\r\n\tThe study of populations and plant communities in their different aspects; ecological, structural, functional and dynamic, it is essential to establish a posteriori models of forest and agricultural management.
\r\n\r\n\tFor this, the methodological approaches on the type of sampling are considered essential, since there are differences between the purely ecological and the phytosociological methods, despite the fact that both pursue the same objective.
\r\n\tAlthough the ecological method for the knowledge of the vegetation is widely extended, the phytosociological one is no less so, since in the European Union it has been developed as a consequence of policies on sustainability, through which regulations have been issued, such as the habitats directive.
\r\n\tOn the other hand, research on plant dynamics and knowledge of the landscape in an integral way, have multiplied in the last 30 years, which has favored a deep knowledge of the floristic and phytocenotic wealth, which is fundamental for agricultural management, livestock and forestry.
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It presents more than one hundred works published in various national and international journals, as well as books and book chapters; and has presented a hundred papers to national and international congresses.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"Carmelo Maria Musarella is a biologist, specialized in Plant Biology. He is a member of the permanent scientific committee of the International Seminar on “Biodiversity Conservation and Management” guested by several European universities. He has participated in several international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops and presented oral communications and posters.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",middleName:null,surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/87846/images/system/87846.png",biography:"Eusebio Cano Carmona obtained a PhD in Sciences from the\nUniversity of Granada, Spain. He is Professor of Botany at the\nUniversity of Jaén, Spain. His focus is flora and vegetation and he\nhas conducted research in Spain, Italy, Portugal, Palestine, the\nCaribbean islands and Mexico. As a result of these investigations,\nDr. Cano Carmona and colleagues have directed 12 doctoral theses\nand more than 200 publications among articles, books and book\nchapters. He has participated in national and international congresses with about\n250 papers/communications. He has held a number of different academic positions,\nincluding Dean of the Faculty of Experimental Sciences at the University of Jaen,\nSpain and founder and director of the International Seminar on Management and\nConservation of Biodiversity, a position he has held for 13 years. 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Selectivity and Capacity Characteristics of Ionic Liquids",slug:"interactions-between-organic-compounds-and-ionic-liquids-selectivity-and-capacity-characteristics-of",signatures:"Fabrice Mutelet and Jean-Noël Jaubert",authors:[{id:"21249",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Noel",middleName:null,surname:"Jaubert",fullName:"Jean-Noel Jaubert",slug:"jean-noel-jaubert"},{id:"186677",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrice",middleName:null,surname:"Mutelet",fullName:"Fabrice Mutelet",slug:"fabrice-mutelet"}]},{id:"13921",title:"Nonaqueous Microemulsions Containing Ionic Liquids – Properties and Applications",slug:"nonaqueous-microemulsions-containing-ionic-liquids-properties-and-applications",signatures:"Oliver Zech, Agnes Harrar and Werner Kunz",authors:[{id:"18934",title:"Dr.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Kunz",fullName:"Werner Kunz",slug:"werner-kunz"},{id:"18949",title:"Dr.",name:"Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Zech",fullName:"Oliver Zech",slug:"oliver-zech"},{id:"18950",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnes",middleName:null,surname:"Kolodziejski",fullName:"Agnes Kolodziejski",slug:"agnes-kolodziejski"}]},{id:"13922",title:"H/D Effects of Water in Room Temperature Ionic Liquids",slug:"h-d-effects-of-water-in-room-temperature-ionic-liquids",signatures:"Hiroshi Abe and Yukihiro Yoshimura",authors:[{id:"17506",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Abe",fullName:"Hiroshi Abe",slug:"hiroshi-abe"},{id:"17508",title:"Dr.",name:"Yukihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Yoshimura",fullName:"Yukihiro Yoshimura",slug:"yukihiro-yoshimura"}]},{id:"13923",title:"Using Molecular Modelling Tools to Understand the Thermodynamic Behaviour of Ionic Liquids",slug:"using-molecular-modelling-tools-to-understand-the-thermodynamic-behaviour-of-ionic-liquids",signatures:"Lourdes F. Vega, Oriol Vilaseca, Edoardo Valente, Jordi S. Andreu, Fèlix Llovell, and Rosa M. Marcos",authors:[{id:"20071",title:"Prof.",name:"Lourdes F.",middleName:null,surname:"Vega",fullName:"Lourdes F. Vega",slug:"lourdes-f.-vega"},{id:"20072",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Llovell",fullName:"Felix Llovell",slug:"felix-llovell"},{id:"20073",title:"Mr.",name:"Oriol",middleName:null,surname:"Vilaseca",fullName:"Oriol Vilaseca",slug:"oriol-vilaseca"},{id:"20074",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa M.",middleName:null,surname:"Marcos",fullName:"Rosa M. Marcos",slug:"rosa-m.-marcos"},{id:"36504",title:"Mr.",name:"Edoardo",middleName:null,surname:"Valente",fullName:"Edoardo Valente",slug:"edoardo-valente"},{id:"36505",title:"Mr.",name:"Jordi S.",middleName:null,surname:"Andreu",fullName:"Jordi S. Andreu",slug:"jordi-s.-andreu"}]},{id:"13924",title:"Self-Consistent Mean-Field Theory for Room-Temperature Ionic Liquids",slug:"self-consistent-mean-field-theory-for-room-temperature-ionic-liquids",signatures:"Yansen Lauw and Frans Leermakers",authors:[{id:"17090",title:"Dr.",name:"Yansen",middleName:null,surname:"Lauw",fullName:"Yansen Lauw",slug:"yansen-lauw"},{id:"18160",title:"Prof.",name:"Frans",middleName:null,surname:"Leermakers",fullName:"Frans Leermakers",slug:"frans-leermakers"}]},{id:"13925",title:"Pseudolattice Theory of Ionic Liquids",slug:"pseudolattice-theory-of-ionic-liquids",signatures:"L. M. Varela, J. Carrete, M. García, J. R. Rodríguez, L.J. Gallego, M. Turmine and O. Cabeza",authors:[{id:"18729",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis M.",middleName:null,surname:"Varela",fullName:"Luis M. Varela",slug:"luis-m.-varela"},{id:"18894",title:"Prof.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Cabeza",fullName:"Oscar Cabeza",slug:"oscar-cabeza"},{id:"19987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Carrete",fullName:"Jesús Carrete",slug:"jesus-carrete"},{id:"19988",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"García",fullName:"Manuel García",slug:"manuel-garcia"},{id:"19989",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio R.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez",fullName:"Julio R. Rodriguez",slug:"julio-r.-rodriguez"},{id:"24846",title:"Prof.",name:"Mireille",middleName:null,surname:"Turmine",fullName:"Mireille Turmine",slug:"mireille-turmine"}]},{id:"13926",title:"Ionic Liquids as Designer Solvents for the Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles",slug:"ionic-liquids-as-designer-solvents-for-the-synthesis-of-metal-nanoparticles",signatures:"Vipul Bansal and Suresh K. Bhargava",authors:[{id:"17718",title:"Dr.",name:"Vipul",middleName:null,surname:"Bansal",fullName:"Vipul Bansal",slug:"vipul-bansal"},{id:"20769",title:"Prof.",name:"Suresh K.",middleName:null,surname:"Bhargava",fullName:"Suresh K. Bhargava",slug:"suresh-k.-bhargava"}]},{id:"13927",title:"Evaluation of Mobility, Diffusion Coefficient and Density of Charge Carriers in Ionic Liquids and Novel Electrolytes Based on a New Model for Dielectric Response",slug:"evaluation-of-mobility-diffusion-coefficient-and-density-of-charge-carriers-in-ionic-liquids-and-nov",signatures:"T.M.W.J. Bandara and B.-E. Mellander",authors:[{id:"17183",title:"Dr.",name:"Bandara",middleName:null,surname:"T. M. Wijendra Jayalath",fullName:"Bandara T. M. Wijendra Jayalath",slug:"bandara-t.-m.-wijendra-jayalath"},{id:"20679",title:"Prof.",name:"Bengt-Erik",middleName:null,surname:"Mellander",fullName:"Bengt-Erik Mellander",slug:"bengt-erik-mellander"}]},{id:"13928",title:"Aggregates in Ionic Liquids and Applications Thereof",slug:"aggregates-in-ionic-liquids-and-applications-thereof",signatures:"J. D. Marty and N. Lauth de Viguerie",authors:[{id:"18958",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Marty",fullName:"Jean-Daniel Marty",slug:"jean-daniel-marty"},{id:"18961",title:"Prof.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Lauth-De Viguerie",fullName:"Nancy Lauth-De Viguerie",slug:"nancy-lauth-de-viguerie"}]},{id:"13929",title:"Supramolecular Structures in the Presence of Ionic Liquids",slug:"supramolecular-structures-in-the-presence-of-ionic-liquids",signatures:"Xinghai Shen, Qingde Chen, Jingjing Zhang and Pei Fu",authors:[{id:"21300",title:"Dr.",name:"Xinghai",middleName:null,surname:"Shen",fullName:"Xinghai Shen",slug:"xinghai-shen"},{id:"21339",title:"Dr.",name:"Qingde",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Qingde Chen",slug:"qingde-chen"},{id:"21340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingjing",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Jingjing Zhang",slug:"jingjing-zhang"},{id:"21341",title:"Prof.",name:"Pei",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",fullName:"Pei Fu",slug:"pei-fu"}]},{id:"13930",title:"Formation of Complexes in RTIL and Ion Separations",slug:"formation-of-complexes-in-rtil-and-ion-separations",signatures:"Konstantin Popov, Andrei Vendilo, Igor Pletnev, Marja Lajunen, Hannu Rönkkömäki and Lauri H.J. Lajunen",authors:[{id:"18856",title:"Prof.",name:"Konstantin",middleName:null,surname:"Popov",fullName:"Konstantin Popov",slug:"konstantin-popov"},{id:"18860",title:"Prof.",name:"Marja",middleName:null,surname:"Lajunen",fullName:"Marja Lajunen",slug:"marja-lajunen"}]},{id:"13931",title:"The Design of Nanoscale Inorganic Materials with Controlled Size and Morphology by Ionic Liquids",slug:"the-design-of-nanoscale-inorganic-materials-with-controlled-size-and-morphology-by-ionic-liquids",signatures:"Elaheh Kowsari",authors:[{id:"16210",title:"Dr.",name:"Elaheh",middleName:null,surname:"Kowsari",fullName:"Elaheh Kowsari",slug:"elaheh-kowsari"}]},{id:"13932",title:"Synthesis of Novel Nanoparticle - Nanocarbon Conjugates Using Plasma in Ionic Liquid",slug:"synthesis-of-novel-nanoparticle-nanocarbon-conjugates-using-plasma-in-ionic-liquid",signatures:"Toshiro Kaneko and Rikizo Hatakeyama",authors:[{id:"19594",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshiro",middleName:null,surname:"Kaneko",fullName:"Toshiro Kaneko",slug:"toshiro-kaneko"},{id:"19595",title:"Prof.",name:"Rikizo",middleName:null,surname:"Hatakeyama",fullName:"Rikizo Hatakeyama",slug:"rikizo-hatakeyama"}]},{id:"13933",title:"Nanoparticle Preparation in Room-Temperature Ionic Liquid under Vacuum Condition",slug:"nanoparticle-preparation-in-room-temperature-ionic-liquid-under-vacuum-condition",signatures:"Tetsuya Tsuda, Akihito Imanishi, Tsukasa Torimoto and Susumu Kuwabata",authors:[{id:"18431",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetsuya",middleName:null,surname:"Tsuda",fullName:"Tetsuya Tsuda",slug:"tetsuya-tsuda"},{id:"20450",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsukasa",middleName:null,surname:"Torimoto",fullName:"Tsukasa Torimoto",slug:"tsukasa-torimoto"},{id:"20451",title:"Prof.",name:"Susumu",middleName:null,surname:"Kuwabata",fullName:"Susumu Kuwabata",slug:"susumu-kuwabata"},{id:"20467",title:"Prof.",name:"Akihito",middleName:null,surname:"Imanishi",fullName:"Akihito Imanishi",slug:"akihito-imanishi"}]},{id:"13934",title:"Perspectives of Ionic Liquids Applications for Clean Oilfield Technologies",slug:"perspectives-of-ionic-liquids-applications-for-clean-oilfield-technologies",signatures:"Rafael Martínez-Palou and Patricia Flores Sánche",authors:[{id:"18064",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Palou",fullName:"Rafael Martínez Palou",slug:"rafael-martinez-palou"},{id:"24168",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Flores Sánchez",fullName:"Patricia Flores Sánchez",slug:"patricia-flores-sanchez"}]},{id:"13935",title:"Ionic Liquid Based Electrolytes for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells",slug:"ionic-liquid-based-electrolytes-for-dye-sensitized-solar-cells",signatures:"Chuan-Pei Lee, Po-Yen Chen and Kuo-Chuan Ho",authors:[{id:"5989",title:"Prof.",name:"Kuo-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ho",fullName:"Kuo-Chuan Ho",slug:"kuo-chuan-ho"},{id:"30213",title:"Dr.",name:"Chuan-Pei",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Chuan-Pei Lee",slug:"chuan-pei-lee"},{id:"30223",title:"BSc.",name:"Po-Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Po-Yen Chen",slug:"po-yen-chen"}]},{id:"13936",title:"Quaternary Ammonium and Phosphonium Ionic Liquids in Chemical and Environmental Engineering",slug:"quaternary-ammonium-and-phosphonium-ionic-liquids-in-chemical-and-environmental-engineering",signatures:"Anja Stojanovic, Cornelia Morgenbesser, Daniel Kogelnig, Regina Krachler and Bernhard K. Keppler",authors:[{id:"17516",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Kogelnig",fullName:"Daniel Kogelnig",slug:"daniel-kogelnig"},{id:"20872",title:"Dr.",name:"Anja",middleName:null,surname:"Stojanovic",fullName:"Anja Stojanovic",slug:"anja-stojanovic"},{id:"20873",title:"Dr.",name:"Regina",middleName:null,surname:"Krachler",fullName:"Regina Krachler",slug:"regina-krachler"},{id:"20874",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernhard K.",middleName:null,surname:"Keppler",fullName:"Bernhard K. Keppler",slug:"bernhard-k.-keppler"},{id:"24420",title:"MSc.",name:"Cornelia",middleName:null,surname:"Morgenbesser",fullName:"Cornelia Morgenbesser",slug:"cornelia-morgenbesser"}]},{id:"13937",title:"Ionic Liquids within Microfluidic Devices",slug:"ionic-liquids-within-microfluidic-devices",signatures:"Marina Cvjetko and Polona Žnidaršič-Plazl",authors:[{id:"18755",title:"Dr.",name:"Polona",middleName:null,surname:"Žnidaršič-Plazl",fullName:"Polona Žnidaršič-Plazl",slug:"polona-znidarsic-plazl"},{id:"23486",title:"Ms.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Cvjetko Bubalo",fullName:"Marina Cvjetko Bubalo",slug:"marina-cvjetko-bubalo"}]},{id:"13938",title:"Ionic Liquids: Methods of Degradation and Recovery",slug:"ionic-liquids-methods-of-degradation-and-recovery",signatures:"E.M. Siedlecka, M. Czerwicka, J.Neumann, P. Stepnowski, J.F Fernández and J. Thöming",authors:[{id:"14871",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorg",middleName:null,surname:"Thöming",fullName:"Jorg Thöming",slug:"jorg-thoming"},{id:"20897",title:"Dr.",name:"Ewa Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Siedlecka",fullName:"Ewa Maria Siedlecka",slug:"ewa-maria-siedlecka"},{id:"21083",title:"Dr.",name:"Malgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Czerwicka",fullName:"Malgorzata Czerwicka",slug:"malgorzata-czerwicka"},{id:"21084",title:"Prof.",name:"Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Stepnowski",fullName:"Piotr Stepnowski",slug:"piotr-stepnowski"},{id:"24146",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer",middleName:null,surname:"Neumann",fullName:"Jennifer Neumann",slug:"jennifer-neumann"}]},{id:"13939",title:"Progress in Paramagnetic Ionic Liquids",slug:"progress-in-paramagnetic-ionic-liquids",signatures:"Yukihiro Yoshida and Gunzi Saito",authors:[{id:"17739",title:"Dr.",name:"Yukihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Yoshida",fullName:"Yukihiro Yoshida",slug:"yukihiro-yoshida"},{id:"20755",title:"Prof.",name:"Gunzi",middleName:null,surname:"Saito",fullName:"Gunzi Saito",slug:"gunzi-saito"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"68314",title:"Scyllarid Lobster Biology and Ecology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88218",slug:"scyllarid-lobster-biology-and-ecology",body:'Slipper lobsters, family Scyllaridae (Latreille, 1825) have been known and described since the late 1700s and are considered part of the superfamily Palinuroidea that consists of spiny lobsters (Palinuridae), furry lobsters (Synaxidae), blind claw-footed lobsters (Polychelidae), and slipper or shovel-nosed or bulldozer lobsters (Scyllaridae) [1, 2]. The Scyllaridae are organized into four subfamilies (Ibacinae, Arctidiane, Scyllarinae, and Theninae) and comprise 20 genera with at least 89 extant species thus far recognized [3, 4, 5, 6].
Only four genera—
The present review is an attempt to summarize the somewhat patchy information available in the scientific literature on scyllarids. In addition, expanding our knowledge on slipper lobsters may prove beneficial to humans in ways beyond providing a food source, given that large proteins recently isolated from
Lobsters were significantly more diverse in the Mesozoic, especially during the Triassic and Jurassic, than in the Cenozoic and Holocene. The Achelata appeared 391–351 million years ago (MYA), but did not diverge into the palinurid and scyllarid lineages until the Permian (−250 MYA) [12, 13]. Fossil remains of scyllarids date back to the mid-Cretaceous (100–120 MYA) [3], but are not well-represented since their fossils come mostly from low energy (shale, clay, ironstone) or lithographic (limestone) deposits [14, 15, 16]. Today’s scyllarids live in different habitats (coral and sponge reefs, and medium to high energy environments) from fossil forms, but the sparse fossil record of this group makes it difficult to speculate on when their habitat shift occurred, although their major radiation began in the Late Jurassic and continued through the Holocene [14].
Slipper lobsters are closely related to the Palinuridae and Synaxidae, all of which comprise the Achelata; they share numerous characters, most notably their unique larval phase (i.e., phyllosoma) which separate the Achelata from all other Decapoda [3]. The plate-like antennal flagellum of slipper lobsters is a highly derived feature that is common to all 89 species and distinguishes them from the palinurids and synaxids which possess whip-like antennae. The Scyllaridae underwent considerable taxonomic revision from 1991 to 2002, mostly within the Scyllarinae, and now consist of 20 genera. The highest taxonomic diversity is among the smaller species [1, 17].
The subfamily Arctidinae consists of 2 genera and 17 species. These are some of the larger scyllarids.
Different forms of scyllarid lobsters. (A)
Scyllarid mouthparts. (1) Aboral/ventral view of third maxilliped; (2) aboral/ventral view of second maxilliped; (3) aboral/ventral view of first maxilliped; (4) aboral/ventral view of second maxilla; (5) aboral/ventral view of first maxilla; (6) mouth; (7) aboral/ventral view of mandible; (8) oral/dorsal view of third maxilliped; (9) oral/dorsal view of first maxilliped; (10) oral/dorsal view of mandible. From Savigny, J-Cés. Iconographie des Crustacés et des Arachnides de l’Égypte. De l’Imprimerie Royale, Paris, France; 1805.
The taxonomy of Scyllaridae is based mainly on the morphology of the adults and to lesser extent of that of their pelagic larvae, the phylosomas. Recently molecular genetic tools have been used to assess taxonomic and phylogenetic issues, and the main clades found within Scyllaridae are in agreement [13] with current taxonomy based on adult morphology [1, 19, 20] and recent molecular studies [5]. All subfamilies (Arctidinae, Theninae and Scyllarinae) are now considered monophyletic, except for the Ibacinae [5]; this contrasts with a more recent analysis [21] that concluded that the Scyllaridae are fully monophyletic. The Arctidinae appears to represent the earliest branching lineage during the evolution of this group [5], which corresponds to the fossil record. In addition, slipper lobsters have likely evolved from shallow (onshore) to deep water (offshore) species [5]. These same molecular tools suggest that two Atlantic species,
The life history of scyllarids parallels that of palinurids and can be divided into a series of developmental phases. These lobsters typically begin their pelagic lives as phyllosoma larvae (Figure 3), although some scyllarids (
Various stages of scyllarid phyllosoma larvae. Top, early stages of
The dispersal of phyllosomas varies among species and depends largely on whether the parental stock is found within lagoons formed by coral island barrier reefs or in deeper waters [32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Those hatched in coastal lagoons tend to remain there, while those hatched in deeper water gradually move shoreward, such that final-stage phyllosomas are found much closer to shore [30]. Some phyllosomas undertake diel vertical migrations, but data are limited as to the extent of these migrations and the species-specific preferences for various depths [30, 37] as well as the efficacy of their swimming behavior. It is likely that smaller instars vertically migrate less than later, larger instars [35] and may use passive transport by occupying vertical strata that move them in specific directions [30]. Some phyllosomas even travel attached to the aboral surface of jellyfish medusae or siphonophores [38, 39, 40, 41], which may affect larval dispersal or allow them to remain relatively near shore [29, 30]. Understanding of phyllosoma behavior and dispersion has been challenged by the ability to correctly identify species; however, recent use of molecular genetics and DNA barcoding is improving the ability to make species identification possible in the field [42, 43].
Phyllosomas are raptorial feeders, using their pereiopods to grasp onto food items, which are then shredded by the maxillipeds and masticated by molar processes of the mandibles [44]. Mostly fleshy foods are ingested; such food types are more readily available in coastal waters than in offshore, oligotrophic waters [29, 30, 45]. Some scyllarid phyllosomas have been observed clinging onto or “riding” the medusa stage of some gelatinous zooplankton. For example, a recent report of a videotaped scyllarid lobster phyllosoma swimming while dragging a prayid siphonophore behind it suggests that gelatinous forms may serve as a critical food and/or defense against predation (by ingestion of the nematocysts) and refutes the idea that hitching a ride on these organisms is energy-saving due to passive transportation [41]. Recently, molecular methods using the central domain of the 18SrDNA gene have identified food items of some species of scyllarid and palinurid phyllosomas and suggest that these forms feed on appendicularians, salps, and cnidarians [46]. Ctenophores fed to phyllosomas of
The final-stage phyllosoma molts into the highly specialized nisto (see Figure 4), or post-larval stage, which, like their spiny lobster (pueruli) and clawed lobster (post-larvae) counterparts, utilize surface waters to swim toward benthic habitats to settle. Nistos are neither completely planktonic nor completely benthic—they are caught in plankton tows demonstrating that they are pelagic at least part of the time [29]. In many species of scyllarids, the nisto appears to bury into soft substrates during the day and swim actively at night; some species even change coloration daily between these two habitats to remain cryptically colored in both environments [29]. Some scyllarid nistos are excellent swimmers (using their abdominal pleopods), while others are poor swimmers; some are also capable of executing tail flips (backward swimming) as a means of escape [55]. These swimming differences may exist due to marked differences in the size of pleopods among different species [56]. However, this suggestion has not been adequately tested.
Nisto of
As with spiny lobster pueruli, the nisto appears to rely on energy reserves, rather than to actively feed [30], although the structure of the proventriculus is transitional between the phyllosoma and the juvenile [57] which suggests that it can process and sort food particles at this stage of development. The nisto also bears a cardio-pyloric valve that divides the anterior and posterior cardiac chambers, but lacks a gastric mill. Thus, if food is consumed by the nisto, it is likely soft and processed mainly by the mouthparts prior to ingestion [57]. Nistos appear similar in form to juveniles and bear the derived feature of flattened antennae, but are transparent instead of being reddish-brown. Their abdominal pleopods still bear swimming (natatory) setae [58] to aid in transitioning them from the pelagic to the benthic realm.
Juvenile life history of scyllarids is lacking for all species except those that have been successfully reared in culture (e.g.,
Gaps in life-history make growth rate determination difficult in most species, except for those that can be cultured with high survival rates or from grow-out studies when sufficient juveniles have been captured. Juveniles of reared
Arctidinid adults (e.g.
Very little information is available on adults of
In
In the
Adults of the subfamily Scyllarinae are usually small and information is very limited regarding growth and reproduction.
The developmental period for scyllarid phyllosomas is far more variable than that for palinurids, and can last from a few weeks to at least 9 months [29, 30]. Lengthy duration of the larval period likely leads to wide oceanic dispersion and, ultimately, connectivity of geographically distant subpopulations resulting in panmixia in adults. Molecular tools are just starting to be used to examine population structure of individual species. In one such study,
Except for
Feeding behavior of adults is dependent on the structures with which lobsters can capture, manipulate, and process their food and differs with life history stage as mouthparts, pereiopods, and the proventriculus gain substance and size. Feeding habits, primarily for the adults of
As in clawed and spiny lobsters, the esophagus of slipper lobsters is short, presumably to allow for rapid ingestion [57]. This structure leads into the proventriculus, which is divided into the anterior cardiac stomach and the posterior pyloric stomach. The gastric mill of slipper lobsters is smaller and less calcified [88] likely due to the diet specialization that has occurred in slipper lobsters—that of primarily consuming bivalve flesh, or other fleshy items. Food proceeds from the cardiac stomach to the pyloric stomach through a cardio-pyloric valve, which lacks the spines and accessory teeth seen in other decapods [88]. Dense mats of setae in the pyloric stomach provide filtering of semi-digested food particles with only the smallest particles entering from the cardiac stomach and exiting into the digestive gland. Larger particles are passed into the midgut caecum and hindgut [88]. Little is understood about the digestive enzymes involved in food breakdown [57].
Many slipper lobsters (e.g.
The feeding sequence of S. aequinoctialis. (1) Lobster approaches bivalve with antennules flicking and sampling odors; (2) pereiopods grab bivalve while antennules “taste” it to assess if feeding sequence will continue; (3) “wedging” of pereiopods into closed valves; (4) probing and “shucking” of the valves, while cutting adductor muscles; (5) close-up of pereiopods ripping adductor muscle; (6) scraping of flesh out of bivalve and delivery to mouthparts.
While bivalves are a preferred food source, slipper lobsters are also known to consume sea urchins, crustaceans, sponges, gastropods, barnacles, sea squirts, algae (
Adult specimens of
Gregarious sheltering has been noted for
The adults of many species are found on hard and soft substrates (Figure 6).
The response of slipper lobsters to predator attack (e.g., by gregarious triggerfish) has been well studied [79, 98, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108] and consists of three strategies, two of which are typically executed in sequence: (i) the “fortress strategy” in which the animal grasps the bottom and attempts to outlast its attacker’s motivation to penetrate its hard shell (described in [107]); (ii) the “swimming escape” response (described in [102, 105, 106, 107]); and (iii) remaining sheltered in dens [79, 103]. Lacking claws (like
Anti-predator responses of
Slipper lobsters that live in complex substrates also display a variety of shelter-related behaviors that provide a third highly effective survival strategy [105]. By combining nocturnal foraging with diurnal sheltering, as well as carrying food to their shelters for later consumption, slipper lobsters may fully minimize their exposure to diurnal predators. The tendency for cohabitation with conspecifics (as seen in
Very little is known about the antipredator behavior of soft bottom species. Fully buried
Besides triggerfish, spotted gully shark (
Most information on reproductive behavior comes from laboratory observations. Unlike clawed lobsters where mating usually occurs shortly after females molt, scyllarids are more similar to palinurids in that mating and molting are separate and unrelated events, although in the hooded slipper lobster (
Male
From the very limited information available on
In
Slipper lobsters movements consist of either slow, benthic walking used for daily nomadic movements within a small home range and for seasonal migrations from shallow inshore waters to deeper offshore waters or swimming movements that are used for escape or vertical migratory movements. Daily activity patterns suggest that slipper lobsters have endogenous clocks that provide for circadian rhythms with higher locomotor periods during night hours [122]. Tagging studies of
Mobility of
Swimming behavior constitutes a form of locomotion in which a single “appendage”—the abdomen—produces thrust by a combination of a rowing action and a final “squeeze” force when the abdomen presses against the cephalothorax [125]. Although the tail-flip response is known in adults and juveniles of all three major taxonomic group of lobsters, it is best developed in slipper lobsters.
The hydrodynamics of swimming in slipper lobsters has been studied in
In
There are only a few reports on diseases or parasites of slipper lobsters, in general, and of specific species in particular [132, 133]. This limited information is usually focused on commercial species and those that have potential in aquaculture.
Overfishing, climate change, and habitat degradation are the main reasons for the drastic decline of marine populations over the past 30 years [136]. The effects of overfishing characterize many populations of commercial slipper lobsters and result in decreases in exploited stocks in the last few decades. Some species of slipper lobsters, formerly ignored, are now targeted due to the decline in other species (e.g., spiny lobsters) especially around the waters off Australia, Hawaii, India, the Galápagos Islands, and the countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. As a consequence, slipper lobsters have rapidly decreased in stock abundance to the point that local fisheries have collapsed [7]. Regulations established that try to protect these populations may have unexpected negative effects. For example, the prohibition against landing ovigerous females of
Instead of regulations that may have unintended consequences or the creation of natural reserves that require political will, policing, and industry buy-in, targeted fishing moratoriums may also help to rebuild stocks. For example, depleted stocks of
Although slipper lobsters represent the most speciose group of lobsters and have been exploited in targeted or by-catch fisheries, they have been and continue to be poorly studied compared to the less speciose but more popular clawed and spiny lobsters. Lack of knowledge of basic biological features such as life history, behavior, physiology, and disease does not bode well for the long-term health of populations especially when most scientists expect dramatic climatic changes to impact oceanic habitats and community structure. Given that these lobsters represent a potential food source for an ever-growing human population, it would be beneficial to understand much more about these lobsters with targeted studies, supported by governmental agencies, much as we saw for clawed and spiny lobsters nearly 40 years ago.
"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality. Throughout the world, we are seeing progress in attracting, retaining, and promoting women in STEMM. IntechOpen are certainly supporting this work globally by empowering all scientists and ensuring that women are encouraged and enabled to publish and take leading roles within the scientific community." Dr. Catrin Rutland, University of Nottingham, UK
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