compounds-using-gas-phase-ftir-spect",signatures:"Tarik Chafik",authors:[{id:"107310",title:"Prof.",name:"Tarik",middleName:null,surname:"Chafik",fullName:"Tarik Chafik",slug:"tarik-chafik"}]},{id:"36188",title:"Identification of Rocket Motor Characteristics from Infrared Emission Spectra",slug:"identification-of-rocket-motor-characteristics-from-infrared-emission-spectra",signatures:"N. Hamp, J.H. Knoetze, C. Aldrich and C. Marais",authors:[{id:"112229",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Aldrich",fullName:"Chris Aldrich",slug:"chris-aldrich"},{id:"112232",title:"Prof.",name:"Hansie",middleName:null,surname:"Knoetze",fullName:"Hansie Knoetze",slug:"hansie-knoetze"},{id:"135327",title:"Ms.",name:"Corne",middleName:null,surname:"Marais",fullName:"Corne Marais",slug:"corne-marais"}]},{id:"36189",title:"Optical Technologies for Determination of Pesticide Residue",slug:"optical-technology-for-determination-of-pesticide-residue",signatures:"Yankun Peng, Yongyu Li and Jingjing Chen",authors:[{id:"113343",title:"Prof.",name:"Yankun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Yankun Peng",slug:"yankun-peng"},{id:"116636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongyu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Yongyu Li",slug:"yongyu-li"},{id:"116637",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingjing",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Jingjing Chen",slug:"jingjing-chen"}]},{id:"36190",title:"High Resolution Far Infrared Spectra of the Semiconductor Alloys Obtained Using the Synchrotron Radiation as Source",slug:"high-resolution-spectra-of-semiconductor-s-alloys-obtained-using-the-far-infrared-synchrotron-radi",signatures:"E.M. Sheregii",authors:[{id:"102655",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Sheregii",fullName:"Eugen Sheregii",slug:"eugen-sheregii"}]},{id:"36191",title:"Effective Reaction Monitoring of Intermediates by ATR-IR Spectroscopy Utilizing Fibre Optic Probes",slug:"effective-reaction-monitoring-of-intermediates-by-atr-ir-spectroscopy-utilizing-fibre-optic-probes",signatures:"Daniel Lumpi and Christian Braunshier",authors:[{id:"109019",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Braunshier",fullName:"Christian Braunshier",slug:"christian-braunshier"},{id:"111798",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Lumpi",fullName:"Daniel Lumpi",slug:"daniel-lumpi"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73971",title:"The Inter-Nucleon Up-to-Down Quark Bond and its Implications for Nuclear Binding",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94377",slug:"the-inter-nucleon-up-to-down-quark-bond-and-its-implications-for-nuclear-binding",body:'\nThe nuclear force is defined as the force which binds the protons and neutrons together within a nucleus. One of the currently accepted models of the nuclear force is the liquid drop model. [1] This model of the nuclear force uses the Weizsäcker formula to predict the binding energies of nuclides. The Weizsäcker formula is a curve-fitting formula that uses five parameters, plus one conditional logic statement, in order to achieve its results. [2] These parameters are selected to empirically curve-fit an equation to match the experimental data. The liquid drop model is considered to be a “semi-classical” model of the nuclear force, rather than a quantum model. [3].
\nAnother currently accepted model of the nuclear force is the shell model, which uses magic numbers to explain certain nuclear behavior. The nuclear shell model is similar to the electronic shell model, which describes the electrons orbiting around an atom. However, the nuclear shell model does not predict the nuclear binding energy, rather the shell model defers back to the Weizsäcker formula for binding energy calculations.
\nA third currently accepted model of the nuclear force is the residual chromo-dynamic force (RCDF) model, also known as the residual strong force model. Before describing this residual chromodynamic force, it is useful to mention a few specifics about quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Quantum chromodynamics postulates that the three valance quarks of protons and neutrons possess an attribute called “color charge.” Historically, a contradiction of the quantum mechanical basis of nucleon properties with the Pauli Exclusion Principle led to the concept of the color charge for quarks. [4] The color charges of the quarks are considered to be either red, green, or blue. The words red, green, and blue are simply the names of the color charges and do not imply any type of physically visual hue for the quarks. Also, the term “charge”, when referring specifically to the color charge, is not related to electric charge, which unfortunately can often be a point of confusion. Quantum chromodynamics states that a very strong bond is formed among the three color charges of the quarks inside the nucleon. [5] Both protons and neutrons have all three colors inside the nucleon.
\nThe residual chromodynamic force model assumes that the chromodynamic force also has a weaker residual force outside of the nucleon. The RCDF model states that this residual force forms an internucleon bond, binding the nucleons together. The internucleon bond is formed by the residual chromodynamic force of the quarks outside of the nucleons. This is shown, in an illustrative representation, in Figure 1.
\nAn illustrative representation showing both the chromodynamic force and the residual chromodynamic force.
In Figure 1, the bold black line represents the chromodynamic force inside the nucleon, and the dotted gray line represents the residual chromodynamic force between two nucleons. (Note that quarks are considered to be point-like particles. Thus this drawing is not meant to be a scaled representation of the quarks, rather it is meant for illustrative purposes only.) The residual chromodynamic bond can be between any two quarks of different colors, such as between a red and blue, a green and red, or a blue and green. The residual chromodynamic bond can be between a neutron and a neutron, a proton and a neutron, or a proton and another proton.
\nWhile the RCDF model is considered to be the mechanism for nuclear bonding, the model is unable to duplicate the experimental binding energy curve. This inability of the RCDF model to reproduce this nuclear behavior is currently attributed to the extreme difficulty of modeling the multi-body interactions of the three color charges. [6, 7] This difficulty with the derivation of the nuclear binding forces from the residual chromodynamic force model is two-fold. First, each nucleon consists of three quarks, which means that a system of two nucleons is already a six-body problem. Second, because the chromodynamic force between quarks inside the nucleons has the feature of being very strong compared to the residual chromodynamic force outside the nucleons, this disproportionate ratio of strength makes a converging solution for the complicated mathematical calculations difficult to find. For nuclides with a small number of nucleons, the problem can be solved with brute-force computing power by putting each of the quarks into a four-dimensional lattice of discrete points: three dimensions of space and one of time. This method is known as lattice quantum chromodynamics, or lattice QCD. This brute-force method for the computer calculations in lattice QCD iterates the position of each quark by assigning an x, y, z, and t position to it, calculating the resulting forces on each quark, allowing their position to change as a result of these forces, and then iterating this procedure until a resulting converging solution is found. If a converging solution is found, then these calculations are able to determine the binding energy of the nuclide in question. These computer calculations are done through extremely complex mathematical models, often using Monte-Carlo simulations. [8] Because of these computational difficulties, modeling the binding energies of only the smallest nuclides has been achieved.
\nHowever, such calculations are computationally expensive, requiring very large computers. Because of these complications, this modeling method is not normally used as a standard nuclear physics tool. [7] Thus, the RCDF model remains largely unverified when testing its binding energy predictions against experimental data.
\nBesides having the attribute of color charge, there is also another attribute of quarks called flavor. From QCD theory, we know there are six different flavors of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, top, and bottom. Of these six different flavors, only two flavors are found in the stable matter of neutrons and protons: the up and down quarks. [9] (The terms of up and down do not imply any specific orientation with regard to spatial direction, and are simply the names of these types of quarks).
\nAn up quark has an electric charge that is +2/3 the charge of a proton, and it also contains a positive magnetic moment. The up quark has a spin of ½ and a mass of about 0.3% of the proton. The color of an up quark can be either red, green, or blue. A down quark has an electric charge that is −1/3 the charge of a proton, and it contains a negative magnetic moment, which is anti-parallel to of the spin of the nuclide. The down quark has a spin of ½, and a mass of about 0.6% of the proton. The color of a down quark can be either red, green, or blue.
\nThe magnetic moments of an up quark is estimated to be +1.85 and the magnetic moments of a down quark is estimated to be −0.97, both in units of nuclear magnetons. The electric charges of the proton and neutron are completely contained within the quarks. The proton is comprised of two up quarks and one down quark, giving it a net charge of one (2/3 + 2/3 -1/3 = 1). The neutron is comprised of one up quark and two down quarks, giving it a net charge of zero (2/3 -1/3 -1/3 = 0). Figure 2 illustrates these properties.
\nAn illustrative representation of the up and down quarks in a proton and neutron.
The quarks inside of a proton and neutron have both attributes of flavor (up or down) and color (red, green, or blue). Thus, each quark inside of a proton or neutron is one of six types: up and red, up and green, up and blue, down and red, down and green, or down and blue. [5] Since both the neutron and the proton contain all three different colors, there is no difference between the proton and the neutron with regard to the attribute of color charges. The only difference in the quark characteristics between a proton or a neutron resides in the number of up and down quarks. Therefore, any bond between the different colors is also inherently a bond between some combination of the up and down quarks. Hence, the quantum assumptions that are made in the RCDF model about the possibility of an internucleon bond between the residual colors of quarks are also inherently applicable to the formation of an internucleon bond between up and down quarks.
\n\nFigure 3 shows three possible bonds, all of which are allowed in the RCDF model: a bond between two up quarks, between two down quarks, and between an up and a down quark. In the RCDF model, as long as the bond is between different colors of quarks, the up or down flavor of the quarks, is considered relatively unimportant.
\nPossible bonds in the RCDF model. A bond can be formed regardless of the flavor (up or down) of the quark.
Although it is considered relatively unimportant in the RCDF model, the up or down flavor of the quarks does indeed cause an energy difference among the three types of bonds that are illustrated in Figure 3. If there is an internucleon bond between two up quarks or between two down quarks, then the intrinsic electro-magnetic force between these quarks is repulsive. Conversely, if there is an internucleon bond between an up quark and a down quark, then the intrinsic electromagnetic force between these quarks is attractive. Among the three types of bonds shown in Figure 3, this inherent difference in the electromagnetic energy may cause the two repulsive bonds to be less probable or less stable, producing a situation in which the up-to-down quark bond would be more prevalent in stable matter.
\nAs mentioned previously, the color charges of the quarks contained within a nucleon do not inherently distinguish between a neutron or proton; it is only the up and down attribute of the quarks that distinguish between the two types of stable nucleons. Thus, an examination of an internucleon bond being formed only between an up and a down quark is an appropriate possibility to explore. Specifically, this additional constraint is that not only must the internucleon quark-to-quark bond be between different colors, but also it must be between only an up and a down quark; specifically, it cannot be between two up quarks or two down quarks. If this quite reasonable constraint is made to the RCDF model, a quick calculation of the allowed bonds can be easily made. By using the currently accepted RCDF concept of the internucleon quark-to-quark bond, and applying this additional constraint, in which bonds are only formed between up and down quarks, an interesting and potentially significant set of data emerges.
\nFor any given nuclide, the number of internucleon up-to-down quark pairs can be determined, based on how many up and down quarks each nuclide has. This calculation, as shown in Eq. (1), is made for each nuclide.
\nFor simplicity of this very quick and easy calculation, it is assumed that every bonded pair of up-to-down quarks has the same bonding energy. Thus, just for this simple calculation, the equation for the calculated binding energy (CBE) of a non-quantum nuclide is the number of internucleon up-to-down quark pairs times the binding energy per pair, as shown in Eq. (2).
\nFor a representative sample of stable nuclides, this information is also shown in Table 1. For values of mass number with two stable nuclides, such as A = 40, both stable nuclides are shown. The following information is listed:
The nuclide name
The number of nucleons, A
The number of protons, Z
The number of neutrons, N
The experimental binding energy (EBE) in units of MeV, as obtained from the nuclear tables in Ref. [10].
The experimental binding energy per nucleon (EBE/A)
The number of up quarks in the nuclide
The number of down quarks in the nuclide
The number or possible pairs between up and down quarks for the nuclide
The classical (non-quantum) calculated binding energy (CBE) in MeV of the nuclide, for a fixed energy (6.000 MeV) per bond.
Nuclide | \nA | \nZ | \nN | \nEBE in MeV | \nEBE/A | \n# Of up quarks | \n# Of down quarks | \n# Of updown bonds, classical | \nClassical CBE/A | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
H2 | \n2 | \n1 | \n1 | \n2.225 | \n1.11 | \n3 | \n3 | \n3 | \n9 | \n
He3 | \n3 | \n2 | \n1 | \n7.718 | \n2.57 | \n5 | \n4 | \n4 | \n8 | \n
He4 | \n4 | \n2 | \n2 | \n28.296 | \n7.07 | \n6 | \n6 | \n6 | \n9 | \n
He5 | \n5 | \n2 | \n3 | \n26.626 | \n5.33 | \n7 | \n8 | \n7 | \n8.4 | \n
Li6 | \n6 | \n3 | \n3 | \n31.995 | \n5.33 | \n9 | \n9 | \n9 | \n9 | \n
Li7 | \n7 | \n3 | \n4 | \n39.245 | \n5.61 | \n10 | \n11 | \n10 | \n8.571 | \n
Be8 | \n8 | \n4 | \n4 | \n56.5 | \n7.06 | \n12 | \n12 | \n12 | \n9 | \n
Be9 | \n9 | \n4 | \n5 | \n58.165 | \n6.46 | \n13 | \n14 | \n13 | \n8.667 | \n
B10 | \n10 | \n5 | \n5 | \n64.751 | \n6.48 | \n15 | \n15 | \n15 | \n9 | \n
B11 | \n11 | \n5 | \n6 | \n76.205 | \n6.93 | \n16 | \n17 | \n16 | \n8.727 | \n
C12 | \n12 | \n6 | \n6 | \n92.162 | \n7.68 | \n18 | \n18 | \n18 | \n9 | \n
C13 | \n13 | \n6 | \n7 | \n97.108 | \n7.47 | \n19 | \n20 | \n19 | \n8.769 | \n
N14 | \n14 | \n7 | \n7 | \n104.659 | \n7.48 | \n21 | \n21 | \n21 | \n9 | \n
N15 | \n15 | \n7 | \n8 | \n115.492 | \n7.7 | \n22 | \n23 | \n22 | \n8.8 | \n
O16 | \n16 | \n8 | \n8 | \n127.619 | \n7.98 | \n24 | \n24 | \n24 | \n9 | \n
O17 | \n17 | \n8 | \n9 | \n131.762 | \n7.75 | \n25 | \n26 | \n25 | \n8.824 | \n
O18 | \n18 | \n8 | \n10 | \n139.808 | \n7.77 | \n26 | \n28 | \n26 | \n8.667 | \n
F19 | \n19 | \n9 | \n10 | \n147.801 | \n7.78 | \n28 | \n29 | \n28 | \n8.842 | \n
Ne20 | \n20 | \n10 | \n10 | \n160.65 | \n8.03 | \n30 | \n30 | \n30 | \n9 | \n
Ne21 | \n21 | \n10 | \n11 | \n167.406 | \n7.97 | \n31 | \n32 | \n31 | \n8.857 | \n
Ne22 | \n22 | \n10 | \n12 | \n177.77 | \n8.08 | \n32 | \n34 | \n32 | \n8.727 | \n
Na23 | \n23 | \n11 | \n12 | \n186.564 | \n8.11 | \n34 | \n35 | \n34 | \n8.87 | \n
Mg24 | \n24 | \n12 | \n12 | \n198.257 | \n8.26 | \n36 | \n36 | \n36 | \n9 | \n
Mg25 | \n25 | \n12 | \n13 | \n205.587 | \n8.22 | \n37 | \n38 | \n37 | \n8.88 | \n
Mg26 | \n26 | \n12 | \n14 | \n216.681 | \n8.33 | \n38 | \n40 | \n38 | \n8.769 | \n
Al27 | \n27 | \n13 | \n14 | \n224.952 | \n8.33 | \n40 | \n41 | \n40 | \n8.889 | \n
Si28 | \n28 | \n14 | \n14 | \n236.537 | \n8.45 | \n42 | \n42 | \n42 | \n9 | \n
Si29 | \n29 | \n14 | \n15 | \n245.01 | \n8.45 | \n43 | \n44 | \n43 | \n8.897 | \n
Si30 | \n30 | \n14 | \n16 | \n255.62 | \n8.52 | \n44 | \n46 | \n44 | \n8.8 | \n
P31 | \n31 | \n15 | \n16 | \n262.917 | \n8.48 | \n46 | \n47 | \n46 | \n8.903 | \n
S32 | \n32 | \n16 | \n16 | \n271.78 | \n8.49 | \n48 | \n48 | \n48 | \n9 | \n
S33 | \n33 | \n16 | \n17 | \n280.422 | \n8.5 | \n49 | \n50 | \n49 | \n8.909 | \n
S34 | \n34 | \n16 | \n18 | \n291.839 | \n8.58 | \n50 | \n52 | \n50 | \n8.824 | \n
Cl35 | \n35 | \n17 | \n18 | \n298.21 | \n8.52 | \n52 | \n53 | \n52 | \n8.914 | \n
S36 | \n36 | \n16 | \n20 | \n308.71 | \n8.58 | \n52 | \n56 | \n52 | \n8.667 | \n
Ar36 | \n36 | \n18 | \n18 | \n306.716 | \n8.52 | \n54 | \n54 | \n54 | \n9 | \n
Cl37 | \n37 | \n17 | \n20 | \n318.784 | \n8.62 | \n54 | \n57 | \n54 | \n8.757 | \n
Ar38 | \n38 | \n18 | \n20 | \n327.343 | \n8.61 | \n56 | \n58 | \n56 | \n8.842 | \n
K39 | \n39 | \n19 | \n20 | \n333.724 | \n8.56 | \n58 | \n59 | \n58 | \n8.923 | \n
Ar40 | \n40 | \n18 | \n22 | \n343.81 | \n8.6 | \n58 | \n62 | \n58 | \n8.7 | \n
Ca40 | \n40 | \n20 | \n20 | \n342.053 | \n8.55 | \n60 | \n60 | \n60 | \n9 | \n
K41 | \n41 | \n19 | \n22 | \n351.619 | \n8.58 | \n60 | \n63 | \n60 | \n8.78 | \n
Ca42 | \n42 | \n20 | \n22 | \n361.895 | \n8.62 | \n62 | \n64 | \n62 | \n8.857 | \n
Ca43 | \n43 | \n20 | \n23 | \n369.828 | \n8.6 | \n63 | \n66 | \n63 | \n8.791 | \n
Ca44 | \n44 | \n20 | \n24 | \n380.96 | \n8.66 | \n64 | \n68 | \n64 | \n8.727 | \n
Sc45 | \n45 | \n21 | \n24 | \n387.849 | \n8.62 | \n66 | \n69 | \n66 | \n8.8 | \n
Ca46 | \n46 | \n20 | \n26 | \n398.772 | \n8.67 | \n66 | \n72 | \n66 | \n8.609 | \n
Ti46 | \n46 | \n22 | \n24 | \n398.194 | \n8.66 | \n68 | \n70 | \n68 | \n8.87 | \n
Ti47 | \n47 | \n22 | \n25 | \n407.072 | \n8.66 | \n69 | \n72 | \n69 | \n8.809 | \n
Ca48 | \n48 | \n20 | \n28 | \n415.992 | \n8.67 | \n68 | \n76 | \n68 | \n8.5 | \n
Ti48 | \n48 | \n22 | \n26 | \n418.699 | \n8.72 | \n70 | \n74 | \n70 | \n8.75 | \n
Ti49 | \n49 | \n22 | \n27 | \n426.841 | \n8.71 | \n71 | \n76 | \n71 | \n8.694 | \n
Ti50 | \n50 | \n22 | \n28 | \n437.78 | \n8.76 | \n72 | \n78 | \n72 | \n8.64 | \n
Cr50 | \n50 | \n24 | \n26 | \n435.047 | \n8.7 | \n74 | \n76 | \n74 | \n8.88 | \n
V51 | \n51 | \n23 | \n28 | \n445.842 | \n8.74 | \n74 | \n79 | \n74 | \n8.706 | \n
Cr52 | \n52 | \n24 | \n28 | \n456.345 | \n8.78 | \n76 | \n80 | \n76 | \n8.769 | \n
Cr53 | \n53 | \n24 | \n29 | \n464.287 | \n8.76 | \n77 | \n82 | \n77 | \n8.717 | \n
Cr54 | \n54 | \n24 | \n30 | \n474.009 | \n8.78 | \n78 | \n84 | \n78 | \n8.667 | \n
Fe54 | \n54 | \n26 | \n28 | \n471.765 | \n8.74 | \n80 | \n82 | \n80 | \n8.889 | \n
Mn55 | \n55 | \n25 | \n30 | \n482.075 | \n8.77 | \n80 | \n85 | \n80 | \n8.727 | \n
Fe56 | \n56 | \n26 | \n30 | \n492.257 | \n8.79 | \n82 | \n86 | \n82 | \n8.786 | \n
Fe57 | \n57 | \n26 | \n31 | \n499.905 | \n8.77 | \n83 | \n88 | \n83 | \n8.737 | \n
Fe58 | \n58 | \n26 | \n32 | \n509.945 | \n8.79 | \n84 | \n90 | \n84 | \n8.69 | \n
Ni58 | \n58 | \n28 | \n30 | \n506.456 | \n8.73 | \n86 | \n88 | \n86 | \n8.897 | \n
Co59 | \n59 | \n27 | \n32 | \n517.314 | \n8.77 | \n86 | \n91 | \n86 | \n8.746 | \n
Ni60 | \n60 | \n28 | \n32 | \n526.842 | \n8.78 | \n88 | \n92 | \n88 | \n8.8 | \n
Zn70 | \n70 | \n30 | \n40 | \n611.08 | \n8.73 | \n100 | \n110 | \n100 | \n8.571 | \n
Ge70 | \n70 | \n32 | \n38 | \n610.519 | \n8.72 | \n102 | \n108 | \n102 | \n8.743 | \n
Se80 | \n80 | \n34 | \n46 | \n696.867 | \n8.71 | \n114 | \n126 | \n114 | \n8.55 | \n
Kr80 | \n80 | \n36 | \n44 | \n695.438 | \n8.69 | \n116 | \n124 | \n116 | \n8.7 | \n
Zr90 | \n90 | \n40 | \n50 | \n783.895 | \n8.71 | \n130 | \n140 | \n130 | \n8.667 | \n
Ru100 | \n100 | \n44 | \n56 | \n861.929 | \n8.62 | \n144 | \n156 | \n144 | \n8.64 | \n
Cd113 | \n113 | \n48 | \n65 | \n963.557 | \n8.53 | \n161 | \n178 | \n161 | \n8.549 | \n
In113 | \n113 | \n49 | \n64 | \n963.091 | \n8.52 | \n162 | \n177 | \n162 | \n8.602 | \n
Sn117 | \n117 | \n50 | \n67 | \n995.623 | \n8.51 | \n167 | \n184 | \n167 | \n8.564 | \n
Xe129 | \n129 | \n54 | \n75 | \n1087.648 | \n8.43 | \n183 | \n204 | \n183 | \n8.512 | \n
Ce142 | \n142 | \n58 | \n84 | \n1185.28 | \n8.35 | \n200 | \n226 | \n200 | \n8.451 | \n
Nd142 | \n142 | \n60 | \n82 | \n1185.148 | \n8.35 | \n202 | \n224 | \n202 | \n8.535 | \n
Sm150 | \n150 | \n62 | \n88 | \n1239.253 | \n8.26 | \n212 | \n238 | \n212 | \n8.48 | \n
Gd150 | \n150 | \n64 | \n86 | \n1236.39 | \n8.24 | \n214 | \n236 | \n214 | \n8.56 | \n
Dy162 | \n162 | \n66 | \n96 | \n1323.884 | \n8.17 | \n228 | \n258 | \n228 | \n8.444 | \n
Yb172 | \n172 | \n70 | \n102 | \n1392.764 | \n8.1 | \n242 | \n274 | \n242 | \n8.442 | \n
W183 | \n183 | \n74 | \n109 | \n1465.526 | \n8.01 | \n257 | \n292 | \n257 | \n8.426 | \n
Pt194 | \n194 | \n78 | \n116 | \n1539.578 | \n7.94 | \n272 | \n310 | \n272 | \n8.412 | \n
Au197 | \n197 | \n79 | \n118 | \n1559.397 | \n7.92 | \n276 | \n315 | \n276 | \n8.406 | \n
Hg200 | \n200 | \n80 | \n120 | \n1581.207 | \n7.91 | \n280 | \n320 | \n280 | \n8.4 | \n
Hg204 | \n204 | \n80 | \n124 | \n1608.65 | \n7.89 | \n284 | \n328 | \n284 | \n8.353 | \n
Pb204 | \n204 | \n82 | \n122 | \n1605.343 | \n7.87 | \n286 | \n326 | \n286 | \n8.412 | \n
A, Z, N, EBE, EBE/a, # up quarks, # down quarks, # possible bonds, and non-quantum calculated binding energy (classical CBE) for a representative sample of nuclides.
\nFigure 4 is a plot for this same a representative sample of nuclides, showing both the experimental binding energy per nucleon (EBE/A) and the non-quantum calculated binding energy per nucleon (CBE/A) for an object with a fixed energy (6.000 MeV) per bond. For this quick calculation, neither the type of bond nor the structure of these bonds comes into consideration. Simply stated, this is a theory-independent calculation of the number of possible bonded pairs times a fixed binding energy per bonded pair.
\nIn blue, a plot of the experimental binding energy (EBE) per nucleon. In orange, a plot of the calculated binding energy (CBE) per nucleon, based on the number of possible non-quantum up-to-down quark pairs and a fixed binding energy per bonded pair.
A nucleus is a quantum object, and being so, certain quantum rules must apply. A known phenomenological feature of the nuclear force is the QCD hard-core repulsion. The hard-core repulsion states that nucleons, such as a proton or neutron, cannot overlap in their spatial location. [11, 12] If too many bonds are formed for either 2H or 3H or 3He, overlap will occur. This overlap is illustrated in Figure 5.
\nAn illustration of the overlapping nucleons if too many bonds are attempted. For the nuclide 2H, if two or three bonds are attempted, indicated by the red bonds, an overlap occurs. Similarly, 3He can form only three bonds. If four or five are attempted, an overlap occurs in three dimensions.
To prevent this overlap, hydrogen 2H can have only one bond instead of two or three. Similarly, helium 3He (as well as hydrogen 3H) can have only three bonds instead of four or five. Three other nuclides are subject to this constraint, those with odd-odd configurations: 6Li, 10B, and 14N. Specifically, the odd neutron and the odd proton cannot bond twice to either each other or to another nucleon. Other stable nuclides are not affected by the application of this rule, since there are enough nucleons to prevent an overlap from occurring for the larger nuclides.
\nQuantum mechanics also states there can be no net electric dipole moment for the nuclide. [13, 14] For this second quantum rule, three more bonds must be subtracted from the number of bonds available, in order to remove the electric dipole moment. Without stating any specific configuration for the nuclide, this reduction of bonds can be best understood from the fact that the electric charge distribution of the nuclide must not have a net asymmetry in electrical charge for any of the three spatial dimensions, x, y, or z. To prevent an electric dipole moment, a bond is broken in each of these three dimensions, so that the net charge is symmetric about the x, y, and z axes. This quantum requirement removes three of the classically-allowed bonds. This rule applies to all stable nuclides, except for the three very smallest stable nuclides, 2H, 3He, and 4He.
\nThe inclusion of these two quantum rules is shown in Table 2. The first 8 columns of Table 2 are similar to the first 8 columns of Table 1. Also shown in Table 2 is the number of possible quantum bonds for each nuclide, taking into consideration the two above mentioned quantum rules. The last three columns of Table 2 show the quantum calculated binding energy, the CBE/A, and the percent error of that calculated energy, as compared with the experimental binding energy.
\nNuclide | \nA | \nZ | \nN | \nEBE in MeV | \nEBE/A | \n# Of up quarks | \n# Of down quarks | \n# Of updown bonds, classical | \n# Of updown bonds, quantum | \nCalculated binding energy (CBE) in MeV | \nCBE/A | \n%Error | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
H2 | \n2 | \n1 | \n1 | \n2.225 | \n1.11 | \n3 | \n3 | \n3 | \n1 | \n6 | \n3 | \n−169.66 | \n
He3 | \n3 | \n2 | \n1 | \n7.718 | \n2.57 | \n5 | \n4 | \n4 | \n3 | \n18 | \n6 | \n−133.22 | \n
He4 | \n4 | \n2 | \n2 | \n28.296 | \n7.07 | \n6 | \n6 | \n6 | \n6 | \n36 | \n9 | \n−27.23 | \n
He5 | \n5 | \n2 | \n3 | \n26.626 | \n5.33 | \n7 | \n8 | \n7 | \n4 | \n24 | \n4.8 | \n9.86 | \n
Li6 | \n6 | \n3 | \n3 | \n31.995 | \n5.33 | \n9 | \n9 | \n9 | \n5 | \n30 | \n5 | \n6.24 | \n
Li7 | \n7 | \n3 | \n4 | \n39.245 | \n5.61 | \n10 | \n11 | \n10 | \n7 | \n42 | \n6 | \n−7.02 | \n
Be8 | \n8 | \n4 | \n4 | \n56.5 | \n7.06 | \n12 | \n12 | \n12 | \n9 | \n54 | \n6.75 | \n4.42 | \n
Be9 | \n9 | \n4 | \n5 | \n58.165 | \n6.46 | \n13 | \n14 | \n13 | \n10 | \n60 | \n6.667 | \n−3.15 | \n
B10 | \n10 | \n5 | \n5 | \n64.751 | \n6.48 | \n15 | \n15 | \n15 | \n11 | \n66 | \n6.6 | \n−1.93 | \n
B11 | \n11 | \n5 | \n6 | \n76.205 | \n6.93 | \n16 | \n17 | \n16 | \n13 | \n78 | \n7.091 | \n−2.36 | \n
C12 | \n12 | \n6 | \n6 | \n92.162 | \n7.68 | \n18 | \n18 | \n18 | \n15 | \n90 | \n7.5 | \n2.35 | \n
C13 | \n13 | \n6 | \n7 | \n97.108 | \n7.47 | \n19 | \n20 | \n19 | \n16 | \n96 | \n7.385 | \n1.14 | \n
N14 | \n14 | \n7 | \n7 | \n104.659 | \n7.48 | \n21 | \n21 | \n21 | \n17 | \n102 | \n7.286 | \n2.54 | \n
N15 | \n15 | \n7 | \n8 | \n115.492 | \n7.7 | \n22 | \n23 | \n22 | \n19 | \n114 | \n7.6 | \n1.29 | \n
O16 | \n16 | \n8 | \n8 | \n127.619 | \n7.98 | \n24 | \n24 | \n24 | \n21 | \n126 | \n7.875 | \n1.27 | \n
O17 | \n17 | \n8 | \n9 | \n131.762 | \n7.75 | \n25 | \n26 | \n25 | \n22 | \n132 | \n7.765 | \n−0.18 | \n
O18 | \n18 | \n8 | \n10 | \n139.808 | \n7.77 | \n26 | \n28 | \n26 | \n23 | \n138 | \n7.667 | \n1.29 | \n
F19 | \n19 | \n9 | \n10 | \n147.801 | \n7.78 | \n28 | \n29 | \n28 | \n25 | \n150 | \n7.895 | \n−1.49 | \n
Ne20 | \n20 | \n10 | \n10 | \n160.65 | \n8.03 | \n30 | \n30 | \n30 | \n27 | \n162 | \n8.1 | \n−0.84 | \n
Ne21 | \n21 | \n10 | \n11 | \n167.406 | \n7.97 | \n31 | \n32 | \n31 | \n28 | \n168 | \n8 | \n−0.35 | \n
Ne22 | \n22 | \n10 | \n12 | \n177.77 | \n8.08 | \n32 | \n34 | \n32 | \n29 | \n174 | \n7.909 | \n2.12 | \n
Na23 | \n23 | \n11 | \n12 | \n186.564 | \n8.11 | \n34 | \n35 | \n34 | \n31 | \n186 | \n8.087 | \n0.3 | \n
Mg24 | \n24 | \n12 | \n12 | \n198.257 | \n8.26 | \n36 | \n36 | \n36 | \n33 | \n198 | \n8.25 | \n0.13 | \n
Mg25 | \n25 | \n12 | \n13 | \n205.587 | \n8.22 | \n37 | \n38 | \n37 | \n34 | \n204 | \n8.16 | \n0.77 | \n
Mg26 | \n26 | \n12 | \n14 | \n216.681 | \n8.33 | \n38 | \n40 | \n38 | \n35 | \n210 | \n8.077 | \n3.08 | \n
Al27 | \n27 | \n13 | \n14 | \n224.952 | \n8.33 | \n40 | \n41 | \n40 | \n37 | \n222 | \n8.222 | \n1.31 | \n
Si28 | \n28 | \n14 | \n14 | \n236.537 | \n8.45 | \n42 | \n42 | \n42 | \n39 | \n234 | \n8.357 | \n1.07 | \n
Si29 | \n29 | \n14 | \n15 | \n245.01 | \n8.45 | \n43 | \n44 | \n43 | \n40 | \n240 | \n8.276 | \n2.04 | \n
Si30 | \n30 | \n14 | \n16 | \n255.62 | \n8.52 | \n44 | \n46 | \n44 | \n41 | \n246 | \n8.2 | \n3.76 | \n
P31 | \n31 | \n15 | \n16 | \n262.917 | \n8.48 | \n46 | \n47 | \n46 | \n43 | \n258 | \n8.323 | \n1.87 | \n
S32 | \n32 | \n16 | \n16 | \n271.78 | \n8.49 | \n48 | \n48 | \n48 | \n45 | \n270 | \n8.438 | \n0.65 | \n
S33 | \n33 | \n16 | \n17 | \n280.422 | \n8.5 | \n49 | \n50 | \n49 | \n46 | \n276 | \n8.364 | \n1.58 | \n
S34 | \n34 | \n16 | \n18 | \n291.839 | \n8.58 | \n50 | \n52 | \n50 | \n47 | \n282 | \n8.294 | \n3.37 | \n
Cl35 | \n35 | \n17 | \n18 | \n298.21 | \n8.52 | \n52 | \n53 | \n52 | \n49 | \n294 | \n8.4 | \n1.41 | \n
S36 | \n36 | \n16 | \n20 | \n308.71 | \n8.58 | \n52 | \n56 | \n52 | \n49 | \n294 | \n8.167 | \n4.76 | \n
Ar36 | \n36 | \n18 | \n18 | \n306.716 | \n8.52 | \n54 | \n54 | \n54 | \n51 | \n306 | \n8.5 | \n0.23 | \n
Cl37 | \n37 | \n17 | \n20 | \n318.784 | \n8.62 | \n54 | \n57 | \n54 | \n51 | \n306 | \n8.27 | \n4.01 | \n
Ar38 | \n38 | \n18 | \n20 | \n327.343 | \n8.61 | \n56 | \n58 | \n56 | \n53 | \n318 | \n8.368 | \n2.85 | \n
K39 | \n39 | \n19 | \n20 | \n333.724 | \n8.56 | \n58 | \n59 | \n58 | \n55 | \n330 | \n8.462 | \n1.12 | \n
Ar40 | \n40 | \n18 | \n22 | \n343.81 | \n8.6 | \n58 | \n62 | \n58 | \n55 | \n330 | \n8.25 | \n4.02 | \n
Ca40 | \n40 | \n20 | \n20 | \n342.053 | \n8.55 | \n60 | \n60 | \n60 | \n57 | \n342 | \n8.55 | \n0.02 | \n
K41 | \n41 | \n19 | \n22 | \n351.619 | \n8.58 | \n60 | \n63 | \n60 | \n57 | \n342 | \n8.341 | \n2.74 | \n
Ca42 | \n42 | \n20 | \n22 | \n361.895 | \n8.62 | \n62 | \n64 | \n62 | \n59 | \n354 | \n8.429 | \n2.18 | \n
Ca43 | \n43 | \n20 | \n23 | \n369.828 | \n8.6 | \n63 | \n66 | \n63 | \n60 | \n360 | \n8.372 | \n2.66 | \n
Ca44 | \n44 | \n20 | \n24 | \n380.96 | \n8.66 | \n64 | \n68 | \n64 | \n61 | \n366 | \n8.318 | \n3.93 | \n
Sc45 | \n45 | \n21 | \n24 | \n387.849 | \n8.62 | \n66 | \n69 | \n66 | \n63 | \n378 | \n8.4 | \n2.54 | \n
Ca46 | \n46 | \n20 | \n26 | \n398.772 | \n8.67 | \n66 | \n72 | \n66 | \n63 | \n378 | \n8.217 | \n5.21 | \n
Ti46 | \n46 | \n22 | \n24 | \n398.194 | \n8.66 | \n68 | \n70 | \n68 | \n65 | \n390 | \n8.478 | \n2.06 | \n
Ti47 | \n47 | \n22 | \n25 | \n407.072 | \n8.66 | \n69 | \n72 | \n69 | \n66 | \n396 | \n8.426 | \n2.72 | \n
Ca48 | \n48 | \n20 | \n28 | \n415.992 | \n8.67 | \n68 | \n76 | \n68 | \n65 | \n390 | \n8.125 | \n6.25 | \n
Ti48 | \n48 | \n22 | \n26 | \n418.699 | \n8.72 | \n70 | \n74 | \n70 | \n67 | \n402 | \n8.375 | \n3.99 | \n
Ti49 | \n49 | \n22 | \n27 | \n426.841 | \n8.71 | \n71 | \n76 | \n71 | \n68 | \n408 | \n8.327 | \n4.41 | \n
Ti50 | \n50 | \n22 | \n28 | \n437.78 | \n8.76 | \n72 | \n78 | \n72 | \n69 | \n414 | \n8.28 | \n5.43 | \n
Cr50 | \n50 | \n24 | \n26 | \n435.047 | \n8.7 | \n74 | \n76 | \n74 | \n71 | \n426 | \n8.52 | \n2.08 | \n
V51 | \n51 | \n23 | \n28 | \n445.842 | \n8.74 | \n74 | \n79 | \n74 | \n71 | \n426 | \n8.353 | \n4.45 | \n
Cr52 | \n52 | \n24 | \n28 | \n456.345 | \n8.78 | \n76 | \n80 | \n76 | \n73 | \n438 | \n8.423 | \n4.02 | \n
Cr53 | \n53 | \n24 | \n29 | \n464.287 | \n8.76 | \n77 | \n82 | \n77 | \n74 | \n444 | \n8.377 | \n4.37 | \n
Cr54 | \n54 | \n24 | \n30 | \n474.009 | \n8.78 | \n78 | \n84 | \n78 | \n75 | \n450 | \n8.333 | \n5.07 | \n
Fe54 | \n54 | \n26 | \n28 | \n471.765 | \n8.74 | \n80 | \n82 | \n80 | \n77 | \n462 | \n8.556 | \n2.07 | \n
Mn55 | \n55 | \n25 | \n30 | \n482.075 | \n8.77 | \n80 | \n85 | \n80 | \n77 | \n462 | \n8.4 | \n4.16 | \n
Fe56 | \n56 | \n26 | \n30 | \n492.257 | \n8.79 | \n82 | \n86 | \n82 | \n79 | \n474 | \n8.464 | \n3.71 | \n
Fe57 | \n57 | \n26 | \n31 | \n499.905 | \n8.77 | \n83 | \n88 | \n83 | \n80 | \n480 | \n8.421 | \n3.98 | \n
Fe58 | \n58 | \n26 | \n32 | \n509.945 | \n8.79 | \n84 | \n90 | \n84 | \n81 | \n486 | \n8.379 | \n4.7 | \n
Ni58 | \n58 | \n28 | \n30 | \n506.456 | \n8.73 | \n86 | \n88 | \n86 | \n83 | \n498 | \n8.586 | \n1.67 | \n
Co59 | \n59 | \n27 | \n32 | \n517.314 | \n8.77 | \n86 | \n91 | \n86 | \n83 | \n498 | \n8.441 | \n3.73 | \n
Ni60 | \n60 | \n28 | \n32 | \n526.842 | \n8.78 | \n88 | \n92 | \n88 | \n85 | \n510 | \n8.5 | \n3.2 | \n
Zn70 | \n70 | \n30 | \n40 | \n611.08 | \n8.73 | \n100 | \n110 | \n100 | \n97 | \n582 | \n8.314 | \n4.76 | \n
Ge70 | \n70 | \n32 | \n38 | \n610.519 | \n8.72 | \n102 | \n108 | \n102 | \n99 | \n594 | \n8.486 | \n2.71 | \n
Se80 | \n80 | \n34 | \n46 | \n696.867 | \n8.71 | \n114 | \n126 | \n114 | \n111 | \n666 | \n8.325 | \n4.43 | \n
Kr80 | \n80 | \n36 | \n44 | \n695.438 | \n8.69 | \n116 | \n124 | \n116 | \n113 | \n678 | \n8.475 | \n2.51 | \n
Zr90 | \n90 | \n40 | \n50 | \n783.895 | \n8.71 | \n130 | \n140 | \n130 | \n127 | \n762 | \n8.467 | \n2.79 | \n
Ru100 | \n100 | \n44 | \n56 | \n861.929 | \n8.62 | \n144 | \n156 | \n144 | \n141 | \n846 | \n8.46 | \n1.85 | \n
Cd113 | \n113 | \n48 | \n65 | \n963.557 | \n8.53 | \n161 | \n178 | \n161 | \n158 | \n948 | \n8.389 | \n1.61 | \n
In113 | \n113 | \n49 | \n64 | \n963.091 | \n8.52 | \n162 | \n177 | \n162 | \n159 | \n954 | \n8.442 | \n0.94 | \n
Sn117 | \n117 | \n50 | \n67 | \n995.623 | \n8.51 | \n167 | \n184 | \n167 | \n164 | \n984 | \n8.41 | \n1.17 | \n
Xe129 | \n129 | \n54 | \n75 | \n1087.648 | \n8.43 | \n183 | \n204 | \n183 | \n180 | \n1080 | \n8.372 | \n0.7 | \n
Ce142 | \n142 | \n58 | \n84 | \n1185.28 | \n8.35 | \n200 | \n226 | \n200 | \n197 | \n1182 | \n8.324 | \n0.28 | \n
Nd142 | \n142 | \n60 | \n82 | \n1185.148 | \n8.35 | \n202 | \n224 | \n202 | \n199 | \n1194 | \n8.408 | \n−0.75 | \n
Sm150 | \n150 | \n62 | \n88 | \n1239.253 | \n8.26 | \n212 | \n238 | \n212 | \n209 | \n1254 | \n8.36 | \n−1.19 | \n
Gd150 | \n150 | \n64 | \n86 | \n1236.39 | \n8.24 | \n214 | \n236 | \n214 | \n211 | \n1266 | \n8.44 | \n−2.39 | \n
Dy162 | \n162 | \n66 | \n96 | \n1323.884 | \n8.17 | \n228 | \n258 | \n228 | \n225 | \n1350 | \n8.333 | \n−1.97 | \n
Yb172 | \n172 | \n70 | \n102 | \n1392.764 | \n8.1 | \n242 | \n274 | \n242 | \n239 | \n1434 | \n8.337 | \n−2.96 | \n
W183 | \n183 | \n74 | \n109 | \n1465.526 | \n8.01 | \n257 | \n292 | \n257 | \n254 | \n1524 | \n8.328 | \n−3.99 | \n
Pt194 | \n194 | \n78 | \n116 | \n1539.578 | \n7.94 | \n272 | \n310 | \n272 | \n269 | \n1614 | \n8.32 | \n−4.83 | \n
Au197 | \n197 | \n79 | \n118 | \n1559.397 | \n7.92 | \n276 | \n315 | \n276 | \n273 | \n1638 | \n8.315 | \n−5.04 | \n
Hg200 | \n200 | \n80 | \n120 | \n1581.207 | \n7.91 | \n280 | \n320 | \n280 | \n277 | \n1662 | \n8.31 | \n−5.11 | \n
Hg204 | \n204 | \n80 | \n124 | \n1608.65 | \n7.89 | \n284 | \n328 | \n284 | \n281 | \n1686 | \n8.265 | \n−4.81 | \n
Pb204 | \n204 | \n82 | \n122 | \n1605.343 | \n7.87 | \n286 | \n326 | \n286 | \n283 | \n1698 | \n8.324 | \n−5.77 | \n
A representative sample of nuclides, showing quantum-allowed bonded up-to-down quark pairs for each nuclide.
As before for this simple calculation, the calculated binding energy is the number of bonds times a fixed energy per bond. The energy per bond is the only selected parameter; for this simple calculation, it is 6.000 MeV per bond. These plots take into consideration the quantum rules of hard-core repulsion and zero electric dipole moment. These data are plotted in Figures 6 and 7. In Figure 6, a representative sample of all of the stable nuclides is shown, out to lead 204Pb. In Figure 7, only the first 60 nuclides are plotted, to show the detail. As before, when there is more than one stable nuclide for a given mass number, these additional points are plotted as well.
\nA plot of the experimental nuclear binding energy per nucleon (blue) and the simple quantum calculated binding energy (orange).
A plot of the experimental nuclear binding energy per nucleon (blue) and the simple quantum calculated binding energy (orange) for only the first 60 nuclides.
To reiterate, this is a very quick and easy calculation, only involving a simple numerical count of quantum-allowed internucleon up-to-down quark pairs. This calculation does not specify the arrangement of the nucleons or the mechanism of the bond. It is simply a count of the quantum-allowed up-to-down quark bonds. Other than being quantum, this calculation is theory independent, and as such, it is not subject to theoretical criticisms or theoretical differences of opinion.
\nThe excellent reproduction of the experimental data for these calculated results is impressive, especially considering that there is only one empirically-selected variable for this calculation, the value of 6.000 MeV for the bond energy, instead of the five empirically-selected variables for the Weizsäcker formula. This reproduction of the experimental data is especially impressive considering that other currently accepted nuclear theories cannot easily duplicate this curve.
\nIn terms of the possible mechanism for the bond, the residual chromodynamic force between the color charges for internucleon quark-to-quark bonding is one possibility. Another possibility for this bond becomes apparent when it is recalled that the up quark has an electric charge +2/3 the charge of a proton, the down quark has an electric charge of −1/3 the charge of a proton, and both quarks carry a magnetic moment. These electromagnetic properties of the up and down quarks create a strong attractive electromagnetic force between the up and the down quarks; the strength of this electromagnetic force is dependent only on the minimum proximity between the up and down quarks engaged in the bond. Historically, it was believed that the strength of the electromagnetic force had an upper limit, based on the misconceptions that protons were homogeneously charged and that quarks did not exist. However, these misconceived notions are invalid when quarks, which contain all of the electric charge for the nucleons, are taken into consideration.
\nThe internuclear quark-to-quark bond is most likely some combination of both the electromagnetic charge and the color charge of the quarks, but the relative percentages of these two contributions is not postulated here. Regardless of the relative percentages, the electromagnetic component of this bond should not be ignored--as is usually the case in current theories. When any internucleon quark-to-quark bond is considered, the electromagnetic component must be taken into full account, rather than being considered relatively unimportant. A more detailed analysis of the electromagnetic contribution of this internucleon up-to-down quark bonding can easily be made by using the standard electromagnetic Eqs. A detailed analysis would include the addition of the energy due to all electric charges interacting with each other. In other words, this would be a double summation of the interaction for each electric charge of each quark with every other electric charge on all other quarks. [15] This double summation calculation would inherently include the Coulomb energy of the net repulsive electric energies among the protons.
\nSimilarly, a more detailed electromagnetic analysis would also include the variation of the electromagnetic bond due to the vector orientation of the magnetic moments of the quarks. The energy of the magnetic moments interacting with each other should be included, which again would be a double summation for the magnetic interaction for all of the magnetic moment vectors. [16] Finally, the kinetic energy of the quantum spin of the nuclide should also be included in this more detailed binding energy calculation. [17, 18] However, for this more detailed and accurate calculation to be done, the lowest energy configuration of the nuclide must be determined and specified before the electromagnetic interaction energies can be accurately calculated.
\nAn extremely simple calculation of the internucleon up-to-down quark bonding has been made, giving excellent results in duplicating the nuclear binding energy curve, using only one parameter rather than five. The resulting errors for nuclides going up to lead 204Pb are only few percent. The average error, going from A = 10 to A = 60, is only 2.32% with a standard deviation for that error of only 1.91%. Also, due to the inherent similarities of this concept to the currently accepted residual chromodynamic force model, with its quark-to-quark internucleon bonding, the existence of an internucleon up-to-down quark bond cannot be relegated as implausible.
\nAn obvious implication of these results is that a significant part of the nuclear force is electromagnetic. To some, this may be an unexpected implication, but not unfeasible, especially when the electromagnetic attraction of the up-to-down quarks is considered. If one only considers, as is the case historically, that homogenously charged protons cannot bond to other homogeneously charged protons, then the concept that the nuclear force could be partially electromagnetic is deemed implausible. However, with the understanding that the electrical charges of the up and down quarks are able to attract each other and bond to each other, and given that the RCDF allows a quark-to-quark internucleon bond to occur, such restrictions about the nuclear force being partly electromagnetic are no longer relevant.
\nThe excellent reproduction of experimental binding energy data with only one empirically-selected variable strongly suggests that the internucleon up-to-down quark bonding is a concept that should be seriously considered and more thoroughly examined by nuclear physicists.
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