Result of caping procedure by different authors using different capping materials.
\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"788",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Topics in Renal Biopsy and Pathology",title:"Topics in Renal Biopsy and Pathology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"There is no dearth of high-quality books on renal biopsy and pathology in the market. These are either single author or multi-author books, written by world authorities in their respective areas, mostly from the developed world. The vast scholarly potential of authors in the developing countries remains underutilized. Most of the books share the classical monotony of the topics or subjects covered in the book. The current book is a unique adventure in that it bears a truly international outlook and incorporates a variety of topics, which make the book a very interesting project. The authors of the present book hail not only from the developed world, but also many developing countries. The authors belong not only to US but also to Europe as well as to Pakistan and Japan. The scientific content of the book is equally varied, spanning the spectrum of technical issues of biopsy procurement, to pathological examination, to individual disease entities, renal graft pathology, pathophysiology of renal disorders, to practice guidelines.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0477-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6953-6",doi:"10.5772/1296",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"topics-in-renal-biopsy-and-pathology",numberOfPages:298,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"ff37da307f4471516e16d5801fbb9164",bookSignature:"Muhammed Mubarak and Javed I. Kazi",publishedDate:"April 4th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/788.jpg",numberOfDownloads:62822,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:15,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 25th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 22nd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 29th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 29th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 26th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"119854",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammed",middleName:null,surname:"Mubarak",slug:"muhammed-mubarak",fullName:"Muhammed Mubarak",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/119854/images/2577_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammed Mubarak is currently working as Associate Professor and Consultant Histopathologist at Sindh Institute of Urology and Transplantation (SIUT), Karachi, Pakistan. He graduated from Liaquat Medical College, Pakistan, and later on did postgraduate training in clinical pathology and histopathology at Hammersmith Hospital, London, SIUT, and PNS Shifa Hospital, Karachi. He has authored, together with Prof. Kazi, more than 65 papers in local and international peer-reviewed journals, including those describing the pattern of renal biopsy pathology in Pakistan for the first time. He is a member of editorial board and reviewer of many local and international medical journals. He is member of many professional organizations such as Transplant Society of Pakistan, Renal Pathology Society and Country Representative of European Nephropathology Working Group. He has participated in many national and international conferences on pathology, renal pathology and transplantation. His areas of special interest include renal and transplant pathology, uropathology and gastrointestinal pathology.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"125567",title:"Prof.",name:"Javed I",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",slug:"javed-i-kazi",fullName:"Javed I Kazi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125567/images/2583_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Javed I. Kazi is Professor and Chairman of Pathology at the Karachi Medical and Dental College and Abbasi Shaheed Hospital, Karachi, and Consultant Histopathologist, Sindh Institute of Urology and Transplantation (SIUT). He is a Dow graduate and has extensively trained both in Pakistan and abroad, including National University of Singapore, Addenbrook’s Hospital, Cambridge, and Leicester General Hospital, where he in collaboration with Professor Peter Furness, developed an artificial neural network for the diagnosis of early graft rejection. Professor Kazi established the department of Histopathology including the Electron Microscopy Unit at the SIUT in 1995. Since then, he has been involved in promoting renal and transplant pathology in Pakistan.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1101",title:"Anatomical Pathology",slug:"anatomical-pathology"}],chapters:[{id:"34940",title:"Percutaneous Renal Biopsy",doi:"10.5772/27715",slug:"percutaneous-kidney-biopsy",totalDownloads:9741,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Louis-Philippe Laurin, Alain Bonnardeaux, Michel Dube and Martine Leblanc",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34940",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34940",authors:[{id:"71239",title:"Dr.",name:"Martine",surname:"Leblanc",slug:"martine-leblanc",fullName:"Martine Leblanc"},{id:"72217",title:"Dr.",name:"Alain",surname:"Bonnardeaux",slug:"alain-bonnardeaux",fullName:"Alain Bonnardeaux"},{id:"72218",title:"Dr.",name:"Louis-Philippe",surname:"Laurin",slug:"louis-philippe-laurin",fullName:"Louis-Philippe Laurin"},{id:"72220",title:"Dr.",name:"Michel",surname:"Dubé",slug:"michel-dube",fullName:"Michel Dubé"}],corrections:null},{id:"34941",title:"Renal Biopsy in the Pediatric Patient",doi:"10.5772/27719",slug:"pediatric-renal-biopsy",totalDownloads:5770,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Isa F. Ashoor, Deborah R. Stein and Michael J. G. Somers",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34941",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34941",authors:[{id:"71253",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Somers",slug:"michael-somers",fullName:"Michael Somers"}],corrections:null},{id:"34942",title:"Skin Biopsy as Alternative for Renal Biopsy in Acute Renal Failure and Suspected Cholesterol Emboli Syndrome",doi:"10.5772/26021",slug:"skin-biopsy-as-alternative-for-renal-biopsy-in-suspected-cholesterol-emboli-syndrome",totalDownloads:1912,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Martijn B. A. van Doorn and Tijmen J. Stoof",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34942",authors:[{id:"65291",title:"Dr.",name:"Martijn",surname:"Van Doorn",slug:"martijn-van-doorn",fullName:"Martijn Van Doorn"},{id:"65296",title:"Prof.",name:"Tom",surname:"Stoof",slug:"tom-stoof",fullName:"Tom Stoof"}],corrections:null},{id:"34943",title:"Renal Biopsy Interpretation",doi:"10.5772/26316",slug:"post-biopsy-examination-normal-kidney-histology-pathohistological-findings-and-differential-diagnose",totalDownloads:3697,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Sakineh Amoueian and Armin Attaranzadeh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34943",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34943",authors:[{id:"66213",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakineh",surname:"Amoueian",slug:"sakineh-amoueian",fullName:"Sakineh Amoueian"},{id:"71387",title:"Prof.",name:"Isa",surname:"Jahanzad",slug:"isa-jahanzad",fullName:"Isa Jahanzad"},{id:"71388",title:"Dr.",name:"Armin",surname:"Attaranzadeh",slug:"armin-attaranzadeh",fullName:"Armin Attaranzadeh"}],corrections:null},{id:"34944",title:"Diagnostic Algorithms in Renal Biopsy Interpretation Along with Case Samples",doi:"10.5772/25412",slug:"diagnostic-algorithms-in-renal-biopsy-interpretation-with-case-samples",totalDownloads:7433,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Şafak Güçer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34944",authors:[{id:"63246",title:"Prof.",name:"Kadri Safak",surname:"Gucer",slug:"kadri-safak-gucer",fullName:"Kadri Safak Gucer"}],corrections:null},{id:"34945",title:"The Many Faces of Thin Basement Membrane Nephropathy; A Population Based Study",doi:"10.5772/26416",slug:"tentative-title-the-many-faces-of-thin-basement-membrane-nephropathy-a-population-based-study",totalDownloads:4655,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Kyriacos Kyriacou, Marianna Nearchou, Ioanna Zouvani, Christina Flouri, Maria Loizidou, Michael Hadjigavriel, Andreas Hadjisavvas and Kyriacos Ioannou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34945",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34945",authors:[{id:"66535",title:"Dr.",name:"Kyriacos",surname:"Kyriacou",slug:"kyriacos-kyriacou",fullName:"Kyriacos Kyriacou"},{id:"69730",title:"MSc",name:"Marianna",surname:"Nearchou",slug:"marianna-nearchou",fullName:"Marianna Nearchou"},{id:"69735",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioanna",surname:"Zouvani",slug:"ioanna-zouvani",fullName:"Ioanna Zouvani"},{id:"69738",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Hadjisavvas",slug:"andreas-hadjisavvas",fullName:"Andreas Hadjisavvas"},{id:"69740",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Loizidou",slug:"maria-loizidou",fullName:"Maria Loizidou"},{id:"69741",title:"Dr.",name:"Kyriacos",surname:"Ioannou",slug:"kyriacos-ioannou",fullName:"Kyriacos Ioannou"},{id:"118998",title:"Ms.",name:"Christina",surname:"Flouri",slug:"christina-flouri",fullName:"Christina Flouri"},{id:"118999",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Hadjigavriel",slug:"michael-hadjigavriel",fullName:"Michael Hadjigavriel"}],corrections:null},{id:"34946",title:"Update on IgM Nephropathy",doi:"10.5772/39039",slug:"update-on-igm-nephropathy",totalDownloads:4849,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Javed I. Kazi and Muhammed Mubarak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34946",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34946",authors:[{id:"125567",title:"Prof.",name:"Javed I",surname:"Kazi",slug:"javed-i-kazi",fullName:"Javed I Kazi"}],corrections:null},{id:"34947",title:"Recent Developments in the Pathogenesis and the Pathological Classification of IgA Nephropathy",doi:"10.5772/38941",slug:"recent-developments-in-the-pathogenesis-and-the-pathological-classification-of-iga-nephropathy",totalDownloads:1737,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Muhammed Mubarak and Javed I. Kazi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34947",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34947",authors:[{id:"119854",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammed",surname:"Mubarak",slug:"muhammed-mubarak",fullName:"Muhammed Mubarak"},{id:"125567",title:"Prof.",name:"Javed I",surname:"Kazi",slug:"javed-i-kazi",fullName:"Javed I Kazi"}],corrections:null},{id:"34948",title:"Collapsing Glomerulopathy: The Expanding Etiologic Spectrum of a Shrinking Glomerular Lesion",doi:"10.5772/38937",slug:"collapsing-glomerulopathy-the-expanding-etiologic-spectrum-of-a-shrinking-glomerular-lesion-",totalDownloads:2762,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Muhammed Mubarak and Javed I. Kazi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34948",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34948",authors:[{id:"119854",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammed",surname:"Mubarak",slug:"muhammed-mubarak",fullName:"Muhammed Mubarak"},{id:"125567",title:"Prof.",name:"Javed I",surname:"Kazi",slug:"javed-i-kazi",fullName:"Javed I Kazi"}],corrections:null},{id:"34949",title:"Pathology of Renal Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/39182",slug:"pathology-of-renal-transplantation",totalDownloads:3870,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Javed I. Kazi and Muhammed Mubarak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34949",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34949",authors:[{id:"125567",title:"Prof.",name:"Javed I",surname:"Kazi",slug:"javed-i-kazi",fullName:"Javed I Kazi"}],corrections:null},{id:"34950",title:"Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) and Management of Renal Tumors",doi:"10.5772/25949",slug:"acute-kidney-injury-aki-and-management-of-renal-tumors",totalDownloads:2216,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Yoshio Shimizu and Yasuhiko Tomino",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34950",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34950",authors:[{id:"65067",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshio",surname:"Shimizu",slug:"yoshio-shimizu",fullName:"Yoshio Shimizu"},{id:"84314",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuhiko",surname:"Tomino",slug:"yasuhiko-tomino",fullName:"Yasuhiko Tomino"}],corrections:null},{id:"34951",title:"Chronic Kidney Disease Update",doi:"10.5772/39228",slug:"chronic-kidney-disease-update",totalDownloads:3296,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Waqar H. Kazmi and Khurram Danial",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34951",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34951",authors:[{id:"145486",title:"Prof.",name:"Waqar",surname:"Kazmi",slug:"waqar-kazmi",fullName:"Waqar Kazmi"}],corrections:null},{id:"34952",title:"Acute Renal Cortical Necrosis",doi:"10.5772/39191",slug:"acute-renal-cortical-necrosis",totalDownloads:5993,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Manohar Lal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34952",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34952",authors:[{id:"140339",title:"Prof.",name:"Manohar Lal",surname:"Dawani",slug:"manohar-lal-dawani",fullName:"Manohar Lal Dawani"}],corrections:null},{id:"34953",title:"Pathophysiological Approach to Acid Base Disorders",doi:"10.5772/39164",slug:"pathophysiological-approach-to-acid-base-disorders",totalDownloads:4893,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Absar Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34953",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34953",authors:[{id:"138514",title:"Dr.",name:"Absar",surname:"Ali",slug:"absar-ali",fullName:"Absar Ali"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66777",slug:"corrigendum-to-robust-optimal-power-distribution-for-hyperthermia-cancer-treatment",title:"Corrigendum to: Robust Optimal Power Distribution for Hyperthermia Cancer Treatment",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66777.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66777",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66777",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66777",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66777",chapter:{id:"59062",slug:"robust-optimal-power-distribution-for-hyperthermia-cancer-treatment",signatures:"Nafiseh Shariati, Dave Zachariah, Johan Karlsson and Mats\nBengtsson",dateSubmitted:"November 11th 2017",dateReviewed:"December 19th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 27th 2019",book:{id:"6655",title:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT)",subtitle:"Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications",fullTitle:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT) - Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications",slug:"medical-internet-of-things-m-iot-enabling-technologies-and-emerging-applications",publishedDate:"February 27th 2019",bookSignature:"Hamed Farhadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6655.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171143",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamed",middleName:null,surname:"Farhadi",slug:"hamed-farhadi",fullName:"Hamed Farhadi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"233776",title:"Dr.",name:"Nafiseh",middleName:null,surname:"Shariati",fullName:"Nafiseh Shariati",slug:"nafiseh-shariati",email:"nafiseh.shariati@ericsson.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"233777",title:"Dr.",name:"Dave",middleName:null,surname:"Zachariah",fullName:"Dave Zachariah",slug:"dave-zachariah",email:"dave.zachariah@it.uu.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"233778",title:"Dr.",name:"Johan",middleName:null,surname:"Karlsson",fullName:"Johan Karlsson",slug:"johan-karlsson",email:"johan.karlsson@math.kth.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"233779",title:"Prof.",name:"Mats",middleName:null,surname:"Bengtsson",fullName:"Mats Bengtsson",slug:"mats-bengtsson",email:"mats.bengtsson@kth.se",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"59062",slug:"robust-optimal-power-distribution-for-hyperthermia-cancer-treatment",signatures:"Nafiseh Shariati, Dave Zachariah, Johan Karlsson and Mats\nBengtsson",dateSubmitted:"November 11th 2017",dateReviewed:"December 19th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 27th 2019",book:{id:"6655",title:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT)",subtitle:"Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications",fullTitle:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT) - Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications",slug:"medical-internet-of-things-m-iot-enabling-technologies-and-emerging-applications",publishedDate:"February 27th 2019",bookSignature:"Hamed Farhadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6655.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171143",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamed",middleName:null,surname:"Farhadi",slug:"hamed-farhadi",fullName:"Hamed Farhadi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"233776",title:"Dr.",name:"Nafiseh",middleName:null,surname:"Shariati",fullName:"Nafiseh Shariati",slug:"nafiseh-shariati",email:"nafiseh.shariati@ericsson.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"233777",title:"Dr.",name:"Dave",middleName:null,surname:"Zachariah",fullName:"Dave Zachariah",slug:"dave-zachariah",email:"dave.zachariah@it.uu.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"233778",title:"Dr.",name:"Johan",middleName:null,surname:"Karlsson",fullName:"Johan Karlsson",slug:"johan-karlsson",email:"johan.karlsson@math.kth.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"233779",title:"Prof.",name:"Mats",middleName:null,surname:"Bengtsson",fullName:"Mats Bengtsson",slug:"mats-bengtsson",email:"mats.bengtsson@kth.se",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"6655",title:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT)",subtitle:"Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications",fullTitle:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT) - Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications",slug:"medical-internet-of-things-m-iot-enabling-technologies-and-emerging-applications",publishedDate:"February 27th 2019",bookSignature:"Hamed Farhadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6655.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171143",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamed",middleName:null,surname:"Farhadi",slug:"hamed-farhadi",fullName:"Hamed Farhadi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10874",leadTitle:null,title:"Antimicrobial Peptides",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tAntimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are found in single-cell and multiple-cells organisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae, insects, scorpions, frogs, and mammals. AMPs are peptides with a varying number (12-50 of amino acids residues) and they belong to the first line defense molecules of multicellular organisms. They have a broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. More than 3000 AMPs have been discovered since the first discovery and isolation. AMPs are mostly synthesized as a precursor containing signal sequences that determine their localization in the cell. Next, the precursor molecules go through cleavage and formation of biologically active peptide. Target and mechanism of action of AMPs can be differing and depend on microorganism against which action is directed; by inhibiting proteins, by disrupting membrane integrity, by inhibiting DNA and RNA synthesis, or by interacting with intracellular targets.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will thus aim to include information on AMPs and their targets and mechanisms of action.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-714-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-713-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-715-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"23ca26025e87356a7c2ffac365f73a22",bookSignature:"Dr. Shymaa Enany, Dr. Jorge Adrian Masso-Silva and Dr. Anna Savitskaya",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10874.jpg",keywords:"Antimicrobial Peptide, AMP, Synthesis, Mechanism of Action, Amino Acid, Precursor, Cleavage, Target, Inhibition, Antimicrobial Activity, Defense Molecule, Microorganism",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 19th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 16th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 15th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 3rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 2nd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Shymaa Enany was the first Arab scientist to apply bacterial proteomic techniques helping in revealing good markers for microbes spreading in the community. For her scientific contributions, she received many awards including the State Encouragement Prize for women in the field of health and pharmaceutical sciences, 2019 and The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Young Arab Scientist Prize 2018 for Scientific Achievement in Medical Sciences.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shymaa Enany is an associate professor of Microbiology at Suez Canal University, Egypt. She received her PhD from School of Medical Sciences, Niigata University, Japan, and spent her postdoc in USA and Japan. She was the first Arab scientist applying bacterial proteomic techniques helping in revealing good markers for microbes spreading in community. She received many awards for her scientific contributions. Recently, she awarded the most prestigious award in Egypt: the state encouragement prize for women in the field of health and pharmaceutical sciences, 2019. Also, she was awarded The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Young Arab Scientist Prize 2018 for Scientific Achievement in Medical Sciences. She was selected as a member of Egyptian Young Academy of Science, an evaluator on Academy of Scientific Research and Technology, a reviewer in International Exhibition of Innovation, and an affiliate of The World Academy of Sciences. Dr. Shymaa is also a part of the scientific committee of World Forum for Women in Science, a selected young leader in STS and WSF, a member in the global Open Science Group, and a collaborator in Global Burden of Disease. On Microbiology National Committee, she is working for achieving sustainable development goals for a better future. She was appointed an Egyptian ambassador in Next Einstein Forum (NEF), which showcases the global contribution and potential of scientists from Africa, enabling Africa to get onto the global scientific stage, and she is a selected member in COVID-19 Diagnostics group in Africa, as well as the co-chair of the COVID-19 Clinical Research Coalition platform (Immunology, Virology and Diagnostics Working Group) in low- and middle-income countries. Latterly, she is selected as an African science leadership program fellow.",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"346095",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:"Adrian",surname:"Masso-Silva",slug:"jorge-masso-silva",fullName:"Jorge Masso-Silva",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000034TvktQAC/Profile_Picture_1610961185642",biography:null,institutionString:"VA San Diego Healthcare System",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"VA San Diego Healthcare System",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"346088",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Savitskaya",slug:"anna-savitskaya",fullName:"Anna Savitskaya",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000034TvdsQAC/Profile_Picture_1610960064985",biography:'Savitskaya Anna, PhD, is a senior researcher at the Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, Russian Federation. Her research interests focus on microbiology, molecular genetics, and the use of microorganisms as producers of target proteins and analysis of intracellular protein interaction. Since 2008, she\'s been enrolled in PhD course at the Department of Chemical Technologies of Wood and Biotechnology of the Siberian State University of Science and Technology named after Academician M.F. Reshetnev, and has started working as a junior researcher at the biotechnology laboratory of the Krasnoyarsk agriculture Research Institute (Krasnoyarsk). In 2011, she underwent a six-month internship at the University of Ottawa (Canada) for which she won a grant from the President of the Russian Federation for training and internships in foreign higher educational institutions and research centers for the 2010/2011 academic year in priority areas of development of science, technology and technology in the Russian Federation. Since 2011, she has worked as a junior researcher at the Research Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathobiochemistry, KrasGMU named after prof. V.F. Voino-Yasenetsky. From 2012 to 2020, she worked as a senior lecturer/associate professor at the Department of Microbiology, KrasGMU named after prof. V.F. Voino-Yasenetsky. From 2014 to 2018, she studied at the graduate school of the University of Niigata (Japan) at the Department of Bacteriology. In 2018 she defended her thesis for a PhD degree in medical science on the topic "C-terminal dependent organization of the mycobacterial genome by a histone-like protein (C-terminal internally disturbed region-dependent organization of the mycobacterial genome by a histone-like protein)". She has carried out studies on heterogeneity of the population of fungi of the genus Fusarium, as well as studies on the selection of aptamers for bacteria S. enteritidis and S. typhymotium, and the development of testing systems using aptamers. She also did research on the role of the internal disordered region (IDR) in the functions of the mycobacterial DNA-binding protein MDP1 and its influence on the phenotype of mycobacteria. The results have been personally reported many times at international scientific conferences and published in scientific journals.',institutionString:"Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"346794",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Miskulin",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/346794/images/15795_n.png",email:"mia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6045",title:"The Rise of Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4f24bfdcb5cd606846da63b96000bed2",slug:"the-rise-of-virulence-and-antibiotic-resistance-in-staphylococcus-aureus",bookSignature:"Shymaa Enany and Laura E. Crotty Alexander",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6045.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5471",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"514afc8c2d4eb28ddca22c032ad96d9e",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",bookSignature:"Shymaa Enany and Laura E. Crotty Alexander",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5471.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6425",title:"Probiotics",subtitle:"Current Knowledge and Future Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"129bd046ff0fb4db6584e5afeebe98fa",slug:"probiotics-current-knowledge-and-future-prospects",bookSignature:"Shymaa Enany",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6425.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6685",title:"Basic Biology and Applications of Actinobacteria",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"301e66d4a6b29d4326c39ff2922ec420",slug:"basic-biology-and-applications-of-actinobacteria",bookSignature:"Shymaa Enany",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6685.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5831",title:"Clostridium Difficile",subtitle:"A Comprehensive Overview",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fabbec5ed99960d2fb904f16790e8b97",slug:"clostridium-difficile-a-comprehensive-overview",bookSignature:"Shymaa Enany",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5831.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"70643",title:"Stump Overgrowth after Limb Amputation in Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90532",slug:"stump-overgrowth-after-limb-amputation-in-children",body:'\nOvergrowth is the most common complication after stump amputation in children, and it leads to significant morbidity and multiple revisions of both the stump and prosthesis [1, 2, 3]. Overgrowth is characterized by the formation of bone spikes at the end of the amputated stump. At some point, the bone end becomes covered with a bursa, and skin adheres to the underlying bone. Finally, the skin perforates, and bone and soft tissue infections develop, Figure 1.
\nX-ray of distal tibia and fibula overgrowth, arrow is indicating the sharp end of overgrown spike.
Stump overgrowth is the most common complication following limb amputation in children, and the incidence varies from 4 to 50% [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Age, location, reason for amputation, and level of amputation are known factors that affect the prevalence of stump overgrowth. Among them age and location are the most influencing factors. Osseous overgrowth is not observed in children older than 12 years or in cases of disarticulation amputations. Younger patients have a higher incidence of stump overgrowth [1, 7, 9]. The most frequent locations are the humerus, followed by the fibula and the tibia, whereas stump overgrowth is rare in the radius and ulna [7, 10]. Traumatic amputations carry a higher risk of overgrowth than elective surgical amputations, as stump overgrowth is very rare in congenital agenesis but common in amniotic band syndrome [1, 2, 3, 5, 11, 12]. Aitke postulated that bone overgrowth in congenital cases is due to intrauterine amputation (amniotic band syndrome) rather than true agenesis, considering that bone overgrowth does not occur in congenital agenesis; however, this assumption has not been proven [7]. An increased prevalence of overgrowth has been reported in patients who had previously undergone surgery for overgrowth [3, 11, 12]. Last, metaphyseal level amputations carry a higher risk of overgrowth than diaphyseal level amputations [1, 5].
\nMany hypotheses have been proposed to explain the phenomenon of bone overgrowth. Because overgrowth occurs in children, it has been suggested that overgrowth occurs as a result of disproportional growth between the remaining proximal physis and the contracted distal soft tissue and skin [13, 14, 15]. Pellicore et al. observed bone growth stimulation following amputation and concluded that stump overgrowth occurs because soft tissues cannot keep up with the rapid growth of the bone [16]; however, attempts to treat overgrowth by proximal epiphysiodesis and leaving long redundant soft tissue have failed [12, 17, 18, 19]. The incidence of the overgrowth phenomenon in cases of surgical and post-trauma amputations was higher [1, 2, 3, 5] compared with that of disarticulation amputation and congenital agenesis, [7, 20] which suggests that stump overgrowth might be a result of bone and soft tissue trauma rather than continuous growth of the proximal physis. This would mean that overgrowth is a local process of bone formation and wound healing that occur in the distal stump. Studying the histology of stump overgrowth in rabbits, Hellstadius concluded that the medullary canal is the source of overgrowth [21]. Aitken implanted a radiographic marker in the bony stump and confirmed that overgrowth occurs distal to the marker, proving that overgrowth does not represent an epiphyseal contribution but rather a local phenomenon of bone healing [7, 8]. This explains why overgrowth does not occur in cases of disarticulation where there is intact articular cartilage rather than transected bone. If stump overgrowth is a local phenomenon, it is unclear why it is not observed following adult amputation. Speer, by conducting an experimental histological study on the immature skeleton of rabbits, described the pathogenesis of stump overgrowth and explained why it does not occur in the mature skeleton [22]. His study indicates that an amputation stump responds via wound healing and intramembranous bone formation. In the immature skeleton, the elastic characteristic of the periosteum allows it to pull away from the end of the amputee stump and leads to local bone formation, Figure 2.
\nPathogenesis of stump overgrowth: (a) initial stage, hematoma formation and periosteal elevation. (b) Organization of collagen fibers of scar and periosteum as continues mass. (c) Pulling the collagen fibers more distal by wound contracture and spike formation. 1 – Cotrex, 2 – Medullary canal, 3 – Periosteum, 4 – Hematoma.
Patients with stump overgrowth present with pain, intolerance to the prosthesis, soft tissue irritation, pressure ulcers, skin perforation, and infection. The sharp edge of the bony spike can be palpated subcutaneously. The diagnosis is confirmed radiographically, with characteristic distal tapering of the bone to a narrow tip, with the absence of a medullary canal (the so-called licked candy sign), Figure 1. Orthopaedists should differentiate between stump overgrowth and bone spurs, which develop as a response to periosteal stimulation at the periphery of transected bone edges. Such bone spurs rarely necessitate stump revision. The cause of pain might also be an adventitious bursa, which is common in soft tissues overlying an area of the stump.
\nThe initial management of stump overgrowth includes prosthetic modifications and lifestyle adjustments. Before wearing the prosthesis, soft tissues should be pulled distally to prevent “mushrooming” of the soft tissue proximally into the socket. In many cases, the cause of pain is attributed to bone spurs and adventitious bursae, which can be treated with aspiration, steroid injections, and stump wrapping.
\nThe skin traction method, first described by Marquardt in the late 1960s, has been reported to be successful in selected cases [10, 23]. This method has become the standard in very young children with very short stumps, in whom further shortening may preclude the use of prosthetics. The method involves a lengthy treatment and requires a cooperative parent. Older children can be taught to apply traction by themselves. The early period at the beginning of the treatment, before the skin becomes adherent to the underlying bursa, is important. The method is less successful for amputations below the knee due to the presence of the interosseous membrane and related tissue that hold the soft tissue firmly to the bone. Traction should be applied 23 hours a day, with 1 hour off for cleaning, and should be continued until skeletal maturity. A skin adhesive, such as Hollister medical skin adhesive, is applied to the distal stump. Cotton or nylon stockinettes are placed on the limb over the adhesive and pressed onto the skin firmly. After the adhesive dry, the loose end of the fabric is split into medial and lateral “tails.” The tails are cut to the skin margin where the stockinette is adherent to the skin and are used to counter-pull through a D-ring attached to the outside of the socket after being looped around a rod built into the prosthesis. Night traction is achieved by attaching the tail of the stockinette to rob with appropriate weight over a pulley on the side of the bed.1
\nThe surgical treatment of stump overgrowth has always been a challenge. Simple excision of the overgrown bone is associated with high recurrence; Davids et al. [11] reported a rate of revision as high as 87% after simple bone excision, multiple revisions (more than one revision) have been reported in 18% of cases, and one case with six revisions has been reported [5, 12]. Repeated surgical excision, while it is temporarily effective, leads to progressive shortening of the stump. A lack of understanding of the pathogenesis has led to a wide variety of treatment recommendations. Disproportional growth between bone and soft tissue has been considered a reason for overgrowth in the immature skeleton. Attempts to treat the condition by proximal epiphysiodesis and leaving a redundant soft tissue envelope have failed to stop overgrowth [12, 17, 18, 19]. The recent hypothesis, which considers overgrowth a local appositional overgrowth as a result of the healing process [6, 7, 8, 21], has directed surgical treatment for reducing the intensity of the bone healing process. Attempts to stop local bone formation by sclerosing the end of the stump by periosteal excision and cauterization have failed to treat the condition, and histological studies of the excised-periosteum distal stump have shown viable bony tissue [3]. To interrupt the interaction between the endosteum and surrounding outside soft and bony tissues, capping of the medullary canal has been suggested. The first capping procedure was performed by Swanson in 1969 with the use of silicon rubber [24, 25]. Marquardt, in 1974, has been credited as being the first to propose the application of a biological cap to prevent bone overgrowth in children. He described his procedure of using an epiphysis taken from the amputated limb as a cap to prevent overgrowth of a distal tibia amputation [26]. The goal was to convert a diaphyseal amputation into a stump resembling a disarticulation type, Figure 3. Many animal and human studies have been conducted to study the result of capping procedures using different materials, including 1 – biological caps: cancellous, cortical, and cartilaginous caps from the amputated distal stump and iliac crest; and 2 – synthetic caps: rubber, polyethylene, titanium, and Teflon caps [1, 3, 4, 11, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32] (Table 1). Animal studies on rabbits, with transplantation of the metatarsal epiphyses and fixation to the end of the amputated bone, have shown epiphyseal capping to be a very successful procedure to prevent overgrowth [31]. Many further publications have shown capping of the stump with an osteochondral cap to be the most effective treatment, with a revision rate of 0–10% [4, 29, 32, 33]. A controlled study compared osteochondral capping of the stump with simple resection and found a revision rate of 10% and, subsequently, of 86% [11, 28]. The distal epiphysis of the amputated stump, distal tibia, distal ulna, head of the metatarsal bone, and calcaneus serve as donors for the osteochondral cap for primary amputation (amputation where a distal stump is available). Finding a donor for the osteochondral cap is a challenge in secondary amputation (revision cases and cases where the distal part is absent), and the proximal fibula of the ipsilateral knee can be used in these situations [4, 29, 31, 33]. To avoid donor site morbidity (knee instability), Paley D used the apophysis of the iliac crest as a cap in a case series of patients [34]. Bernd et al. [27] studied the relationship between the revision rate in cartilaginous stump plasty and different factors and found no relationship with sex, reason for amputation, origin of the graft or method of fixation (screw vs. wires). However, revision was related to age and site; there were no revisions in patients below the age of 10 years old, and there were more revisions in the humerus; the high revision rate in the humerus was attributed to a loose interference fit between the humeral shaft and cartilaginous cap [32].
\nTibia stump plugged by cartilaginous cap.
N | \nYear | \nAuthor | \nRevision rate | \nType of cap | \nNote | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \n1978 | \nWang et al. | \nZero | \nEpiphyseal cap from amputated limb of rabbits | \nAnimal study | \n
2 | \n1991 | \nBernd et al. | \n12% | \nBone graft | \n\n |
3 | \n1992 | \nBenevenia et al. | \n10% | \nEpiphyseal cap form amputated segment | \n\n |
4 | \n1992 | \nHugh et al. | \nZero | \nIpsilateral fibula | \n\n |
5 | \n1995 | \nDavids et al. | \n70% | \nPolyethellene | \nFailure mainly due to infection, prosthesis loosening, difficult soft tissue coverage | \n
6 | \n1995 | \nDavids et al. | \n27% | \nBone graft | \n\n |
7 | \n2004 | \nDavids et al. | \n29% | \nTeflon | \n\n |
8 | \n2015 | \nFedorak et al. | \n10% | \nIpsilateral fibula transplanted to tibias | \n\n |
9 | \n2017 | \nFedorak et al. | \n30% | \nIpsilateral fibula transplanted to humerii | \nHigh failure rate in humerii treated by osteochondral transplantation | \n
10 | \n2017 | \nFedorak et al. | \n69% | \nBone graft | \n\n |
11 | \n2019 | \nPaley and Jahmani | \n50% | \nApophysis of the ileac crest | \nA case series | \n
Result of caping procedure by different authors using different capping materials.
To avoid donor site morbidity and to substitute biological caps when unavailable, synthetic cap usage has been attractive for orthopedist. Silicon rubber, polyethylene and titanium caps have shown poor results [3, 11, 24]. Although capping with synthetic material is successful for reducing the intensity of bony growth, the revision rate is high because of failure of fixation, infection, implant fracture, and difficulty covering with soft tissue. The synthetic cap must be biologically inert and durable. Teflon caps show better results than other synthetic materials, with a 29% revision rate. This result is comparable to capping of the stump with bone grafts; the cause of failure is mainly due to infection and painful bursa rather than overgrowth [3].
\nConclusion of treatment: conservative treatment (prosthesis and lifestyle modification) is the initial treatment, and the skin traction method can be used in selected cases, especially in very young patients and cases of short stumps. When performing amputations, prophylactic transplantation of an osteochondral graft to plug the stump is recommended when a graft is available. In revision cases and cases in which the osteochondral graft is unavailable, the head of the fibula and Teflon caps can be used to plug the stump.
\nThe authors are thankful to Maha Almaani for drawing the figures.
\nHistorically, aluminum was first produced in 1825 by reducing aluminum chloride with potassium amalgam. In 1886, Héroult and Hall discovered the possibility of producing aluminum by electrolysis. In 1895, aluminum was first used as a material for the church roof. With the increase in the production of aluminum, which occurred especially after the Second World War, the scope of its use expanded. Today, aluminum alloys are widely used in transport, mechanical engineering, electrical and energy industries, food industry, chemical industry, sports, aviation, transport, yacht and shipbuilding, and many other fields. Below, in Table 1, the grades of aluminum alloys used in industry are presented.
Group | Series | Alloy |
---|---|---|
Al | 1xxx | 1050A, 1070A |
Al-Cu | 2xxx | 2014, 2017, 2024 |
Al-Mn | 3xxx | 3103, 3003 |
Al-Mg-Si | 6xxx | 6060, 6063, 6061, 6082 |
Al-Si | 4xxx | 4032 |
Al-Mg | 5xxx | 5019, 5083, 5754 |
Al-Zn | 7xxx | 7003, 7020, 7022, 7075 |
Industrial aluminum alloy groups.
Aluminum alloys are highly ductile, so it is easy to make the desired structural elements, machine parts, and others from them.
By changing the content of alloying elements in aluminum alloys, the strength properties can be adjusted. A very effective factor influencing the strengthening of aluminum alloys is heat treatment—supersaturation and aging. This treatment is possible for Al-Mg-Si 6xxx series alloys, which show a variable solubility in the solid state. Similar possibilities are also available for the 2xxx, Al-Cu-Mg, and 7xxx, Al-Zn-Mg-Cu, alloys (Figures 1 and 2). However, the most popular alloy for profile extrusion is 6xxx series.
Isothermal section of ternary Al-Cu-Mg phase diagram at 400°C, h ¼ CuAl 2, S¼ MgCuAl 2, and T ¼ (Cu 1-x Al x) 49 Mg 32. Along the dashed red line, the atomic fraction is constant, 94Al-6 Mg. And at the red star, the composition point is 90Al-4Cu-6 Mg, namely, the average composition of the eutectic region, shown with the dashed white box.
Phase diagram Al-Cu-Mg-Zn: (a) polythermal diagram, (b) distribution of phase fields in the solid state in the aluminum corner, and (c) single-phase domains [
During the extrusion process, aluminum alloys are placed in the extrusion press container (cylinder) and pressed by a pressing ram (or stem—via a dummy block or pressure plate). The metal flows out through the hole in the die, which gives the shape to the extruded profile (Figure 3).
Extrusion diagram and extrusion press for aluminum alloys.
The state of stress in most of the plasticized area is a three-axial nonuniform compression. It is therefore possible to make large plastic deformations without affecting the consistency of the material (maximum elongation coefficients are about 300, average—about 50). This is the main advantage of extrusion processes. Large deformations require high forces. The main limitation to the scale of deformation that can be obtained in one extrusion operation is not the phenomenon of material decohesion (as in many other processes) but the strength of the tools.
When the extruded section leaves the tool, it is cooled with water or air and then drawn, still in the malleable state. This removes the stresses accumulated in the aluminum alloy and at the same time allows to achieve the expected and correct profile dimensions. The profiles are then cut and obtain ultimate strength by hot or cold hardening.
In the case of large strains, hot extrusion is used, because during cold extrusion the forces are so high that the tools do not withstand the loads. Cold extrusion for large deformations can only be performed for soft materials (e.g., pure aluminum).
The 6xxx series alloys are the most commonly used and their global consumption is the largest. The worldwide demand for aluminum is around 29 million tons per year. About 22 million tons is new aluminum and 7 million tons is recycled aluminum scrap. The use of recycled aluminum is economically and environmentally compelling. It takes 14,000 kWh to produce 1 ton of new aluminum. Conversely, it takes only 5% of this energy to remelt and recycle 1 ton of aluminum. There is no difference in the quality between virgin and recycled aluminum alloys [2].
Alloys of the 6xxx series are heat-treated as they show a variable solubility in the solid state. Figure 4 shows a pseudo-binary system Al-Mg2Si. The variable solid solubility curve allows for heat treatment of 6xxx series alloys. After plastic working (e.g., extrusion), the supersaturation and artificial aging of these alloys are applied. After supersaturation, which consists in rapid cooling of the alloy, it is then heated to an appropriate temperature in order to precipitate hardening phases.
Calculated equilibrium phase diagram of Al-Mg2Si pseudo-binary alloys with excess Mg.
The phase sequence in this alloy is as follows:
Table 2 describes the characteristics of the precipitating phases [3].
Phase | Phase form | Formula | Spatial group | Network parameters |
---|---|---|---|---|
GP zones [4, 5] | Needles | Unknown | C2/m | a = 1.48, b = 0.405, c = 0.648, β = 105.3 deg |
β″ [6, 7] | Needles | Mg5Si6 | C2/m | a = 1.516, b = 0.405, c = 0.674, β = 105.3 deg |
β′ [8, 9] | Needles | Mg1,8Si | P63 | a = b = 0.715, c = 0.405, γ = 120 deg |
U1 [8, 10, 11, 12] | Needles | MgAl2Si2 | P3m1 | a = b = 0.405, c = 0.674, γ = 120 deg |
U [8, 9, 10, 11, 12] | Needles | MgAlSi | Pnma | a = 0.675, b = 0.405, c = 0.794 |
B [10] | Lath | Unknown | Hexagonal | a = 1.04, c = 0.405, γ = 120 deg |
β | Plates | Mg2Si | Fm3m | a = 0.6354 |
Si | Plates | Si | Fd3m | a = 0.5431 |
Precipitations in 6xxx series alloys.
Si plates appear in silicon-rich alloys. All phases that show the shape of needles are consistent with the direction <100> of the aluminum matrix.
The extrusion temperature of Al-Mg-Si alloys ranges between 400°C and 500°C, which causes that all phases are dissolved in the alloy to form a solid solution. Therefore, in order to prevent the precipitation of an incoherent phase of Mg2Si, a rapid quenching of the alloy is required after extrusion.
Rapid quenching maintains the supersaturation of the alloy’s solid solution caused by Mg and Si and a high concentration of vacancies, also resulting from rapid cooling. The supersaturation is followed by the aging process (Figure 5). It is carried out at temperatures from 165°C to 185°C until maximum hardness is reached—state T6.
Sketch of precipitation hardening phases.
Hardening achieved as a result of aging depends on the size and density of the precipitations and the volume of metastable phases obtained.
Isothermal heating at 175°C induces the precipitation of β-phase hardening the alloy. The β″-phase is the most effective hardening phase in Al-Mg-Si alloys and is formed at temperatures between 125°C and 200°C. The β″-phase composition is Mg5Si6; therefore, an appropriate Mg/Si ratio of 5/6 should be maintained during the casting process. The β-phase (Mg2Si) is not formed below 200°C, so it cannot be present in alloys aged below this temperature.
Marioara et al. [3] studied phase β″ precipitation at different Mg/Si ratios. The research showed that a higher Si content in the alloy promotes the formation of a large number of fine GP zones in a shorter time than alloys with a lower Si content. After annealing for 3 h at 175°C, there was a sharp peak of hardness associated with the appearance of GP zones in these alloys, and after 17 h, a wider peak of hardness associated with the occurrence of phase β″ precipitation appeared. Alloys richer in Mg had thicker elements of microstructure than alloys with an increased Si content. They also contained less U2 precipitations but were richer in β′ precipitations. The studies carried out revealed a strong influence of Si, the content of which controls the process of phase precipitation through the formation of precipitation clusters in the initial stages of annealing.
The great interest in Al-Mg-Si alloys is related to their application in the automotive industry. Chakrabarti et al. [13] conducted a research proving that the strengthening phase involved in the Al-Mg-Si ternary alloys is the metastable β″ phase [14, 15].
Kuroda et al. studied the effect of small amounts of Ni, Co, and V on hardness after age hardening of the AlMgSi base alloy. It was found that the additives increase the hardness, with the highest value of hardness occurring after the introduction of Ni and two-stage aging [16].
The influence of Cu addition on the precipitation process in AlMgSi alloy was studied by Zandbergen et al. [17]. The occurrence of Cu in all investigated precipitations of the hardening phases of the alloy was determined.
On the other hand, the influence of Zn and Ag additives on the precipitation process in AlMgSi alloys was analyzed in the work of Saito et al. [18]. The researchers found a weak influence of Zn on the precipitation sequence of hardening phases. They found that Zn is built into the structure of precipitations replacing some elements in the network of precipitated phases.
A new alloy based on AlMgSi, with the addition of Mn that did not require aging after extrusion, was presented by Lee et al. [19]. Mn creates precipitations of 0.05–0.5 μm. The alloy containing 1 wt.% Mn had high strength properties and good ductility in comparison with the commercial 6N01 alloy. Moreover, it showed higher fatigue resistance.
Chen et al. studied the process of phase precipitation in Al-Mg-Si alloys [20]. They showed that the formation of Mg5Si6, hardening AlMgSi alloy, is preceded by the precipitation of Mg2Si2,6Al6,4 and more precisely Mg2Si2Al7. The precipitation of this phase is dependent on the temperature of the aging of the alloy.
Mechanisms of hardening with β″ particles, characterized by coherence with aluminum network, were studied by Ringdalen et al. [21]. The study concerned the alloy 6060 and included the interaction of the dislocation lattice with the precipitations.
The AlMgSi alloy, due to the possibility of heat treatment, has a high potential for modeling its structures and properties. Analyzing the process of supersaturation of this alloy and subsequent aging, it is possible to obtain the assumed properties. Hardening phases in the AlMgSi alloy nucleate heterogeneously at the grain boundaries and iron precipitations, which are always present in AlMgSi alloys (Figure 6). Precipitations of β″, the hardening phase of AlMgSi alloy, can be found at Figure 7. Their growth to larger sizes is associated with the formation of Mg2Si phase. Large Mg2Si particles are not an obstacle to displaced dislocations and do not increase the strength properties of the alloy.
Hardening phases in AlMgSi alloy.
Nanometric precipitations in AlMgSi alloy [
An example of research on the heat treatment of AlMgSi alloys is the article by Richert et al. [22] concerning the new, multistage aging of the 6xxx series alloys. The studies of Ryen et al. [23] showed the presence in alloys AA6063 and AA6068, after aging precipitations as B′, β″, U2, and U1, β′ and some unidentifiable crystal structures. Detailed studies of the precipitations in aluminum alloys are also presented in the work by Andersen et al. [24]. From this work, data were taken from the composition of the precipitations formed during aging in AlMgSi alloys:
β-Mg2Si,
U1-MgAl2Si2 ‘A’
β″-Mg4(AlxMg1-X)Si4
U2-Mg4Al4Si4
β′-Mg9Si5
B′ ~ Mg48Al16Si36
GP-Mg4(AlxMg1-x)Si4
The author found that the early stages in Al-Mg-Si and Al-Mg-Cu systems have isostructural GP zones being 1D strings along <100>Al, identical to the eye-like units of the β″-phase, where Cu can replace Si. Calculations show GP zones can take different compositions, the most stable being Mg4Si4Mg and Mg4Cu4Al, with Mg and Al as central interstitial columns. Solute clusters for the GP zones are likely short defect-free needles using a vacancy to produce a central interstitial column. The needle-shaped β″-phase is the most important hardening precipitate in the AA6xxx system.
In this work, tests were carried out on 6060 alloy with three different chemical compositions, falling within the definition of the standard EN-AW 755-2 (Table 3).
Si | Fe | Cu | Mn | Mg | Cr | Ni | Zn | Ti | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alloy 1 | 0.38 | 0.20 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.36 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.02 |
Alloy 2 | 0.45 | 0.22 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.40 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.01 |
Alloy 3 | 0.49 | 0.21 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.45 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 |
Chemical composition of billets tested.
Alloy 1 with the lowest Si and Mg contents, Alloy 2 with medium Si and Mg contents, and Alloy 3 with the highest Si and Mg contents were prepared as follows (Figure 8):
The billets were continuously cast from 6060 alloy, with a diameter of 228 mm, from three melts, differing in the content of alloying components:
Alloy 1 (low alloying content)
Alloy 2 (with medium content of alloying elements—standard composition)
Alloy 3 (high alloying content)
The billets were homogenized in accordance with the technology used in Grupa Kęty S. A.
The extrusion of profiles (four-hole die) was performed on a 35 MN press as follows:
From each alloy, three billets were extruded with the standard speed of the extrusion ram for this shape, and three billets with the extrusion ram speed increased by 20%.
The temperatures of the extrusion billets and the press container were the same for all billets.
All extruded sections were saturated on the press runout table and then artificially aged in the furnace to T66.
Three samples of each extruded section were taken for each hole to check the strength properties and material hardness of the sections.
Aluminum alloy billets before loading onto the loading ramp of the press [
The tests of mechanical properties of extruded sections were carried out on the Zwick Z300 fatigue tester.
In the second stage, only Alloy 1 was tested as promising the highest ductility and thus the possibility to use the highest extrusion rate for the manufactured sections.
The following tests were carried out:
Alloy 1 was extruded with the following set speed rates: standard (7 billets); standard + 20% (7 billets); standard + 30% (8 billets); standard + 40% (7 billets); standard + 50% (9 billets); and standard + 60% (9 billets),
The temperatures of extrusion billets and the container were the same for all variants of extrusion.
From each extruded shape according to each variant of the ram speed, 12 samples with 1000 mm length (72 samples in total) were taken in order to check the strength properties and for hardness measurement.
All extruded sections were saturated on the runout of the press and then subjected to different variations of artificial aging to T66.
After extrusion of the sections and their heat treatment, the yield point and tensile strength of the samples were determined on the Zwick Z300 fatigue tester, and hardness tests were carried out on the Zwick ZHU250 testing machine.
On the basis of the results presented in Table 4 and the results of properties tests, the aging variant to achieve the properties of the alloy, according to PN-EN 755-2,2016-05 standard, was selected.
After extrusion and aging, hardness tests were performed on the Zwick ZHU250, and the yield point and tensile strength were determined on the Zwick Z300 fatigue tester machine.
Observations of the sample structure on the Olympus GX53 and Olympus GX71 and GX51 optical microscopes with digital image capture were performed.
Aging curves of Al-Mg-Si alloy with the lowest composition of alloying elements, second stage of research.
Samples for microscopic examination and microhardness testing were mounted in the EpoFix epoxy resin. The samples prepared in this way were subjected to grinding (on abrasive papers with the following grades: 220, 500, 800, 1200, 2000, and 4000) and two-stage mechanical polishing according to Struers’ procedure using a diamond-paste suspension DiaDuo with a grain size of 3 μm and a colloidal silicon oxide suspension OPS for finish polishing with a grain size of ¼ μm.
Two methods of etching were used:
Etching in 0.5% HF acid solution—this method highlights the particles present in the microstructure.
Anodizing in Barker’s reagent composed of 1.8 ml HBF4 + 100 ml H2O—color contrast was obtained from individual grains during polarized light observation.
Microhardness measurements were performed using the Vickers method with the SHIMADZ HMV-G hardness tester. Microhardness tests were carried out on metallographic specimens at a load of 100 g (HV0.1), and the time to withstand the load was 10 s.
Observations of the microstructure and morphology of the precipitations with the scanning electron microscope JEOL JSM-6460LV were also performed, using the EDS microanalyzer.
The share of Mg2Si phase in the tested samples was determined using the X-ray method. X-ray examinations were performed on PANalytical Empyrean polycrystalline diffractometer with Cu Kα1 = 1.5417 Å, at U = 40 kV and I = 30 mA, equipped with PANalytical High Score Plus program integrated with ICDD PDF4+ 2016 crystallographic database. PIXcel detector was used in the tests. The test range was 10–120° of 2θ angle.
In the third stage of experimental testing, Alloy 1 was subjected to different aging variants in order to answer the question on which aging variant allows to achieve the assumed alloy properties, compliant with the standard, despite the lowest values of Mg and Si components. The evaluation of the properties of the samples after aging was performed by hardness and microhardness measurements.
The research revealed that after casting and homogenization, Alloy 1 has a correct structure with equiaxed grains and broken lattices of iron precipitations (Figure 9).
The structure of Alloy 1 billet with the lowest content of Mg and Si alloying elements.
Figure 10 shows the yield point (R0.2) and tensile strength (Rm) of extruded profiles made of Alloy 1 with the lowest alloying content and other alloy compositions with higher content of alloying elements, i.e., Alloy 2 and Alloy 3. According to the requirements of the standard, the extruded section should have minimum R0.2 = 160 MPa and Rm = 215 MPa. The shape made of Alloy 2 with the average content of alloying elements and Alloy 3 with the highest content of alloying elements obtained the property level required by the standard EN755-2 (for products made of alloy 6060, in the T66 state). The properties of Alloy 3 are too high. And the shape with the lowest level of alloying elements failed to obtain such a level.
Yield point and tensile strength of extruded sections from billets with three different contents of the main alloying elements.
Figure 11 illustrates the plasticity of the alloys tested. The highest value of elongation was achieved by the section with the lowest content of alloying elements. This result indicates that the alloy potentially has a plasticity level allowing to use higher extrusion rates in relation to the other alloying components.
Elongation and yield strength reserve of extruded sections from billets with three different contents of the main alloying elements.
The delta (Figure 11), i.e., the difference between R0.2 and Rm, shown in the diagram (Figure 11) illustrates the “yield strength reserve” and confirms the favorable deformation conditions for the alloy with the lowest level of alloying elements with respect to the potential of utilizing its higher plasticity.
The yield point and tensile strength level of Alloy 1 must be achieved by means of a new, finely developed heat treatment.
The next figure (Figure 12) shows the elongation of the extruded sections and their hardness. The obtained result confirms that the alloy with the lowest content of alloying elements (Alloy 1) has the highest yield strength reserve.
Elongation and hardness of extruded sections from billets with three different contents of the main alloying elements.
The potential possibility of using the cheapest Alloy 1 with the lowest content of alloying components while optimizing the extrusion rate for the most efficient process created grounds for research into heat treatment optimization to achieve the properties required by the standard. Alloy 1 has been tested for its structures, properties, and phase compositions.
Table 5 shows the macrostructure and microstructure of extruded Alloy 1 shapes with respect to the increasing extrusion rate. It is characterized by the equiaxed grains of medium size (medium chord parameter) in the range from 46 μm to 54 μm. Homogenization of the structure and grain size with a maximum grain size difference of 15% results from the hot working, activating the processes of structure recovery during extrusion.
Structure of Alloy 1 sections depending on the extrusion rate.
Results of phase composition tests of extruded shapes are presented in Figure 13.
Phase changes in extruded sections.
There is a final slight decrease in the content of the precipitated phases at the highest extrusion rate applied standard value +60%. At the standard rate +20%, the highest phase content of Mg2Si and Mg5Si6 was recorded. The obtained result sets the direction for actions aimed at obtaining sections with assumed properties at the highest efficiency of the extrusion process. An increase in the extrusion rate above 20%, without changing the subsequent heat treatment applied after extrusion to the T6 state, is an optimal variant ensuring the highest efficiency of the process. On the other hand, if the applied heat treatment allowed for a significant increase in the hardening phase, then higher extrusion rates could be applied.
The alloy meets the criteria of a high-speed extrusion alloy as the tests resulted in a significant increase in the extrusion rate of sections in relation to the rate currently used. However, due to the low content of Mg and Si alloying elements, the classical heat treatment did not allow to obtain the recommended level of properties according to the standard. Therefore, it was necessary to carry out a number of studies to develop a new heat treatment that would ensure that the yield point, tensile strength, and hardness value of the standard were achieved. Table 6 contains data on the parameters of the applied heat treatment variants.
Aging curve | Press ram/stem speed | Rm [MPa] | R0.2 [MPa] |
---|---|---|---|
Aging option 19 | Standard value—X | 212.0 | 188.5 |
X+20% | 218.8 | 195.3 | |
X+30% | 201.0 | 176.0 | |
X+40% | 211.0 | 186.8 | |
X+50% | 200.5 | 176.3 | |
X+60% | 216.0 | 183.8 |
Final results of strength properties after heat treatment for Alloy 1: stage 2.
The analysis of the obtained data showed that in variant 19 of heat treatment, the yield point reached the level assumed in the standard. The obtained result is a great technological achievement and promises a better economic result.
The research has shown that it is possible to produce a cheaper alloy (low content of base alloying elements), which allows to use a 60% higher extrusion rate and, using an appropriate heat treatment, achieve a comparable level of properties to alloys containing higher levels of Mg and Si elements.
The higher ductility of the new high-speed extrusion alloy enables the production of a greater tonnage of products per unit of time than the currently used alloys, which translates into increased production efficiency.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, commercial concerns involved in the production and sale of extrusion sections made of aluminum alloys started to show interest in increasing the productivity of the extrusion process through a radical change in the technology. The subgrades of alloy 6060 with a reduced content of alloying elements, called lean alloys or high-speed alloys, began to form. They were characterized by an increased plasticity in relation to classical alloy 6060, as a result of which the speed of the process increased by 20% in comparison with alloys with classical chemical composition. In order to obtain certain strength properties, it was necessary to use unconventional aging cycles of the material. Because the alloys required an increase in extrusion rate, lean alloys were used primarily for extrusion of sections with relatively uncomplicated cross sections. These types of sections were mainly used in the construction industry, so they were sometimes called building alloys. By 2007, thanks, among other things, to the exchange of workers between the companies, the production technology of building alloys became widely known, and the hydro concern started to produce billets from these alloys for sale to the general public, designing and producing new generations of alloys for fast extrusion at the same time.
Designing alloys for high-speed extrusion requires a deep knowledge of the hardening mechanisms and plastic deformation processes. During hot deformation, which takes place in extrusion, it is important to know the effect of temperature on the extrusion processes. The processes of structure recovery during hot deformation are dynamic recrystallization and dynamic recovery. In aluminum and its alloys, which exhibit high stacking-fault energy, dynamic recovery processes take place.
All effects in the extrusion process are temperature and speed controlled. It is shown that the mechanism of deformation is either dynamic recovery or dynamic recrystallization, according to whether the alloy is of high or low stacking-fault energy. This leads to extrudate structures which contain either subgrains, ideally with no static recrystallization occurring, or grains formed by successive dynamic, metadynamic, and static recrystallization. It is shown that either type of structure is related to, and can be controlled by, the prevailing Zener-Hollomon (Z-H) parameter
The Zener-Hollomon parameter is given by equation:
where
The Zener-Hollomon parameter decreases with a decreasing strain rate and an increasing temperature. In the actual industrial production, to avoid the occurrence of cracks, low Z conditions (lower strain rates and higher temperatures) are usually preferred; however, when the deformation rate is too low, the temperature drop is serious, which is harmful for deformation [28].
In case of high-speed extrusion alloys Z-H parameter should increase, the strain rate will increase and temperature should be lowered. The decrease of subgrain/grain size should be expected.
Deformation temperature and strain rate are important factors controlling the hot deformation flow stress. The experimental results show that the dynamic softening is accelerated with the increase of deformation temperature and decrease of strain rate. Strain effects on flow stress and hence on extrusion pressure are predominant for hot extrusion (due to strain rate sensitivity). Therefore, it is rather difficult to predict the extrusion force in hot extrusion. We can estimate the strain rate at any location x in the billet from the geometrical considerations. Let a cylindrical billet have an initial radius of Ro and extruded radius of Rf. be semi-cone angle of the die.
We can formulate the strain rate at any location x from the entry of die as
The average strain rate undergone by a billet is given by
where v0 is the velocity of ram.
It is generally believed that the average grain size (
The effects of temperature and strain rate can be expressed in terms of the second-order function of the Zener-Hollomon parameter,
where
In general, dynamic recrystallization does not seem to occur in aluminum alloys with Mg below 4%. The high recovery processes develop in such aluminum alloys—with subgrain lattice formation.
The size of stable subgrains that result from dynamic recovery in aluminum alloys depends upon hot working conditions. McQeen et al. [30] expressed this by equation:
where ds is the subgrain size, Z is the Zener-Hollomon parameter, and a and b materials are constant.
The subgrain size usually reaches a limiting value of a few microns in aluminum alloys. With continued deformation, there is usually no further decrease in the subgrain size.
For hot extrusion, the extrusion pressure p is directly proportional to stain rate. As strain rate increases, the extrusion pressure also increases, almost linearly. As ram speed increases, the extrusion pressure also increases, due to increasing strain rate. However, the extrusion pressure is reduced with increased working temperature in hot extrusion (Figure 14). The extrusion speed has some limit depending on billet temperature. It means that the technological application of high-speed alloys requires some experimentally developed extrusion parameters.
Temperature dependence to extrusion speed.
In the analysis of hardening of polycrystalline materials, the component (σy), described by the model of the Hall-Petch (H-P) equation, acquires a particular importance as it allows to determine the value of lower yield point as a function of grain size:
where σy: normal stress corresponding to the yield point; σ0: stress of internal friction of the mobile dislocations; ky: slope factor, characterizing the resistance of grain boundaries to dislocation motion; d: diameter of grain or subgrain.
For this reason, the selection of conditions of extrusion rate and temperature determining the grain size is of great importance in the technology of extrusion of aluminum alloys.
At present, high-speed extrusion alloys are a desired alternative to conventional alloys due to the prospect of higher tonnage throughput per unit of time. The expected effect of this action is an increase in the company’s profit. In the international literature, it is difficult to find data on the chemical composition of alloys for a high-speed extrusion because they are confidential information, which results from the well-understood interest of the company. There is also a noticeable lack of wider interest of scientists in this subject, who usually strive to disseminate the results, as it is contrary to companies’ confidentiality requirements. Therefore, this type of research is usually conducted in a narrow circle of professionals closely cooperating with the industry. Among the literature items and reports that appear on the websites, there is information about progress in the production of new aluminum alloys for specific purposes, e.g., for the automotive, construction, high-speed rail, and other industries. The purpose of the alloys determines their production and properties.
The research conducted on fast extrusion alloys is a promising direction for the development of section production and provides prospects for improving extrusion technology. Great possibilities of increasing the productivity of the extrusion process connected with the implementation of these new quality aluminum alloys are also an element of the struggle for the market and increase in the productivity of companies.
License
\n\nBook Chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen maintains a very flexible Copyright Policy that ensures that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher. Therefore, Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0).
\n\n',metaTitle:"Open Access Statement",metaDescription:"Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0)",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-statement/",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Formats
\\n\\nBased on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific Works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\nCosts
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
\\n\\n\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is dedicated to ensuring the long-term preservation and availability of the scholarly research it publishes.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Formats
\n\nBased on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific Works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing.
\n\n\n\nCosts
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
\n\n\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is dedicated to ensuring the long-term preservation and availability of the scholarly research it publishes.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5817},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5282},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1755},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10511},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:906},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15915}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119159},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{},books:[{type:"book",id:"8969",title:"Deserts and Desertification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Yajuan Zhu, Dr. Qinghong Luo and Dr. Yuguo Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"180427",title:"Dr.",name:"Yajuan",surname:"Zhu",slug:"yajuan-zhu",fullName:"Yajuan Zhu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinase - New Opportunities, Challenges and Future Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-singh",fullName:"Rajesh Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9667",title:"Neuroimmunology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9cf0e8203ce088c0b84add014fd8d382",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Robert Weissert",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9667.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"79343",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",surname:"Weissert",slug:"robert-weissert",fullName:"Robert Weissert"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9816",title:"Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"365bb9762ba33db2d07e677690af1772",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Salim Surani and Dr. Venkat Rajasurya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9816.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"15654",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim",surname:"Surani",slug:"salim-surani",fullName:"Salim Surani"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10213",title:"Secretomics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8f787d92ba862a2c43867b2e62d15c31",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Luiza Rusu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10213.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"210679",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiza",surname:"Rusu",slug:"luiza-rusu",fullName:"Luiza Rusu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10218",title:"Flagellar Motility in Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5fcc15570365a82d9f2c4816f4e0ee2e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Yusuf Bozkurt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10218.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10223",title:"Obesity and Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c202a2b74cd9a2c44b1c385f103ac65d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Venketeshwer Rao and Dr. Leticia Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10223.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10343",title:"Ocular Hypertension",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0ff71cc7e0d9f394f41162c0c825588a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Michele Lanza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10343.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10370",title:"Advances in Fundamental and Applied Research on Spatial Audio",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f16232a481c08a05cc191ac64cf2c69e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brian FG Katz and Dr. Piotr Majdak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10370.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278731",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian FG",surname:"Katz",slug:"brian-fg-katz",fullName:"Brian FG Katz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10504",title:"Crystallization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3478d05926950f475f4ad2825d340963",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Youssef Ben Smida and Dr. Riadh Marzouki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10504.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311698",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",surname:"Ben Smida",slug:"youssef-ben-smida",fullName:"Youssef Ben Smida"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:46},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:217},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8445",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Design and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7e4d2ecbc65d78fa7582e0d2e143906",slug:"dam-engineering-recent-advances-in-design-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Zhongzhi Fu and Erich Bauer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8445.jpg",editors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3951728ace7f135451d66b72e9908b47",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8158",title:"Veganism",subtitle:"a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8e51fc25a379e5b92a270addbb4351d",slug:"veganism-a-fashion-trend-or-food-as-a-medicine",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5315},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8445",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Design and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7e4d2ecbc65d78fa7582e0d2e143906",slug:"dam-engineering-recent-advances-in-design-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Zhongzhi Fu and Erich Bauer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8445.jpg",editors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3951728ace7f135451d66b72e9908b47",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9536",title:"Education at the Intersection of Globalization and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0cf6891060eb438d975d250e8b127ed6",slug:"education-at-the-intersection-of-globalization-and-technology",bookSignature:"Sharon Waller, Lee Waller, Vongai Mpofu and Mercy Kurebwa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263302",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharon",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"sharon-waller",fullName:"Sharon Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9524",title:"Organ Donation and Transplantation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ef47e03cd4e6476946fc28ca51de825",slug:"organ-donation-and-transplantation",bookSignature:"Vassil Mihaylov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313113",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vassil",middleName:null,surname:"Mihaylov",slug:"vassil-mihaylov",fullName:"Vassil Mihaylov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9280",title:"Underwater Work",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"647b4270d937deae4a82f5702d1959ec",slug:"underwater-work",bookSignature:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9280.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248645",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio António",middleName:null,surname:"Neves Lousada",slug:"sergio-antonio-neves-lousada",fullName:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8158",title:"Veganism",subtitle:"a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8e51fc25a379e5b92a270addbb4351d",slug:"veganism-a-fashion-trend-or-food-as-a-medicine",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"220",title:"Toxicology",slug:"pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science-toxicology",parent:{title:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",slug:"pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science"},numberOfBooks:17,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:383,numberOfWosCitations:655,numberOfCrossrefCitations:376,numberOfDimensionsCitations:911,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science-toxicology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9407",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",subtitle:"Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"892372c885d7a41fc85666f573c7a32b",slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",bookSignature:"Muharrem Ince, Olcay Kaplan Ince and Gabrijel Ondrasek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9407.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",middleName:null,surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8094",title:"Aflatoxin B1 Occurrence, Detection and Toxicological Effects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"44f4ad52d8a8cbb22ef3d505d6b18027",slug:"aflatoxin-b1-occurrence-detection-and-toxicological-effects",bookSignature:"Xi-Dai Long",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8094.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202142",title:"Prof.",name:"Xi-Dai",middleName:null,surname:"Long",slug:"xi-dai-long",fullName:"Xi-Dai Long"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9013",title:"Zebrafish in Biomedical Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b81f6e1a8fc1196718fa50b77a5c77bf",slug:"zebrafish-in-biomedical-research",bookSignature:"Yusuf Bozkurt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9013.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8068",title:"Cytotoxicity",subtitle:"Definition, Identification, and Cytotoxic Compounds",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"20a09223d92829b5478b5f241f6a03ce",slug:"cytotoxicity-definition-identification-and-cytotoxic-compounds",bookSignature:"Erman Salih Istifli and Hasan Basri Ila",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8068.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",middleName:null,surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6733",title:"Mycotoxins",subtitle:"Impact and Management Strategies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e4e18e9fbe30a389b07568cc28c02c",slug:"mycotoxins-impact-and-management-strategies",bookSignature:"Patrick Berka Njobeh and Francois Stepman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6733.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"60387",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrick Berka",middleName:null,surname:"Njobeh",slug:"patrick-berka-njobeh",fullName:"Patrick Berka Njobeh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7111",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",subtitle:"New Tricks for an Old Dog?",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"08164f9300bc6bf4900c9166d960278b",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",bookSignature:"Ozgur Karcioglu and Banu Arslan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7111.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"221195",title:"Dr.",name:"Ozgur",middleName:null,surname:"Karcioglu",slug:"ozgur-karcioglu",fullName:"Ozgur Karcioglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7047",title:"Botulinum Toxin",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a6791462a0bbc32c6da3218dcf5ac28",slug:"botulinum-toxin",bookSignature:"Nikolay Serdev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7047.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",middleName:null,surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6380",title:"Cytotoxicity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"60d61573c9a66207b8bc54613cac5716",slug:"cytotoxicity",bookSignature:"Tülay Aşkin Çelik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6380.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"74041",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulay",middleName:null,surname:"Askin Celik",slug:"tulay-askin-celik",fullName:"Tulay Askin Celik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6310",title:"Genotoxicity",subtitle:"A Predictable Risk to Our Actual World",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14a0966cec5283fdbc781a6bb47ed4e3",slug:"genotoxicity-a-predictable-risk-to-our-actual-world",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6310.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5362",title:"Toxicology",subtitle:"New Aspects to This Scientific Conundrum",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2061f273c8b3134dffbcb5256969ecab",slug:"toxicology-new-aspects-to-this-scientific-conundrum",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5362.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4557",title:"Toxicology Studies",subtitle:"Cells, Drugs and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e547709cb19f12af25b2eb23aecc726d",slug:"toxicology-studies-cells-drugs-and-environment",bookSignature:"Ana Cristina Andreazza and Gustavo Scola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4557.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"172081",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Andreazza",slug:"ana-cristina-andreazza",fullName:"Ana Cristina Andreazza"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:17,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"64762",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82511",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:6589,totalCrossrefCites:38,totalDimensionsCites:77,book:{slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"42016",doi:"10.5772/55187",title:"Why are Early Life Stages of Aquatic Organisms more Sensitive to Toxicants than Adults?",slug:"why-are-early-life-stages-of-aquatic-organisms-more-sensitive-to-toxicants-than-adults-",totalDownloads:3077,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:66,book:{slug:"new-insights-into-toxicity-and-drug-testing",title:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing",fullTitle:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing"},signatures:"Azad Mohammed",authors:[{id:"147061",title:"Dr.",name:"Azad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",slug:"azad-mohammed",fullName:"Azad Mohammed"}]},{id:"57717",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71923",title:"In Vitro Cytotoxicity and Cell Viability Assays: Principles, Advantages, and Disadvantages",slug:"in-vitro-cytotoxicity-and-cell-viability-assays-principles-advantages-and-disadvantages",totalDownloads:12861,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:66,book:{slug:"genotoxicity-a-predictable-risk-to-our-actual-world",title:"Genotoxicity",fullTitle:"Genotoxicity - A Predictable Risk to Our Actual World"},signatures:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk",authors:[{id:"211212",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Aslantürk",slug:"ozlem-sultan-aslanturk",fullName:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57717",title:"In Vitro Cytotoxicity and Cell Viability Assays: Principles, Advantages, and Disadvantages",slug:"in-vitro-cytotoxicity-and-cell-viability-assays-principles-advantages-and-disadvantages",totalDownloads:12866,totalCrossrefCites:35,totalDimensionsCites:66,book:{slug:"genotoxicity-a-predictable-risk-to-our-actual-world",title:"Genotoxicity",fullTitle:"Genotoxicity - A Predictable Risk to Our Actual World"},signatures:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk",authors:[{id:"211212",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Aslantürk",slug:"ozlem-sultan-aslanturk",fullName:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk"}]},{id:"64762",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:6601,totalCrossrefCites:38,totalDimensionsCites:77,book:{slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"44083",title:"Regulation and Enforcement of Legislation on Food Safety in Nigeria",slug:"regulation-and-enforcement-of-legislation-on-food-safety-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:15475,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"mycotoxin-and-food-safety-in-developing-countries",title:"Mycotoxin and Food Safety in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"Mycotoxin and Food Safety in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Jane Omojokun",authors:[{id:"152076",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Omojokun",slug:"jane-omojokun",fullName:"Jane Omojokun"}]},{id:"44101",title:"Nigerian Indigenous Fermented Foods: Processes and Prospects",slug:"nigerian-indigenous-fermented-foods-processes-and-prospects",totalDownloads:14622,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"mycotoxin-and-food-safety-in-developing-countries",title:"Mycotoxin and Food Safety in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"Mycotoxin and Food Safety in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Egwim Evans, Amanabo Musa, Yahaya Abubakar and Bello Mainuna",authors:[{id:"156271",title:"Dr.",name:"Evans",middleName:null,surname:"Egwim",slug:"evans-egwim",fullName:"Evans Egwim"}]},{id:"52207",title:"A Review of Cyanogenic Glycosides in Edible Plants",slug:"a-review-of-cyanogenic-glycosides-in-edible-plants",totalDownloads:6468,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:23,book:{slug:"toxicology-new-aspects-to-this-scientific-conundrum",title:"Toxicology",fullTitle:"Toxicology - New Aspects to This Scientific Conundrum"},signatures:"Islamiyat Folashade Bolarinwa, Moruf Olanrewaju Oke, Sulaiman\nAdebisi Olaniyan and Adeladun Stephen Ajala",authors:[{id:"190129",title:"Dr.",name:"Islamiyat Folashade",middleName:null,surname:"Bolarinwa",slug:"islamiyat-folashade-bolarinwa",fullName:"Islamiyat Folashade Bolarinwa"},{id:"194068",title:"Dr.",name:"Sulaiman Adebisi",middleName:null,surname:"Olaniyan",slug:"sulaiman-adebisi-olaniyan",fullName:"Sulaiman Adebisi Olaniyan"},{id:"194071",title:"Dr.",name:"Adeladun Steven",middleName:null,surname:"Ajala",slug:"adeladun-steven-ajala",fullName:"Adeladun Steven Ajala"},{id:"194073",title:"Dr.",name:"Moruf Olanrewaju",middleName:null,surname:"Oke",slug:"moruf-olanrewaju-oke",fullName:"Moruf Olanrewaju Oke"}]},{id:"48406",title:"Impact of Pesticides on Environmental and Human Health",slug:"impact-of-pesticides-on-environmental-and-human-health",totalDownloads:6286,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:38,book:{slug:"toxicology-studies-cells-drugs-and-environment",title:"Toxicology Studies",fullTitle:"Toxicology Studies - Cells, Drugs and Environment"},signatures:"Mariana Furio Franco Bernardes, Murilo Pazin, Lilian Cristina Pereira\nand Daniel Junqueira Dorta",authors:[{id:"172524",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Dorta",slug:"daniel-dorta",fullName:"Daniel Dorta"}]},{id:"71771",title:"The Clinical Importance of Herb-Drug Interactions and Toxicological Risks of Plants and Herbal Products",slug:"the-clinical-importance-of-herb-drug-interactions-and-toxicological-risks-of-plants-and-herbal-produ",totalDownloads:560,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"medical-toxicology",title:"Medical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Medical Toxicology"},signatures:"Cigdem Kahraman, Zekiye Ceren Arituluk and Iffet Irem Tatli Cankaya",authors:[{id:"319337",title:"Dr.",name:"Irem Tatli",middleName:null,surname:"Cankaya",slug:"irem-tatli-cankaya",fullName:"Irem Tatli Cankaya"},{id:"319339",title:"Dr.",name:"Zekiye Ceren",middleName:null,surname:"Arituluk",slug:"zekiye-ceren-arituluk",fullName:"Zekiye Ceren Arituluk"},{id:"319340",title:"Dr.",name:"Cigdem",middleName:null,surname:"Kahraman",slug:"cigdem-kahraman",fullName:"Cigdem Kahraman"}]},{id:"62483",title:"The Socio-Economic Impact of Mycotoxin Contamination in Africa",slug:"the-socio-economic-impact-of-mycotoxin-contamination-in-africa",totalDownloads:1340,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"mycotoxins-impact-and-management-strategies",title:"Mycotoxins",fullTitle:"Mycotoxins - Impact and Management Strategies"},signatures:"Sefater Gbashi, Ntakadzeni Edwin Madala, Sarah De Saeger, Marthe De Boevre, Ifeoluwa Adekoya, Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo and Patrick Berka Njobeh",authors:null},{id:"68822",title:"Heavy Metal Removal Techniques Using Response Surface Methodology: Water/Wastewater Treatment",slug:"heavy-metal-removal-techniques-using-response-surface-methodology-water-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:1263,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Muharrem Ince and Olcay Kaplan Ince",authors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",middleName:null,surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince"},{id:"266549",title:"Dr.",name:"Olcay",middleName:null,surname:"Kaplan Ince",slug:"olcay-kaplan-ince",fullName:"Olcay Kaplan Ince"}]},{id:"42020",title:"Screening of Herbal Medicines for Potential Toxicities",slug:"screening-of-herbal-medicines-for-potential-toxicities",totalDownloads:7133,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:60,book:{slug:"new-insights-into-toxicity-and-drug-testing",title:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing",fullTitle:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing"},signatures:"Obidike Ifeoma and Salawu Oluwakanyinsola",authors:[{id:"142730",title:"Dr.",name:"Ifeoma",middleName:null,surname:"Ezenyi",slug:"ifeoma-ezenyi",fullName:"Ifeoma Ezenyi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science-toxicology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/limb-amputation/stump-overgrowth-after-limb-amputation-in-children",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"limb-amputation",chapter:"stump-overgrowth-after-limb-amputation-in-children"},fullPath:"/books/limb-amputation/stump-overgrowth-after-limb-amputation-in-children",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()