\r\n\tThis book aims to cover following topics: i) the effects of long-term environmental change past events on turtle diversification and their evolutionary responses to climate change, ii) responses (developmental, physiological and behavioural) of extant species to environmental stressors, iii) impacts of changing environmental conditions on life history traits (growth patterns, sexual maturation, reproduction, longevity), iv) thermal environment change, biogeographic distribution and ecological niche modeling, v) environmental variation, population and community dynamics, and population level-response modeling, and vi) impacts of future global environmental change (climate change, alongside habitat destruction and fragmentation and overexploitation,) on population future trend and viability and their implications for informing adaptive conservation management strategies.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec7c5f39f89066d7d788873d669bf740",bookSignature:"Prof. Mohammed Znari and Dr. Mohamed Naimi",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8155.jpg",keywords:"Climate-mediated species diversification, turtle fossil record, evolutionary adaptation, Environmental stressors, growth, sexual maturation and reproduction, fluctuating asymmetry, homeostatic adaptations, ecological niche modelling , population and community dynamic, conservation strategies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 29th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 6th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 6th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"223073",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Znari",slug:"mohammed-znari",fullName:"Mohammed Znari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223073/images/system/223073.jpg",biography:"Mohammed Znari, has PhDs in Ecology (from Pierre & Marie Curie University, Paris, France, 1988 and Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco, 1999). He is a full Professor of ecology and conservation biology at the Faculty of Science – Semlalia, Marrakech. His research interests are morphometrics, systematics and molecular phylogeography, physiological ecology, ecology and life history along with conservation ecology in various taxa including turtles, steppe-land birds and mammals. He has been involved in several international projects and obtained several international fellowships and research-conservation grants. He is also the curator of vertebrate zoology at the Natural History Museum of Marrakech. He was a member of the International Committee of the World Congress of Herpetology and he is currently a vice-President of the Moroccan Herpetological Society. 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He is a member of the Polyvalent Laboratory for Research and Development (LPVRD) at SMSU and associate member of the Biodiversity and Ecosystems Dynamics Laboratory and the Natural History Museum of Marrakech –UCA-. His research interests are trophic ecology, developmental and reproductive biology, morphometry and physiological ecology (on various taxa, including aquatic animals, herpetofauna and terrestrial mammals). He has participated in several international projects and received different scholarships. He has produced several papers in peer-reviewed journals and communications in international scientific meetings. 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1. Introduction
Circumcision has been around for centuries. It is done as a routine for all new-born infant males in Muslim countries, reaching almost 100% (if no contraindications), in hospitals in Saudi Arabia. Circumcision continues to be done for a variety of religious, cultural, and medical reasons. The overall prevalence of circumcision in the United States is estimated to be about 80% for males, with most of these procedures performed in newborns [1].
A recent meta-analysis included 140 journal articles that came to the same conclusion; early infant male circumcision has immediate and lifelong benefits. It was shown to protect against urinary tract infections, phimosis, inflammatory skin conditions, candidiasis, various sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in both sexes, genital ulcers, and penile, prostate and cervical cancer [2]. Adverse events of circumcisions are rare. The low risk in comparison to the benefit demonstrates that benefits of male circumcision surpass its risk.
Adverse events of circumcision have been difficult to measure accurately. The largest studies on measuring complication rate are mostly retrospective, and their data have generally not taken into account standardizing the variables. The timing of the procedure, the technique, the person performing the procedure, the setting, the equipment used can all change the percentage of overall complications significantly. Male circumcision has a low incidence of adverse events overall, especially if the procedure was performed during the first year of life [3]. The risk is further decreased and might be prevented, with careful consideration of the penile anatomy and the correct use of surgical equipment by trained clinicians in sterile environments. Most of the adverse events of circumcision are mild and are easily treatable. Nevertheless, severe complications might occur, demanding expert reconstruction, and might have a lifelong sequel. Here we discuss some of those adverse events.
2. Risk factors for complications
Routine circumcision is conventionally seen as a very low-risk surgical procedure, though every surgical procedure has inherent risks. Complication rates, although infrequent, may be influenced by several factors, including the patient’s age, the patient’s weight, and the experience of the health care personnel in performing the procedure.
2.1 Age of the patient
The rate of procedure-related complications during and after circumcision is low overall, especially if the procedure was performed during the first year of life. However, this low risk rises 10-fold to 20-fold when performed after infancy [3]. In a recent study, where 1000 children were circumcised using Plastibell, complications such as bleeding, hematoma, and swelling of the prepuce were higher in infants than neonates [4]. The study concluded that circumcision has less adverse events if done in the 1st year of life, the younger the age, the better the prognosis [4]. Another study also showed that circumcision in the newborn period was harmless with 0% complications. However, when its performed in older infants (older than 3 months) postoperative complications such as bleeding requiring intervention has risen to 30% [5]. Another study concluded that there were substantial statistical differences in circumcision revision rates between children older than 30 days and those less than 30 days of age [6]. These articles have proven that increasing age increases the chances of developing complications related to circumcision.
In contrast to that, an article has studied the complications of circumcision in premature neonates. The rate of complications of circumcision was evaluated for three different groups, new-born circumcision at a well-baby nursery, neonatal intensive care units, and special care nursery. Babies in the neonatal intensive care units and the special care nursery had a higher probability of developing circumcision-related complications compared with those in the well-baby nursery [7]. Overall, since neonatal circumcision is an elective procedure, there is no urgency in performing it if the patient is premature, has a fever or respiratory distress, but is preferred to is delay the procedure until the patient is stable.
2.2 Weight of the patient
Although circumcision is an apparently harmless procedure, the weight of the patient undergoing circumcision may affect the complication rate. An investigation of neonatal circumcision revealed that patients weighing >5.1 kg might be at higher risk of bleeding and long-term complications [8]. Physically, the higher the patient’s weight, the probably thicker groin fat pad he will have. Therefore, it is explained that patients with higher weight have a higher risk of developing penile adhesions and buried penis [9]. While increased weight is not a contraindication to circumcision, it should be well-thought-out to advise parents about possible difficulties that may arise when a patient’s weight is increased. Emphasis on genital hygiene is essential in patients with increased weight to help in avoiding complications.
2.3 Practitioner experience
Inadequate training of clinicians contributes to complications, as practitioners without formal training may not recognize congenital malformations might be contraindications to performing circumcisions. Patients with these abnormalities should be referred to a pediatric urologist to aid in the prevention of unsatisfactory results and complications [10]. In some rural areas were ritual circumcision is performed by the local barber or a senior family member, distressing complications up to the extent of penile amputation have been described. Many cases of glans and urethral injury have been observed. Amputation of the whole shaft of the penis after traditional ritual circumcision performed by a family member or unexperienced individual have been reported necessitating reconstructive expert in reimplantation. Untrained individuals who perform circumcisions are to be held responsible for the complications that arise and need to be stopped [11].
3. Complications related to anesthesia
Circumcision is one of the most popular surgical procedures around the world. Inadequate pain relief when performing this procedure in neonates may have long-standing psychological and physical implications. Insufficient pain control and submitting the patient to grave pain during the neonatal period, has proven to produce prolonged hypersensitivity to painful stimuli [12]. It was also proven that as adults, patients who have had painful neonatal surgery might require more opioid analgesia in comparison to patients with no previous neonatal surgery [12]. Even after the patient’s initial tissue injury has healed, he may still experience pain extending beyond this period. This further highlights the importance of pain management in this tender young age.
Various types of anesthesia have been used to decrease painful stimuli during circumcision, decrease intraoperative patient movement, avoid intraoperative complications, and relieve postoperative pain. The different types of analgesia and anesthetic approaches that have been implemented in circumcision procedures have different efficacies. Some use topical analgesia such as lidocaine; others prefer nerve block. A recent meta-analysis has concluded that the dorsal penile nerve block was far more effective in pain control than a mixture of local anesthetics in infants during circumcision [13]. Local analgesics, though they may have fewer complications, are unpredictable. The effect local anesthetics have is directly dependent on the degree of absorption. The degree of absorption cannot be foretold as it is subjected to many factors such as skin thickness and amount of ointment applied. Another noteworthy issue is that local anesthetic creams need time to start its pain controlling properties (an average of an hour), while nerve blocks work immediately.
Local analgesia, due to the fact that they are topical, has much fewer self-limiting complications in comparison to the more invasive nerve block. While infrequent, burning, or stinging at the administration site, allergic reaction to the local anesthetic, skin discoloration, skin swelling, and neuritis might occur [14]. On the other hand, a dorsal penile nerve block is more invasive; the procedure of nerve block is itself painful. It also has a more significant risk of forming perineural hematomas. Nerve injuries might occur secondary to intraneural injection. An allergic reaction might happen in the form of Urticaria or anaphylaxis, with the worst outcome being systemic anesthetic toxicity when accidentally injecting the local anesthetic in the systemic circulation [13].
4. Complications related to technique
The technique of circumcision is described in other chapters. Mainly, there are three devices for neonatal circumcision: the Gomco clamp, the Plastibell device, and the Mogen clamp. Additional tools are either modifications or are based on the main principles of these three devices.
4.1 Device used
Several techniques and devices have been described in the practice of circumcision. There was no statistically significant difference when comparing complications between the different methods performed. In one study, preputial stenosis was most frequently found in the traditional circumcision, while bleeding was more prevalent when using a Plastibell device [15]. A different controlled trial compared adverse events rate for circumcision using the three devices (the Gomco clamp, the Mogen clamp, and the Plastibell device) and showed that adverse events rate did not differ by the method [16].
4.2 Sutures
Different circumcision techniques differ in need to use sutures to close wounds and control bleeding. However, in some cases suturing of wound edges is inevitable. Suturing and the presence of a foreign body may result in wound infection, granulation tissue formation, stitch sinuses, foreign body reactions, and scarring. A study has shown that bleeding; excessive swelling, infection, and wound dehiscence are more commonly seen in sutured versus sutureless circumcisions [17]. The use of sutureless circumcision is an excellent alternative to the standard technique. It results in faster operative times and is a less expensive surgical option [18].
4.3 Cautery
Post-circumcision bleeding is probably the most disturbing early complication. Unfortunately, hemostatic techniques such as electrocautery are the first line of treatment, with no appreciation of their potential upsetting consequences. There is a lot of controversy in the use of thermocautery in circumcision routinely. Some studies report better cosmetic results and lower complication rates with the use of thermocautery devices. They give strict rules on the extent of cautery, the temperatures, and currents used, the type of blade, and technique of cautery [19].
On the other hand, numerous studies have reported the devastating complications following extensive cauterization. One case even reported a total loss of the whole phallus post-circumcision with the use of monopolar electrocautery. The patient had a total loss of the penis and required complete phallic reconstruction using flaps [20]. Although diathermy may seem like a necessity to control bleeding when performing circumcision, extensive use can lead to distressing outcomes [21]. Salvage surgery was carried out on five cases of post-circumcision using electrocautery. One of these infants presented to the emergency department with septic shock and multiorgan dysfunction secondary to infective gangrene of whole external genitalia [22].
5. Medical complications
5.1 Bleeding
Bleeding is the most frequent complication following circumcision [23]. To avoid excessive bleeding and the need to reoperation simple history taking is mandatory. Patients with bleeding diathesis and history of coagulopathies are not candidates for simple circumcision. Those patients need pediatric consultations and special consideration during the procedure.
The most common direct obstacle met during an elective neonatal circumcision was bleeding. It almost always requires only pressure or topical thrombin to achieve hemostasis [24]. There is no statistical difference in the rate of bleeding with different techniques used for circumcision. One study has compared the results of Plastibell clamp vs. classic dissection circumcision, and both were found to have a similar occurrence of immediate complications such as bleeding [25]. Another study has shown that a worn out, and overused Gomco clamp has less of a vessel crushing effect, hence more bleeding [26]. Another study has found that bleeding was more prevalent when using a Plastibell device [15].
Bleeding after circumcision either occurs from the frenular artery or the skin edges at the site of the incision. Caution is to be taken to avoid the frenular artery or carefully coagulate the frenulum to prevent delayed bleeding. It was formerly mentioned, that with age, the rate of postoperative complications, especially bleeding, have risen to 30% [5]. It was thought that the size and diameter of the vessels in the prepuce have increased with age hence the increased incidence of post-circumcision bleeding.
Bleeding after circumcision is generally easy to prevent, and if occurred can be stopped without difficulty. It is usually a minor event that rarely requires reoperation and intervention. A simple compression dressing is adequate, occasionally local administration of epinephrine and lidocaine might help aid in hemostasis [26]. The use of sutures or electrocautery is sometimes inevitable; caution is advised not to use excessive suturing material or electrocautery as that might lead to other complications. Rarely, the patient might need a transfusion or intravenous administration of clotting factors if bleeding diathesis were not previously discovered on the routine preoperative investigation [26].
5.2 Infection
Skin is a natural barrier against infection. It is expected that any breach of the skin surface may lead to infection. The presence of the penis in a wet environment (the diaper), and the proximity to stool contamination makes it a more susceptible place to infection. In spite of some precautions to avoid infections, a disruption in the skin surface may bring about infection. A study compared patients who received prophylactic antibiotics before circumcision with those who did not receive prophylaxis. Wound infection rates after circumcision with the use of prophylactic antibiotics was equal to the rate of wound infection after circumcision without the use of antibiotics [27]. Therefore, it was proven that prophylactic antibiotics did not protect against post-circumcision wound infection.
Occasionally circumcision site wound infection might occur. The rate of infection has differed from publication to the other. A systemic review has shown that the incidence of moderate to severe wound infections following circumcision depends on the practitioner and the equipment sterility [23]. It is generally minor and is demonstrated by mild swelling, erythema, redness, with signs of local inflammatory changes. It mostly resolves spontaneously with conservative measures and the emphasis on hygiene, or the simple use of topical antibiotics when necessary.
Most post-circumcision infections are self-limiting and can be treated conservatively. However, severe infection with puss formation and occasionally systemic infection might ensue. It is suspected when the patient presents with systemic symptoms such as fever, irritability, lethargy, or poor feeding. In this case, the patient needs admission, intravenous antibiotics, and wound debridement. Although infrequent, systemic post-circumcision wound infections represent a significant clinical problem. Post-circumcision infection has been reported to cause severe necrotizing fasciitis [28]. Infection of the surgical wound after the circumcision was reported to cause meningitis in the 1970s, that is not seen in the modern era of sterilization and antibiotics [29]. Post-circumcision Infectious complications must be reduced; it is feasible when done by trained and competent practitioners performing the procedure using sterile techniques [30].
6. Surgical complications
6.1 Meatal stenosis
Circumcision is the primary procedure done in the Muslim world. Meatal stenosis is one of the surgical complications that are not uncommon. It is reported that the incidence of meatal stenosis is rare in uncircumcised boys, and it is 10–26 times more in circumcised boys [31]. Being increasingly common, a careful meatal examination is indicated in any circumcised male with urinary symptoms [32]. The stenosed meatus is a meatus that has changed in its shape and width to a narrow circle from the previously normal slit-like meatus. This change is due to a circular scar formation. However, not all circular meatus are considered stenosed. There are accepted differences in meatal shape and width.
The development of the circular scar at the meatus causing meatal stenosis has been attributed to the ischemia of the meatus, with dividing the frenulum and using extensive cauterization [33]. In one study, 2307 children undergoing circumcision using Plastibell were split into two groups. One group where the frenulum was kept intact, and the other group where frenular hemostasis was performed in all cases by thermal cautery. Neonatal Plastibell circumcision with intact frenulum technique decreased the rate of meatal stenosis significantly in comparison to those who underwent circumcision with thermal cautery of the frenular artery [34].
Meatal stenosis is a frequent complication of circumcision. Meatal stenosis might be asymptomatic and does not necessitate surgical correction. Once the boy is toilet trained, symptoms may arise. Symptoms usually present as a thin stream that jets further away than usual. The stream might deflect upwards, and take longer than expected to empty the bladder completely. Urinary tract infection, urinary retention, and even renal failure might manifest if the diagnosis is not prompt. Surgical intervention with a dorsal slit meatotomy is the definitive treatment, with low rates of restenosis and need for reoperation [35]. The means of assessment following surgery are evaluated by the clinical improvement of symptoms and a better uroflowmetry after meatotomy compared to the preoperative uroflowmetry result [36].
6.2 Skin bridges
The skin is an organ that heals in miraculous ways. It has been shown that when there are two adjacent wounded edges of skin, or when there is skin infection between two surfaces, the skin might heal with adhesions. During circumcision, the foreskin is separated from the glans and then excised. This leaves the glans with superficial abrasions that consequently adhere to the circumcision wound, and skin bridges form. Penile skin bridges are adhesion between injuries or wounds in the glans and the penile shaft usually after circumcision. In uncircumcised men skin, bridges occur when there is no cleaning of the build-up of smegma underneath the foreskin. This leads to infection and the subsequent healing with skin bridges forming from the foreskin to the glans.
Adhesion of the skin of the penis, at the site of the circumcision incision, to the bare glans beyond the corona creates a skin bridge. It is an established complication of newborn circumcision. Skin bridges can vary from simple, transparent, flimsy, early forming skin bridge to a sizeable wide strip of skin bridge that might extend to replace the whole glans skin creating a circumferential bridge that produces a picture of a buried penis [37]. The resulting bridge of skin is cosmetically unacceptable, it may cause tethering with erections that might be painful or traumatic with penetration, it may cause penile torsion, or it could trap smegma causing recurrent inflammation or infection.
A simple pressure on the suprapubic fat pad in the clinic after circumcision follow-up is sufficient to separate the fragile transparent skin bridge. Careful dressing of this area until complete healing of the raw surfaces is essential to prevent a recurrence. More well-defined skin bridges might require reoperation with excision of the skin bridge [38]. Reconstruction of these adhesions includes separation of the skin bridge from the glans, excision of all abnormal skin, and meticulous dressing of the raw surface to prevent a recurrence. Glans epithelium subsequently heals, bringing back the typical appearance of a glans and coronal sulcus [37].
On the other hand, circumferential skin bridges might be extraordinarily disfiguring and tricky to repair. It is a challenge to divide the wide bridges from the glans without causing scarring of the glans epithelium. When the bridge is replacing a large surface area of the glans epithelium beyond the bridge, it is not merely corrected by simple bridge lysis (Figure 1a–c). Raw glans and an unappealing appearance of the glans might result from the correction of these types of penile skin bridges (Figure 2). This might need skin grafts or flaps and an expert in reconstruction [39].
Figure 1.
(a-c) Large skin bridges covering a large surface area of the glans epithelium.
Figure 2.
Raw glans and an unappealing appearance of the glans resulting from the correction of large skin bridges.
In a study where a total of 277 patients were circumcised, of those patients, 26 patients experienced long-term complications, the majority being penile adhesions [8]. Buried penis, penile adhesions, and penile skin bridges are complications after circumcision that seems to occur more frequently in overweight children [9]. It was also reported that 63% of patients presenting for circumcision revision were found to have prominent suprapubic fat pads [40]. In one study where circumcised children were randomly divided into two groups depending on the method of circumcision Plastibell versus circumcision with dissection, late complications, especially adhesions, were higher in the group circumcised with dissection [25]. These limitations should be well-thought-out before new-born circumcision when counseling guardians before circumcision. Early recognition of neonatal obesity might indicate the necessity for meticulous genital hygiene to try to prevent post-circumcision complications such as skin bridges. Cautious circumcision technique, avoiding any glans injury, and proper dressing at the time of circumcision are simple actions that can prevent adherence of the distal perpetual skin flap to the glans penis [39].
6.3 Keloid formation
Any surgical procedure carries a risk of complications. Keloid scar formation is an abnormal proliferation of the scar extending beyond the surgical area. It is characterized by local fibroblast proliferation and overproduction of collagen. It sometimes takes a few months to develop. It is more common in younger individuals and is seen as more common in some ethnicities. Keloids cause cosmetic disfiguration, and the patient is usually bothered by the appearance of the scar. Genital keloid may cause functional impairment and worsen the quality of life. Keloids in the groin, especially those affecting the penis, are extremely rare despite frequent surgeries in the genital area. Only a few cases reported in the literature [41, 42, 43, 44, 45], hence the actual incidence is unknown.
Keloid formation is poorly understood. Numerous concepts have been suggested to understand the process by which keloid scars form. It has been suggested that keloid scars form as a result of collagen build-up, from the effect of hostile or hypoxic environment on tissue, or the hyperactivity of mast cells and the release of histamine. It has also been suggested that tension at scar edges create abnormal healing and might aid in the production of keloids [43].
Some topical therapies and therapeutic options have been described in the treatment of keloid scars. Treatments such as pressure on the keloid scar, silicone gel sheets, intralesional steroid injections, and massaging the scar with topical steroids have been suggested. A meta-analysis on the different treatment options for keloid scars has shown no statistical significance between the use of different treatment options separately or in combination [46]. Thus, no recognized guidelines have been established for the treatment of keloids. Surgical excision combined with intralesional steroid injections was and remained, the traditional treatment for keloids [47]. Creating a regulated treatment guideline has been challenging due to the lack of randomized controlled trials. The use of ablative laser technology, such as the CO2 laser, has lately produced hopeful outcomes.
6.4 Trauma
Although rare, traumatic complications of circumcisions have troubling consequences. Injury to the skin of the shaft [11, 48], injury to the glans or urethra [49, 50, 51, 52], or total amputation of the whole length of the phallus are reported [53, 54]. These events, although very rare, are seen in rural regions where ritual mass circumcisions are performed by untrained individuals using primitive devices. They require referral to specialized centers with experience in reconstruction.
Circumcision, although it’s considered to be a simple procedure, may cause serious problems such as penile skin necrosis or skin loss. Extensive skin removal is noticed at the end of the operation when the suture lines are under tension. Early postoperatively, the patients usually present with wound dehiscence after the first erection due to insufficient skin and stress on the suture line. Unfortunately, primary closure of such wound dehiscence is almost always unsuccessful. The skin is deficient, and skin stretch cannot accommodate the length of the erect penis; hence, another dehiscence is inevitable. If the penis is left to heal with secondary intention the scarring might entrap the penis, creating a buried penis. The scar of secondary intention might cause tethering or a mechanical pull on the erect penis. The bend of the penis might be painful; it might not permit a full erection to form and might hinder penetration and successful intercourse. The patient is left with frustration and grave disappointment, and the situation is left in the hands of the reconstructive urologists or plastic surgeons. Penile reconstructive surgery, in these cases, represents a significant challenge. The patient needs skin flaps or grafts from non-hair-bearing areas to cover the area of skin loss. The success of these procedures depends on the size of the area of skin loss, the use of flap vs. graft with its vascularity, and graft or flap take. Infection and excessive tension are the enemies in such cases and are to be prevented with all measures. A proper reconstruction procedure leaves the patient with excess skin that allows room for erection, has excellent visual appeal, is free of hair and contractions, and provides decent sensation. The use of scrotal-dartos-fascio-myo-cutaneous flap has been reported to cover up a defect of skin after circumcision procedure [48].
The penis is the organ which gives males their sexual confidence. Some of the devastating complications of circumcision are loss of part or the whole length of the penis. Trauma to the glans penis or even part of the penile shaft leaves behind a patient with low self-esteem and quality of life. Seleim and ElBarbany [22], after reviewing the literature, they did not find a grading system to define post-circumcision trauma to the penis. It was found that the term complete penile amputation, although obviously meant total penile loss, was used by authors to describe solitary glans amputation [55]. Therefore, they proposed a grading system to help better understand the extent of the injury, and to ease in finding the appropriate management options for each grade. Grade I was defined as skin complications, minor or major, ranging from simple skin infection or stitch sinus to major skin loss necessitating reconstruction. Grade II was for isolated urethral injury and the creation of an iatrogenic urethra-cutaneous fistula. Grade III was used to describe glans amputation and isolated glans injury. Grade IV was extended to include an insult to the corpora cavernosa. Grade V was defined as a total phallic loss either by amputation or gangrene [22]. All the patients in the study above had a history of circumcision being performed by inexperienced surgeons at primary care hospitals using electrocautery for hemostasis. This grading system helped in creating a standardized platform to help in understanding the extent of these injuries [20].
7. Conclusion
Circumcision is reported as one of the most common surgical procedures performed throughout the world. It is performed for religious reasons in Muslim and Jewish countries, for medical reasons such as phimosis or recurrent balanitis and are done electively for esthetic and cosmetic reasons. Unfortunately, it is still one of the most common rituals performed for religious reasons by inexperienced individuals. The incidence of complications of circumcision is quite low. It is believed to be a technically simple and safe surgical procedure. Having said that critical complications such as necrotizing fasciitis or total penile amputation may arise. Although circumcision is considered to be a technically simple and safe procedure with significantly low risk, it may occasionally lead to gravely devastating complications. It might place the patient in a state of mutilation, with low self-esteem. These complications present a reconstructive predicament, needing an expert in their repair. Even so, after the patch up work, the patient may still have psychological trauma and diminished sexual confidence.
Acknowledgments
Reem Aldamanhori is an associate professor in Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"complications, circumcision",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70634.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70634.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70634",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70634",totalDownloads:408,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"April 20th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 12th 2019",datePrePublished:"December 24th 2019",datePublished:"May 20th 2020",dateFinished:"December 24th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Circumcision is by far the most common procedure done in hospitals of Muslim countries. Many research data have proven its benefits in protecting against numerous sexually transmitted diseases, urinary tract infections, and penile cancer in the patients and cervical cancer in partners. The procedure is quite safe, with a low overall complication rate. Most of the adverse events of circumcision are minor and can be managed conservatively. In some areas where circumcision is performed by an inexperienced individual, or are done in a non-sterile environment, or using the wrong equipment, complications requiring expert intervention are seen. Devastating results range from simple self-limiting swelling and superficial infection to the dreadful amputation to the glans or the whole phallus, necessitating an expert in reconstruction. Circumcision is a simple surgical procedure with minimal adverse events when done by competent trained medical personnel, in a well-controlled sterile environment, using the appropriate equipment.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70634",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70634",book:{slug:"circumcision-and-the-community"},signatures:"Reem Aldamanhori",authors:[{id:"302515",title:"Dr",name:"Reem B",middleName:null,surname:"Aldamanhori",fullName:"Reem B Aldamanhori",slug:"reem-b-aldamanhori",email:"reembaher@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Risk factors for complications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Age of the patient",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Weight of the patient",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Practitioner experience",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Complications related to anesthesia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Complications related to technique",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Device used",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 Sutures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3 Cautery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Medical complications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.1 Bleeding",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.2 Infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Surgical complications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.1 Meatal stenosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.2 Skin bridges",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"6.3 Keloid formation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"6.4 Trauma",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Introcaso CE, Xu F, Kilmarx PH, Zaidi A, Markowitz LE. Prevalence of circumcision among men and boys aged 14 to 59 years in the United States, National Health and nutrition examination surveys 2005-2010. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 2013;40(7):521-525'},{id:"B2",body:'Morris BJ, Kennedy SE, Wodak AD, Mindel A, Golovsky D, Schrieber L, et al. Early infant male circumcision: Systematic review, risk-benefit analysis, and progress in policy. World Journal of Clinical Pediatrics. 2017;6(1):89-102'},{id:"B3",body:'El Bcheraoui C, Zhang X, Cooper CS, Rose CE, Kilmarx PH, Chen RT. Rates of adverse events associated with male circumcision in U.S. medical settings, 2001 to 2010. JAMA Pediatrics. 2014;168(7):625-634'},{id:"B4",body:'Razzaq S, Mehmood MS, Tahir TH, Masood T, Ghaffar S. 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The Journal of Urology. 1995;153(3 Pt 1):778-779'},{id:"B50",body:'Giovanny A, Wahyudi I, Rodjani A. Neo-glans reconstruction after glans amputation during circumcision using autologous buccal mucosal graft. Urology Case Reports. 2018;18:11-13'},{id:"B51",body:'Khaireddine B, Adnen H, Khaled BM, Adel S. Surgical reimplantation of penile glans amputation in children during circumcision. Urology Annals. 2014;6(1):85-87'},{id:"B52",body:'Baskin LS, Canning DA, Snyder HM, Duckett JW. Surgical repair of urethral circumcision injuries. The Journal of Urology. 1997;158(6):2269-2271'},{id:"B53",body:'van der Merwe A, Graewe F, Zühlke A, Barsdorf NW, Zarrabi AD, Viljoen JT, et al. Penile allotransplan-tation for penis amputation following ritual circumcision: A case report with 24 months of follow-up. Lancet. 2017;390(10099):1038-1047'},{id:"B54",body:'Kim JH, Park JY, Song YS. Traumatic penile injury: From circumcision injury to penile amputation. BioMed Research International. 2014;2014:375285'},{id:"B55",body:'Hashem FK, Ahmed S, al-Malaq AA, AbuDaia JM. Successful replantation of penile amputation (post-circumcision) complicated by prolonged ischaemia. British Journal of Plastic Surgery. 1999;52(4):308-310'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Reem Aldamanhori",address:"rdamanhori@iau.edu.sa",affiliation:'
Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
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Clinton Webb",authors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",middleName:"Pedrosa",surname:"Nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes"},{id:"134106",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Clinton",middleName:null,surname:"Weeb",fullName:"R. Clinton Weeb",slug:"r.-clinton-weeb"},{id:"138293",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Crestani",fullName:"Sandra Crestani",slug:"sandra-crestani"},{id:"151639",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Consuelo",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade Marques",fullName:"Maria Consuelo Andrade Marques",slug:"maria-consuelo-andrade-marques"},{id:"151640",title:"Dr.",name:"José Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"da Silva Santos",fullName:"José Eduardo da Silva Santos",slug:"jose-eduardo-da-silva-santos"}]},{id:"30219",title:"Erectile Dysfunction: A Chronic Complication of the Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"erectile-dysfunction-a-chronic-complication-of-the-diabetes-mellitus",signatures:"Eulises Díaz-Díaz, Mario Cárdenas León, Nesty Olivares Arzuaga, Carlos M. Timossi, Rita Angélica Gómez Díaz, Carlos Aguilar Salinas and Fernando Larrea",authors:[{id:"85181",title:"Dr.",name:"Eulises",middleName:null,surname:"Díaz-Díaz",fullName:"Eulises Díaz-Díaz",slug:"eulises-diaz-diaz"},{id:"85572",title:"MSc.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Cárdenas-León",fullName:"Mario Cárdenas-León",slug:"mario-cardenas-leon"},{id:"85574",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesty",middleName:null,surname:"Olivares-Arzuaga",fullName:"Nesty Olivares-Arzuaga",slug:"nesty-olivares-arzuaga"},{id:"91055",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar-Salinas",fullName:"Carlos Aguilar-Salinas",slug:"carlos-aguilar-salinas"},{id:"91056",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Larrea",fullName:"Fernando Larrea",slug:"fernando-larrea"},{id:"125201",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos M.",middleName:null,surname:"Timossi",fullName:"Carlos M. Timossi",slug:"carlos-m.-timossi"},{id:"125203",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita Angélica",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez Díaz",fullName:"Rita Angélica Gómez Díaz",slug:"rita-angelica-gomez-diaz"}]},{id:"30220",title:"Premature Ejaculation Re-Visited: Definition and Contemporary Management Approaches",slug:"premature-ejaculation-re-visited-definition-and-contemporary-management-approaches",signatures:"Tariq F. Al-Shaiji",authors:[{id:"64097",title:"Dr.",name:"Tariq",middleName:"F.",surname:"Al-Shaiji",fullName:"Tariq Al-Shaiji",slug:"tariq-al-shaiji"}]},{id:"30221",title:"Erectile Dysfunction in Paraplegic Males",slug:"erectile-dysfunction-in-paraplegic-males",signatures:"Charalampos Konstantinidis",authors:[{id:"84607",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Konstantinidis",fullName:"Charalampos Konstantinidis",slug:"charalampos-konstantinidis"}]},{id:"30222",title:"Current Perspectives on Pharmacotherapy Treatments for Erectile Dysfunction",slug:"current-perspectives-on-pharmacotherapy-treatments-for-erectile-dysfunction",signatures:"Jason E. Davis, Kenia Pedrosa Nunes, Inger Stallmann-Jorgensen and R. Clinton Webb",authors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",middleName:"Pedrosa",surname:"Nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes"},{id:"134106",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Clinton",middleName:null,surname:"Weeb",fullName:"R. Clinton Weeb",slug:"r.-clinton-weeb"},{id:"138642",title:"MSc.",name:"Inger",middleName:null,surname:"Stallmann-Jorgensen",fullName:"Inger Stallmann-Jorgensen",slug:"inger-stallmann-jorgensen"},{id:"138644",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason E.",middleName:null,surname:"Davis",fullName:"Jason E. Davis",slug:"jason-e.-davis"}]},{id:"30223",title:"Surgical Treatment of Erectile Dysfunction",slug:"surgical-treatment-of-erectile-dysfunction",signatures:"Faruk Kucukdurmaz and Ates Kadioglu",authors:[{id:"97397",title:"Prof.",name:"Ates",middleName:null,surname:"Kadioglu",fullName:"Ates Kadioglu",slug:"ates-kadioglu"},{id:"97423",title:"Dr.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Kucukdurmaz",fullName:"Faruk Kucukdurmaz",slug:"faruk-kucukdurmaz"}]},{id:"30224",title:"Gene and Stem Cell Therapy in Erectile Dysfunction",slug:"gene-and-stem-cell-therapy-in-erectile-dysfunction",signatures:"Trevor Hardigan, R. Clinton Webb and Kenia Pedrosa Nunes",authors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",middleName:"Pedrosa",surname:"Nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes"},{id:"134106",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Clinton",middleName:null,surname:"Weeb",fullName:"R. Clinton Weeb",slug:"r.-clinton-weeb"},{id:"134107",title:"Dr.",name:"Trevor",middleName:null,surname:"Hardigan",fullName:"Trevor Hardigan",slug:"trevor-hardigan"}]},{id:"30225",title:"The Assessment of Atherosclerosis in Erectile Dysfunction Subjects Using Photoplethysmography",slug:"the-assessment-of-atherosclerosis-in-erectile-dysfunction-subjects-using-photoplethysmography",signatures:"Yousef Kamel Qawqzeh, Mamun Ibne Reaz and Mohd Aluadin Mohd Ali",authors:[{id:"30522",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Alauddin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Ali",fullName:"Mohd Alauddin Mohd Ali",slug:"mohd-alauddin-mohd-ali"},{id:"80493",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousef",middleName:"Kamel",surname:"Qawqzeh",fullName:"Yousef Qawqzeh",slug:"yousef-qawqzeh"},{id:"129681",title:"Dr.",name:"Mamun Bin Ibne",middleName:null,surname:"Reaz",fullName:"Mamun Bin Ibne Reaz",slug:"mamun-bin-ibne-reaz"},{id:"129683",title:"Prof.",name:"Oteh",middleName:null,surname:"Maskon",fullName:"Oteh Maskon",slug:"oteh-maskon"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73215",title:"Biomass Pretreatment and Characterization: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93607",slug:"biomass-pretreatment-and-characterization-a-review",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
The definition of biomass may vary due to a number of factors such as the heterogeneity of biomass, its application and origin [1]. However, any organic material directly or indirectly derived from the process of photosynthesis is considered biomass. Generally, biomass is a biological material that is present in various forms such as wood, sugarcane bagasse, rice husk, rice straw, corn cob, paper waste, municipal solid waste, animal manure, sewage, algae, etc. Traditionally, the use of biomass resources is becoming increasingly vital because of their substantial annual volumes and great economic potential. The main application of biomass is as a source of energy, and it has been reported that global biomass land and aquatic reserves stand at around 1.8 trillion tons for biomass, and about 4 billion tons for aquatic reserves, respectively [1]. In spite of these huge reserves, biomass remains under exploited, accounting for only about 14% of global energy with ca. 56 million TJ/year [1]. This is because the application of biomass as a source of energy has not shown a homogeneous distribution across the globe. In some developed countries, energy production from biomass averages about 11% of the total energy produced; while in developing countries this can be up to 50% [2, 3]. For example, Europe generates about 3.5% of its energy from biomass, which is ca. 40 Mtoe/year; while countries like Austria, Finland and Sweden have about 13, 18 and 17% of their total energy produced from biomass resources; the United States on the other hand generates 3% of its energy from biomass [4]. In general, there is a huge potential for the exploitation of biomass as a source of energy because some countries in central and northern Europe have actually established large plants for heat and power production from biomass. However, there are two main routes by which biomass can be converted to energy and bio products. These are biochemical and thermochemical conversion routes. While the former involves breaking down biomass into gaseous and/or liquid fuels (such as biogas and bioethanol) through the use of bacteria, microorganisms and enzymes; the latter involves the use of heat to disrupt the complex chemical structure of biomass (particularly lignocellulosic biomass such as wood) into various products that includes heat, power, fuels, bio oil, biochar and chemicals [5, 6].
\n
It is evident from the above that the application of biomass as a source of energy continues to attract global attention even in the midst of its gross underutilization. The low quality of biomass, often defined in terms of its inherent characteristics (high moisture content, low energy density, low bulk density, irregular size and shape) has been one of the major reasons for its under exploitation [7]. In other words, biomass in its natural form is difficult to use for the purpose of energy production hence pretreatment is often required to overcome its recalcitrant nature and make the biomass amenable for conversion through either of the conversion routes previously mentioned for maximum product recovery; the pretreatment leads to physical, chemical and structural changes to the biomass plays a vital role in the commercial viability of the energy production process of biomass [7, 8, 9]. Thus, bioconversion and bio refinery interests define the type of pretreatment measures for biomass [7, 10]. However, there are different categories of pretreatment viz; physical, chemical and biological pretreatments. These three classes of pretreatment are described in greater detail in Section 3.
\n
Another critical step to the optimization of biomass conversion and bio refinery processes is related to the characterization of biomass to determine its suitability for the aforementioned conversion processes. This means that the effectiveness and impact of pretreatment on biomass can be determined through the use of a variety of high-quality analytical techniques able to provide information on quintessential biomass characteristics that can be used to maximize product recovery. Depending on the end application of biomass, some of the useful characterization techniques include atomic force microscopy (AFM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (SSNMR), to name a few. An overview of these analytical tools is presented in subsequent sections. For a full understanding of the characteristics of biomass, its value and information for the design and operation of the energy conversion systems using the biomass as feedstock, it is vital to undertake biomass characterization before and after pretreatment. Due to the complex nature of biomass, the study of the mechanisms involved in its conversion process to energy and bio products is quite challenging. The lack of rapid, high throughput and reliable tools for assessing and tracing biomass components relevant not just to energy production but also to other value added products remains a major bottleneck in studying the impact of biomass pretreatment and process parameters. This chapter therefore presents a critical review of biomass pretreatment and characterization and discusses the applications of state-of-the-art analytical techniques commonly used to understand the features of both pretreated and non-pretreated biomass relevant to the production of fuels and chemicals. It is believed that improving the fundamental knowledge of biomass pretreatment and characterization will lead to significant advances in the field of sustainable energy and chemicals production from biomass.
\n
\n
\n
2. Overview of biomass composition
\n
The composition of biomass is largely diverse and dependent upon its origin and species. Besides plant biomass, which are commonly referred to as lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) due to their three major cross-linked polysaccharide constituents (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin), there are other biomass materials whose primary components include lipids, proteins, starch, inorganics and minerals. These types of biomass materials are regarded as non-lignocellulosic biomass (NLCB) and include sewage sludge, animal manure, algae, etc. The major constituents of both the LCB and NLCB are organic in nature and determine the characteristics of the entire biomass [7]. In comparison to LCB however, NLCB pose a greater threat to the environment because of higher content of heavy metals and heteroatoms such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P); [11, 12, 13]. The heavy metals can pollute water systems, accumulate in food chains and cause serious health issues [14, 15]. Even though the N and P composition of NLCB can serve as a source of nutrients for plants, excessive amounts of these elements can lead to eutrophication of a water body, a condition linked to the deterioration of water quality via excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants, resulting in oxygen depletion of the water body, leading to the death of aquatic animals [12].
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While the structural unit of NLCB is such that various atoms are arranged in an orderly manner, LCB is characterized by complex internal structure with main components that equally displays structural multiplicities. Figure 1 shows the internal structure of lignocellulosic biomass and how its three primary components are distributed.
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Figure 1.
A structural representation of lignocellulosic biomass. Reproduced with permission from [1].
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The internal structure of lignocellulosic biomass reveals a crystalline fibrous structure of cellulose, which forms the core of the complex structure of plant biomass. Positioned between the micro- and macrofibrils of the cellulose matrix is hemicellulose; while lignin plays a structural role that encapsulates both cellulose and hemicellulose.
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The composition of biomass varies significantly depending on the source of the biomass. In addition to the three primary components of LCB (Figure 1), there are other minor components such as extractives, proteins, water and inorganic components such as silicon (Si), sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and aluminum (Al); these minor constituents do not markedly contribute to the formation of the total structure of the biomass [16]. The organic components of various LCB materials are summarized in Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Type of lignocellulosic biomass
\n
Cellulose (%)
\n
Hemicellulose (%)
\n
Lignin (%)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Hardwood
\n
40–55
\n
24–40
\n
18–25
\n
\n
\n
Softwood
\n
45–50
\n
25–35
\n
25–35
\n
\n
\n
Grasses
\n
25–40
\n
35–50
\n
10–30
\n
\n
\n
Leaves
\n
15–20
\n
80–85
\n
–
\n
\n
\n
Sugarcane bagasse
\n
40–45
\n
30–35
\n
20–30
\n
\n
\n
Wheat straw
\n
33–40
\n
20–25
\n
15–20
\n
\n
\n
Sweet sorghum bagasse
\n
45
\n
27
\n
21
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
The composition of the organic fractions of various lignocellulosic biomass materials (dry basis) [17, 18, 19, 20].
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The composition of NLCB, on the other hand, vary from material to material and contains more multifarious elements (such as those previously mentioned) that are embedded in its structural unit; in contrast to LCB, the different compositions of NLCB leads to different thermochemical conversion behaviors when these materials (NLCB) are used as feedstock in the mentioned bioenergy conversion routes [21].
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\n
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3. Biomass pretreatment
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Pretreatment is a necessary process step for both biochemical and thermochemical conversion of biomass and involves structural alteration aimed at overcoming the recalcitrant nature of biomass. It is required to improve biomass characteristics in order to enhance the energy utilization efficiency of the biomass [7, 22]. In pretreatment processes requiring heat, the degradation ability of LCB is controlled by its polymeric and aromatic constituents (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin), while the heteroatoms and inorganic elemental components of NLCB act as catalysts to facilitate decomposition, leading to the formation of a product with a carbon framework and structural changes that increases the performance of the pretreated material in bioconversion processes [23, 24, 25]. The most important barriers facing current pretreatment technologies are high costs and how to obtain a pretreated product with minimal degradation of vital components. These issues are yet to be convincingly tackled by past and present research and development hence extensive studies aimed at the development of technologies that will further exploit the physical, chemical and biological pretreatment approaches are required. The pretreatment methods must be specifically tailored toward biomass origin and its application in bioconversion and bio refinery processes. Figure 2 shows a schematic layout of the classes and types of pretreatment processes required for the two main conversion routes (biochemical and thermochemical) for biomass.
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Figure 2.
A layout showing different pretreatment methods for biomass and their corresponding energy conversion routes.
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The following subsections present a further description of the main classes of pretreatment.
\n
\n
3.1 Physical pretreatment
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Physical pretreatment of biomass is intended to reduce particle size by mechanical comminution in order to increase surface area and pore size. For LCB materials, physical pretreatment decreases cellulose crystallinity and degree of polymerization. It is a vital step prior to both the biochemical and thermochemical conversion of biomass [7, 26]. However, there is limited information about the mode of action of physical pretreatment processes, particularly with respect to how the chemical composition of biomass is modified or how its structure is affected. The application of biomass determines the type of physical pretreatment method to be applied. For instance, biochemical conversion of LCB will require size reduction through milling in order to improve enzymatic digestibility of lignocellulosic components. For thermochemical conversion applications of biomass, milling is required for densification, pelletization and even torrefaction prior to thermochemical conversion. In both conversion pathways (biochemical and thermochemical), prior size reduction is necessary in order to eliminate mass and heat transfer limitations. Chipping is also another physical pretreatment technique commonly employed when the biomass is to be used as feedstock in thermochemical conversion processes. This is because most thermochemical conversion systems are size specific hence require feedstock size in the range 50 mm by 50 mm in diameter [7].
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As previously stated, densification, pelletization and torrefaction are all considered physical pretreatment methods for biomass intended as feedstock for thermochemical conversion processes [7]. These pretreatment techniques use heat to initiate changes that leads to improved biomass characteristics. A major drawback of the physical pretreatment technique however is its lack of ability to get rid of the lignin content of LCB materials, which renders the cellulose content of the material inaccessible. Other shortcomings include high energy consumption and the prohibitive cost of scale-up for commercial purposes. Studies [26, 27] have shown that the process of lignin removal from LCB materials could be one of the major reasons for the high energy demand of physical pretreatment techniques hence the overall energy efficiency of a bio refinery process may be ultimately affected by this pretreatment method [26].
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\n
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3.2 Chemical pretreatment
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Chemical pretreatment of biomass involves the use of organic or inorganic compounds to bring about disruption of biomass structure through interaction with intra- and inter polymer bonds of primary organic components. Biomass, particularly LCB materials are resistant to chemical breakdown hence biomass is regarded as being recalcitrant in nature. A host of factors are responsible for the recalcitrance nature of biomass including the structural complexity and heterogeneity of biomass, the crystalline nature of its cellulose content, and the extent of lignification [7, 28]. Throughout the chemical pretreatment process, the structural recalcitrance of LCB is disrupted, resulting in the reduction of cellulose crystallinity and depolymerization as well as the degradation of cellulose and the breakdown of lignin [29, 30]. For biochemical conversion of biomass, particularly LCB, chemical pretreatment is commonly undertaken in order to isolate the respective bio-polymeric constituents of the material. Figure 3 shows the effect of chemical pretreatment on LCB.
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Figure 3.
A schematic representation of the impact of pretreatment on the surface and internal structure of lignocellulosic biomass. Adapted from [31].
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Examples of compounds that have been used for the chemical pretreatment of biomass and which had significant effect on its structure include acids, alkali, organic solvents, and ionic liquids [32, 33].
\n
\n
\n
3.3 Biological pretreatment
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Biological pretreatment of biomass is mostly linked to the action of enzyme-producing fungi that are able to degrade, depolymerize and cleave the cellulose, hemicellulose and the lignin contents of biomass. This pretreatment method has several advantages over other pretreatment methods including its limited or no generation of toxic substances, high yield of needed products, low energy requirements and specificity of substrate and process reaction [34, 35]. However, its major disadvantages include the fact that the process is too slow and needs careful control of conditions of fungi growth as well as the large space required to carry out the process [36]. According to Agbor et al., 2011 [37], the residence time required for biological pretreatment processes is in the range 10 and 14 days. In addition, the organic components of biomass are consumed by the microorganisms’ hence biological pretreatment processes faces techno-economic challenges and are considered commercially less attractive when compared to other pretreatment methods [38, 39, 40]. The types of fungi commonly used in biological pretreatment of biomass include brown-, white- and soft-rot fungi, actinomycetes and bacteria. These fungi are particularly known for their removal of hemicellulose and lignin as well as for their mild effect on cellulose. Nevertheless, white- and brown-rot fungi have a variety of ways to access and degrade LCB materials such as wood, and their very strong metabolism has been applied in industrial operations. For instance, white- and brown-rot fungi are known to have a brightening effect on kraft pulp obtained from hardwoods, with cost reductions in bleaching chemicals and potentially decreasing the environmental impact on paper mill operations [41].
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In spite of the fact that many pretreatment methods have been investigated, while others are still in their developmental stages, it is quite onerous to assess and compare pretreatment technologies. This is because most pretreatment technologies involve upstream and downstream costs associated with processing, capital investment as well as complicated chemical recycling and waste treatment systems [42].
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\nTable 2 presents a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the different classes of biomass pretreatment.
A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the classes of pretreatment.
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4. Biomass characterization
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Heterogeneity remains an inherent characteristic of biomass. The feasibility and viability of products recovery from biomass depends upon its properties. The two main conversion pathways earlier mentioned are basically used to recover products of value from biomass. The choice of the conversion route also depends on the features of biomass hence characterization is essential to better understand quintessential physicochemical properties of biomass that will determine how suitable the material is for conversion; these properties are keys to the efficient utilization of biomass in bioconversion processes [1, 7]. However, the characteristics of biomass are largely swayed by its primary organic components (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin), which vary depending on biomass source, species, climatic conditions, etc. Depending on the end use of biomass, characterization of biomass is commonly determined and reported in terms of proximate and ultimate analysis using a variety of analytical tools some of which are described in subsequent sections of this review. This provides vital information for evaluating various application potential of biomass, particularly its energy production potential, which also takes into account heating value when the biomass is used as feedstock in thermochemical conversion processes such as gasification [25]. Table 3 presents the most important characteristics of various lignocellulosic and non-lignocellulosic biomass materials.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Type of biomass
\n
Proximate analysis (wt.%)
\n
Ultimate analysis (wt.%)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
LCB
\n
MC
\n
VM
\n
FC
\n
A
\n
C
\n
H
\n
O
\n
S
\n
N
\n
\n
\n
Wood & woody biomass
\n
5–63
\n
30–80
\n
6–26
\n
1–8
\n
49–57
\n
5–10
\n
32–45
\n
<1–1
\n
<1–1
\n
\n
\n
Herbaceous biomass
\n
4–48
\n
41–77
\n
9–35
\n
1–19
\n
42–58
\n
3–9
\n
34–49
\n
<1–1
\n
<1–3
\n
\n
\n
NLCB
\n
\n
\n
\n
Animal & human waste biomass
\n
3–9
\n
43–62
\n
12–13
\n
23–34
\n
57–61
\n
7–8
\n
21–25
\n
1–2
\n
6–12
\n
\n
\n
Aquatic biomass
\n
8–14
\n
42–53
\n
22–33
\n
11–38
\n
27–43
\n
4–6
\n
34–46
\n
1–3
\n
1–3
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
The properties of various lignocellulosic and non-lignocellulosic biomass materials [49].
The proximate analysis estimates the physical properties of biomass with direct influence on the combustion performance of biomass, while ultimate analysis provides a qualitative and quantitative estimation of chemical properties in terms of the weight fractions of elemental components (such as C, H and O) and determines the heating value of biomass, a vital property of biomass materials intended as feedstock for thermochemical conversion processes; the amounts of other elements such as N, S and Si can help determine the environmental impact of using biomass as a fuel [25, 50, 51]. The proximate and ultimate analyses are discussed further in the following section.
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\n
4.1 Analytical techniques for biomass characterization
\n
As earlier alluded, the determination of biomass characteristics often requires the use of a wide variety of state-of-the-art analytical techniques able to provide not just compositional information, but also pretreatment process validation. However, the type of analytical technique to be used is defined by the application choice of the biomass so that analyses results are interpreted in relation to the specific application. A few of the analytical techniques commonly used in characterization studies involving biomass materials are discussed in the following subsections.
The Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopic (FTIR) is a sensitive technique for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic materials such as biomass. It identifies chemical bonds by generating a range of infrared (IR) retention in the form of spectra that represents sample profile. This analytical tool is particularly useful for tracing and tracking changes in biomass molecular structure caused by pretreatment and can distinguish between functional groups [51]. It is a useful technique for the characterization of biomass materials intended for a whole range of applications including biochemical and thermochemical conversion applications. For example, the FTIR can be used to investigate the possibilities of the removal of hemicellulose and lignin from a chemically pretreated biomass in a pulping process. It can also be used to understand the most reactive components of biomass materials and how these components affect the thermochemical conversion process of biomass.
\n
The FTIR technique relies on the fact that most organic materials absorb light within the IR region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The frequency of absorption of light is measured in wave numbers that is typically in the range 4000–600 cm−1.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.2 X-ray diffraction analyzer
\n
To the best of the author’s knowledge, the X-ray diffraction (XRD) is the only analytical instrument able to reveal comprehensive structural information of materials. Structural information that can be obtained includes chemical composition, deformation, crystal structure, crystal size and orientation as well as layer thickness. This instrument can be used to analyze a wide range of materials including nanomaterials. The XRD is equally a valuable analytical tool for studies involving biomass characterization for various applications. In XRD analysis, the extent of crystallinity is calculated based on an equation: (Eq. (1)) [52, 53]:
where CrI is the crystallinity index, while I002 represents the overall peak intensity and Iam the baseline intensity.
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XRD is especially useful for the determination of the efficiency of hydrolysis for chemically pretreated biomass materials intended for the production of various chemical compounds such as sugar molecules and oligosaccharides, which are products of a fermentation process for the production of bioethanol.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.3 Solid state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
\n
For the analysis of biomass materials considered for the purpose of biofuels, biochar or chemicals production, the solid state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (SSNMR) is the ideal technique. This technique allows detailed structural elucidation of major constituents of biomass, particularly lignocellulosic biomass such as wood. It complements the XRD technique since the degree of cellulose crystallinity can also be determined. Nonetheless, the XRD is based on the proposition that X-ray scattering can be divided into two structural components that are amorphous and crystalline [54], while SSNMR is characterized by orientation-dependent interactions that are observed in a very broad spectrum that provides detailed information on material chemistry, structure and dynamics in the solid state. The production of biofuels and chemicals from lignocellulosic biomass require an unfettered access to cellulose and hemicellulose, thus SSNMR can be used to comprehend bioconversion of biomass as a function of process conditions [55].
\n
The chemical barriers resulting from lignin renders the hydrolysis process of biomass into fermentable sugars quite complicated. Therefore, advances in spectroscopic techniques, especially spectroscopic methods, have enabled researchers to elucidate the structural characteristics of biomass in relation to specific applications.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.4 Thermo-gravimetric analysis analyzer
\n
When there is a need to investigate the combustion behavior of biomass materials, the thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) is particularly useful and valuable for determining thermal parameters relevant to the thermochemical conversion of biomass. Proximate analysis data can be obtained from TGA. In this technique, the sample is combusted at desired heating rates in a chemically inactive atmosphere of nitrogen or argon such that the mass of the sample is monitored as temperature increases. The change in mass of the sample is usually plotted as a function of time or temperature. The TGA is a high temperature analytical instrument that adequately mimics the conditions existing in a typical thermal energy production system [56]. For studies involving the need to determine the kinetics of thermal decomposition of biomass, TGA is equally very helpful as it provides qualitative information that can be used to understand process conditions and design parameters of thermochemical conversion systems [57]. This requires that TGA be conducted at different heating rates and its derivative (DTG) used to simplify the reading of the characteristic peaks obtained from the thermogram of change in mass versus temperature.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.5 Differential scanning calorimetry
\n
The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a thermoanalytical tool used to directly assess the heat energy uptake that occurs in a sample within a controlled increase or decrease in temperature. The instrument monitors phase transitions that lead to heat flow between crucibles since the process involves the heating of two crucibles (one which contains the sample to be analyzed, and the other serving as a reference without a sample). In this analysis, heat flow is measured as a function of temperature so that combustion profiles that will help determine the series of stages that characterizes the thermal performance of a material can be evaluated. In some instances, the DSC can be used as a complementary analytical tool to the TGA, particularly when monitoring softening or glass transition temperature range [8]. The DSC is very valuable for the analysis of biomass materials intended as feedstock for thermochemical conversion processes and the data from DSC can help improve the understanding of the effect of activation energy on the rate of biomass conversion in the aforementioned thermal energy systems [58]. The reactivity of biomass materials can also be determined using DSC and the volatiles from the analysis can be identified using gas analyzers.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.6 CHNS analyzer
\n
The CHNS analyzer is the carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) analyzer used to measure the weight percentages of these elements in a given material. In CHNS analysis, the weight fraction of oxygen is usually determined by difference with respect to a generally accepted equation (Eq. (2)).
The CHNS analyzer is an elemental analyzer whose principle of operation is based on combustion that allows the quantitative determination of the above elements without the need for time consuming sample preparation steps or the use of toxic chemicals. Elemental composition is one of the most important features for biomass utilization [25, 59]. In addition to facilitating the determination of the environmental compatibility of using biomass as a fuel in thermal energy systems, CHNS analysis can be used to obtain information about calorific value and establish the combustion performance of biomass, if the weight proportions of primary elemental components such as C, H and O are known. One of the simplest ways to calculate the calorific value of biomass without the need for analytical tools is from an equation developed by Sheng and Azevedo, 2005 [60]:
Calorific value is an important property of biomass for design calculations or numerical simulation of thermochemical conversion systems using biomass as feedstock [25, 60].
The Py-GC/MS is a technique used to identify non-volatile compounds. It involves high temperature heating of a sample to decomposition into smaller molecules that are separated by gas chromatography and identified by mass spectrometry. This technique is particularly suited for the analysis of biomass materials intended as feedstock in pyrolysis or hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) processes for the production of charcoals and bio-oils as the mechanisms involved in these two thermochemical processes (pyrolysis and hydrothermal liquefaction) can be conveniently investigated. For example, pyrolysis of biomass is a relatively complex process that involves both simultaneous and successive chemical reactions which occurs when the biomass is heated in an unreactive environment. Due to the compositional and structural variability of biomass, major constituents degrade under non-identical mechanisms at different temperature ranges and at different rates. Therefore, to explore the complexity of this process, cutting-edge analytical tools such as the Py-GC/MS are required.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.8 Scanning electron microscope
\n
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces the image of a sample by scanning the surface of the sample with a focused beam of electrons that interact with the sample to produce a variety of signals used to obtain information about surface composition and topography. The macroscopic nature of biomass requires that some form of pretreatment, such as size reduction, be performed in order to reveal properties of interest for any microscopic and nanoscopic analyses. Thus, by employing imaging techniques such as the SEM, it is possible to study the physical and chemical underpinnings of the prodigy of biomass recalcitrance to breakdown. The SEM can be used to investigate the morphological properties of biomass relevant to the specific application of the biomass. The information obtained can then be used to hone biomass pretreatment methods that will enhance biomass susceptibility to biochemical or thermochemical conversion. It is however worthy to mention that the moisture content of biomass can be very problematic to some microscopic techniques (such as the SEM) since analyses using these techniques are usually performed on dry samples. As such, samples with reduced moisture content are often required before analysis to avoid the introduction of structural artifacts that may interfere with the SEM images of the sample.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Future prospects
\n
The large-scale substitution of fossil fuel with biomass resources is a topical issue not just for the production of energy but also for the production of chemicals, bio products and materials. Moreover, due to the large availability of biomass throughout the world, the production of the high value-added products from biomass can be achieved under any geographical conditions and the feasibility and viability of the production of the value-added products depends on biomass characteristics and the pretreatment method employed. However, biomass complexity and the high capital and operation costs associated with biomass pretreatment as well as the mechanisms involved in the conversion process of biomass are some of the challenges associated with the use of biomass for the production of energy, chemicals and fuels. Therefore, efforts should be geared toward the design of more easy-to-use and cost effective technologies at all levels so as to encourage the widespread application of biomass and attract investment in this field. In addition, not much is known about the optimal biomass pretreatment conditions because they are seldom reported. Consequently, for the efficient and feasible utilization of biomass in bioconversion processes, information about the optimum conditions of pretreatment is vital and efforts made to report such information. It has been reported [61] that researchers and policy makers are in need of useful information that may lead to the much needed improvements in this field of research. So, efforts made to report optimal pretreatment conditions for biomass will create further awareness on the advantages of the exploitation of biomass resources for the production of renewable energy and other bio products.
\n
On the other hand, characterization of biomass also faces significant challenges ranging from the nature of the biomass and the multiphase bioconversion processes using the biomass as feedstock as well as the lack of experimental validation of the cutting-edge analytical techniques used for biomass characterization. Efforts made to address these barriers through continued research will equally lead to optimization of bioconversion and bio refinery processes. Needless to say that, since a single analytical technique cannot provide all of the needed information simultaneously with optimal resolution and high sensitivity, complementary techniques are often required to achieve full understanding of the physical and chemical underpinnings of the prodigy of biomass recalcitrance as it undergoes bioconversion processing. This may ease the challenges associated with experimental validation. Nevertheless, it is vital to mention that each type of characterization technique has its own merits and demerits under a particular set of circumstances and that the shortcomings of one technique may be compensated for by the merits of the other.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusions
\n
Pretreatment and characterization of biomass are key steps for the efficient utilization of biomass materials in bioconversion processes. A determination of the best pretreatment method and parameters requires an evaluation of its effects on biomass using cutting-edge analytical tools able to provide information that will facilitate better understanding of the origins of biomass recalcitrance and the mechanism and impact of pretreatment relevant to the optimization of different bioconversion pathways.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The author would like to thank the Department of Engineering and Chemical Sciences of Karlstad University for providing a conducive environment and an opportunity to conduct this synopsis.
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n
Notes/Thanks/Other declarations
\n
The first author deems it a great pleasure to place on record his sincere gratitude to his dear wife, Tuliwe-Ndudula Anukam, who stood by him and kept a peaceful home environment in the midst of numerous challenges.
\n
Abbreviations
LCB
biomass
NLCB
Non lignocellulosic biomass
FTIR
Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopic
IR
infrared
XRD
X-ray diffraction
SSNMR
solid state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
TGA
thermo-gravimetric analysis
DTG
derivative thermogravimetry
DSC
differential scanning calorimetry
SEM
scanning electron microscope
\n',keywords:"biomass, bioconversion, bio refinery, energy systems, energy production",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73215.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73215.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73215",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73215",totalDownloads:259,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:3,dateSubmitted:"June 4th 2020",dateReviewed:"August 17th 2020",datePrePublished:"September 30th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"September 15th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Biomass has the potential to replace conventional fuels in a number of applications, particularly in biofuel production. It is an abundantly available renewable material with great potential as a feedstock for bioconversion processes for the production of energy, fuels and a variety of chemicals. Due to its biogenic origin, the carbon dioxide released from its combustion process does not impact atmospheric carbon dioxide. Despite these merits, a major problem hindering its widespread use has always been its recalcitrant nature, in terms of its inherent characteristics, which are unfavorable to its use in bioconversion and bio refinery processes. This makes it necessary for biomass to be pretreated before use in any conversion process for maximum product recovery. However, a major issue with regards to biomass pretreatment is the lack of rapid, high throughput and reliable tools for assessing and tracing biopolymer components of biomass relevant to the energy production potential of the biomass. This chapter therefore presents an overview of the pretreatment and characterization of biomass relevant to energy, fuels and chemicals production. The information provided will bequeath readers with the basic knowledge necessary for finding an auspicious solution to pretreatment problems and the production of energy from pretreated biomass.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73215",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73215",signatures:"Anthony Anukam and Jonas Berghel",book:{id:"10127",title:"Biomass",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomass",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Thalita Peixoto Basso and Dr. Thiago Olitta Basso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10127.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83881-182-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-180-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-183-9",editors:[{id:"139174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thalita",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto Basso",slug:"thalita-peixoto-basso",fullName:"Thalita Peixoto Basso"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Overview of biomass composition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Biomass pretreatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Physical pretreatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Chemical pretreatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Biological pretreatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Biomass characterization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Analytical techniques for biomass characterization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.1.1 Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopic analyzer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.1.2 X-ray diffraction analyzer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.3 Solid state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.1.4 Thermo-gravimetric analysis analyzer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.1.5 Differential scanning calorimetry",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.1.6 CHNS analyzer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.1.7 Pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.1.8 Scanning electron microscope",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Future prospects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Notes/Thanks/Other declarations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nTursi A. A review on biomass: Importance, chemistry, classification, and conversion. Biofuel Research Journal. 2019;22:962-979\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nChum H, Faaij A, Moreira J, Berndes G, Dhamija P, Dong H, et al. Bioenergy. In: Edenhofer O, Pichs-Madruga R, Sokona Y, Seyboth K, Matschoss P, Kadner S, et al., editors. IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2011\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nWorld Bioenergy Association. WBA Global bioenergy statistics. Summary Report 2018. Available from: https://www.worldenergy.org/ [Accessed: 06 July 2020]\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nHabert G, Bouzidi Y, Chen C, Jullien A. 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Bioresource Technology. 1996;55:1-33\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nVassilev SV, Baxter D, Andersen LK, Vassileva CG. An overview of the chemical composition of biomass. Fuel. 2010;89(5):913-933\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nSaidur R, Abdelaziz EA, Demirbas A, Hossain MS, Mekhilef S. A review on biomass as a fuel for boilers. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2011;15(5):2262-2289\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nAnukam AI, Goso BP, Okoh OO, Mamphweli SN. Studies on characterization of corn cob for application in a gasification process for energy production. Journal of Chemistry. 2017;2017:1-9\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nLiu Z, Fei B. Characteristics of moso bamboo with chemical pretreatment. In: Chandel AK, da Silva S, editors. Sustainable Degradation of Lignocellulosic Biomass– Techniques, Applications and Commercialization. Rijeka: Intechopen; 2013. pp. 1-14\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nSegal L, Creely JJ, Martin AE Jr, Conrad CM. An empirical method for estimating the degree of crystallinity of native cellulose using the X-ray diffractometer. Textile Research Journal. 1959;29:786-794\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nZhang YP, Lynd LR. Toward an aggregated understanding of enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose: Noncomplexed cellulase systems. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 2004;88:797-824\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nLe Brech Y, Delmotte L, Raya J, Brosse N, Gadiou R, Dufour A. High resolution solid state 2D NMR analysis of biomass and biochar. Analytical Chemistry. 2015;87:843-847\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nAnukam A, Mamphweli S, Reddy P, Okoh O, Meyer E. An investigation into the impact of reaction temperature on various parameters during torrefaction of sugarcane bagasse relevant to gasification. Journal of Chemistry. \t2015;2015:1-12\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nFont R. Decomposition of organic wastes: Thermal analysis and evolution of volatiles. In: Vyazovkin S, Koga N, Schick C, editors. Handbook of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry. 2nd ed. New York: Elsevier; 2018. pp. 339-397\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nFink JK. Epoxy resins. In: Fink J, editor. Reactive Polymers Fundamentals and Applications. A Concise Guide to Industrial Polymers. 2nd ed. New York: Elsevier; 2013. pp. 95-153\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nShen J, Zhu S, Liu X, Zhang H, Tan J. The prediction of elemental composition of biomass based on proximate analysis. Energy Conversion and Management. 2010;51(5):983-987\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nSheng C, Azevedo JLT. Estimating the higher heating value of biomass from basic analysis data. Biomass and Bioenergy. 2005;28(5):499-507\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nAmin FR, Khalid H, Zhang H, Rahman SU, Zhang R, Liu G, et al. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic biomass for anaerobic digestion. AMB Express. 2017;7:1-12\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Anthony Anukam",address:"anthonyanukam16@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Environmental and Energy Systems, Department of Engineering and Chemical Sciences, Karlstad University, Karlstad, Sweden
Environmental and Energy Systems, Department of Engineering and Chemical Sciences, Karlstad University, Karlstad, Sweden
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10127",title:"Biomass",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomass",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Thalita Peixoto Basso and Dr. Thiago Olitta Basso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10127.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83881-182-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-180-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-183-9",editors:[{id:"139174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thalita",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto Basso",slug:"thalita-peixoto-basso",fullName:"Thalita Peixoto Basso"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"212103",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Vertuani",email:"vrs@unife.it",fullName:"Silvia Vertuani",slug:"silvia-vertuani",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Guidelines for the Development of Herbal-Based Sunscreen",slug:"guidelines-for-the-development-of-herbal-based-sunscreen",abstract:"Sun protection is a complex topic, which involves various classes of compounds. The photoprotective effectiveness of a sunscreen involves many biological activities, such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation filter properties and antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimutagenic effects. Formulation strategy is also a key factor. Several studies have examined the role of natural molecules as photoprotective compounds, and a considerable number of commercially available sunscreens contain herbal extracts but not as sunfilters. Indeed, the process of evaluation of UV-filtering and photoprotective activity of herbal compounds presents certain specific difficulties and needs in vitro and in vivo studies. Nowadays, no natural compound or vegetal extract has been approved by any country as official UV filter for sunscreen. With these premises, the aim of this chapter is to define a set of tests, which can help to evaluate the efficacy of an herbal extract in the field of sun protection; in other words, we propose a rational approach to the discovery of natural UV-filtering extract and molecules. The following electronic databases have been used as a source of information: SciFinder, PubMed, Google Scholar, ISI-Web of Science, and Scopus.",signatures:"Piergiacomo Buso, Matteo Radice, Anna Baldisserotto, Stefano\nManfredini and Silvia Vertuani",authors:[{id:"212100",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",surname:"Manfredini",fullName:"Stefano Manfredini",slug:"stefano-manfredini",email:"smanfred@unife.it"},{id:"212101",title:"BSc.",name:"Piergiacomo",surname:"Buso",fullName:"Piergiacomo Buso",slug:"piergiacomo-buso",email:"piergiacomobuso@student.unife.it"},{id:"212102",title:"Prof.",name:"Matteo",surname:"Radice",fullName:"Matteo Radice",slug:"matteo-radice",email:"mradice@uea.edu.ec"},{id:"212103",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Vertuani",fullName:"Silvia Vertuani",slug:"silvia-vertuani",email:"vrs@unife.it"},{id:"220809",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Baldisserotto",fullName:"Anna Baldisserotto",slug:"anna-baldisserotto",email:"anna.baldisserotto@unife.it"}],book:{title:"Herbal Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicine",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165784/images/4439_n.jpg",biography:"Rolando Chamy obtained his professional degree in Biochemical Engineering from Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Valparaíso (PUCV), Chile, in 1982. He obtained his PhD in Chemical Engineering from the University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain, in 1991. The same year, he became fulltime Professor in the School of Biochemical Engineering at PUCV. He also participated in the creation of the Biotechnology Center (NBC) of PUCV. Currently, Dr. Chamy serves as the Director of NBC and is the main researcher of the bioenergy unit of Fraunhofer Chile Research. His research interests are in the fields of bioenergy, biofuels, environmental engineering, and climate change. Dr. Chamy has authored and coauthored more than 200 scientific publications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontificial Catholic University of Valparaiso",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"190435",title:"Dr.",name:"Caleb",surname:"Firempong",slug:"caleb-firempong",fullName:"Caleb Firempong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"193905",title:"Dr.",name:"Dennis",surname:"Mans",slug:"dennis-mans",fullName:"Dennis Mans",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193905/images/system/193905.png",biography:"Dennis R.A. Mans (October 16, 1955, Paramaribo, Suriname)\ngraduated as a Medical Biologist in 1984 at the Utrecht University, The Netherlands. He received his PhD diploma in 1991\nfrom the Free University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands, with\na thesis on the antineoplastic agent etoposide. Between 1992 and\n2000, he worked in Brazil on plants with anticancer properties.\nHe returned to Suriname in 2000 to hold an academic position at\nthe Anton de Kom University. In 2001, he became Head of the Department of Pharmacology, in 2006 he was appointed Associate Professor, and in 2008 Full Professor\nwith a chair in Pharmacognosy. His scientific production amounts to more than 100\nfull papers and more than 200 scientific abstracts.",institutionString:"Anton de Kom University of Suriname",institution:{name:"Anton de Kom University of Suriname",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Suriname"}}},{id:"212111",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",surname:"Komlaga",slug:"gustav-komlaga",fullName:"Gustav Komlaga",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"217045",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnold Forkuo",surname:"Donkor",slug:"arnold-forkuo-donkor",fullName:"Arnold Forkuo Donkor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"217049",title:"Prof.",name:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao",surname:"Mensah",slug:"merlin-lincoln-kwao-mensah",fullName:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao Mensah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"217488",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander K.",surname:"Anning",slug:"alexander-k.-anning",fullName:"Alexander K. 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Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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