\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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He also serves as a researcher in Complex Systems at the School of Mathematics, University of Zaragoza. He has worked as a lecturer at the University of Navarra, the Public University of Navarra, and at the UNED of Calatayud. He completed his postdoc with Prof. Yves Pomeau at the École Normale Supérieure of Paris, and with Prof. Gabriel Mindlin at the University of Buenos Aires. He has published over one hundred papers in journals, proceedings, and books, and has held about thirty presentations at various meetings and conferences. His areas of interest include statistical complexity and nonlinear models, chaotic maps and applications, multi-agent systems, and econophysics.",institutionString:"University of Zaragoza",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"University of Zaragoza",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"599",title:"Computer Simulation",slug:"numerical-analysis-and-scientific-computing-computer-simulation"}],chapters:[{id:"50911",title:"BOLD fMRI Simulation",slug:"bold-fmri-simulation",totalDownloads:1198,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"179437",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zikuan",surname:"Chen",slug:"zikuan-chen",fullName:"Zikuan Chen"}]},{id:"50398",title:"Basics of Multibody Systems: Presented by Practical Simulation Examples of Spine 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In addition to providing the main environmental support for the majority of plants, soil provides the habitat for a vast diversity of animals (vertebrate and invertebrate) and microorganism taxa. Soil is estimated to harbor one-fourth of all of the described biodiversity [1–2]. Although organisms may occur in almost all soil profiles, biological activity is highly concentrated in the most superficial layers, mainly within the top 30 cm of soil, where the highest concentrations of organic material are also found [3–4].
The transformations promoted by soil organisms, especially those that benefit human populations, are known as ecosystem services [5]. The concept of ecosystem services is recent, and a large number of services have already been identified as priorities for terrestrial ecosystems because they significantly influence the daily life of human populations and are fundamental for the maintenance of ecosystems and agriculture.
Soil invertebrates are directly or indirectly responsible for various biological and biochemical processes underlying terrestrial ecosystem services, namely, at the level of microbiota regulation, nutrient cycling, soil structuring, and water-quality regulation through filtration processes. These organisms act directly on the fragmentation and distribution of organic material deposited in the soil (animal and plant debris) and function as catalysts of organic matter (OM) decomposition processes and the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur [5]. Moreover, these organisms regulate microbial activity (including the control of pathogens), microorganism distribution along the soil profile, and soil structuring because certain fauna species build tunnels, galleries, and other structures along soil profiles (horizontally and vertically) that are used to transport microorganisms and/or their latent forms (e.g., fungal spores) and provide preferential routes for organic matter incorporation and distribution as well as for root growth.
A classic example of a terrestrial ecosystem service provided by soil invertebrates is their influence on the mineralization of nutrients contained in the soil organic matter (SOM), a process that is fundamental for the maintenance of agriculture and forestry systems. This recycling of chemical elements is responsible for the supply of a large portion of the nutrients required by plants as well as increases in the productivity of these systems [6]. Therefore, it is essential to protect the ecosystem services provided by soil fauna.
In order to rapidly meet the high demand for food and products at lower production costs, methods that are more aggressive to the environment are being used, such as the intensive use of pesticides (to control pests and diseases), discharge of agro-industrial waste directly into the soil (without treatment), and other types of exploitation of the edaphic system [7]. These interventions may present a high risk for terrestrial ecosystems because they constitute entryways of several potentially toxic contaminants that may compromise invertebrate performance and their services, thus also affecting soil microorganisms and the functionality of soil ecosystems.
Until recently, the impact of anthropogenic contamination of terrestrial ecosystems has been primarily measured using indicators of soil chemical and physical properties because biological properties have generally been considered more difficult to predict or even measure [8]. The pH, cation-exchange capacity (CEC), organic matter content, and soil nutrient levels (fertility) are the most commonly used chemical parameters for evaluating soil health. However, these parameters are especially relevant when analyzing the soil’s capacity to increase crop yield [9]. Similarly, the physical parameters texture, aggregate stability, soil density, and soil porosity, which are simple, fast and lowcostanalyzes [9], can be used as indicators of soil health. Nevertheless, they aremainly related to hydrological processes such as erosion, aeration, soil runoff, infiltration rate, and water-holding capacity (WHC) [10].
A large number of traditional studies that have applied environmental impact indicators for terrestrial ecosystems have only utilized the parameters organic matter (as chemical indicator) and soil-aggregate stability (as physical indicator), whereas a smaller number of studies have correlated biological indicators (bioindicators) to soil quality [8]. However, the impact of contaminants on soil may be more easily identified through their effects on biota than from the results of chemical and physical analyses [11–13] because of the higher sensitivity of biological processes and the capacity of organisms to detect and rapidly respond toa particular part of the contaminant concentrations in the soil (e.g., heavy metals), which is the fraction of contaminants available for uptake by living organisms known as the bioavailable fraction [14]. Therefore, assessing the impact of contaminants through their effects on biota may provide an early warning of risks to terrestrial ecosystems [3]. In addition, assessments using living soil organisms, called bioindicators, can be used to determine whether contaminants released into soil affect ecosystem services.
Standardized ecotoxicological laboratory tests using invertebrates are one of the first steps in risk assessments of soil contaminants, and they can be considered one of the main assessment tools because they are frequently sufficient for determining the ecological risk level of substances and the safe exposure limits for humans and soil biota [13, 15]. This type of test provides quantitative and/or qualitative information on the toxic effects of contaminants on soil invertebrate fauna, including information required by several global regulatory authorities prior to the sale of pesticides [16] or to allow the application of residues to agricultural soils [17].
In the European Union (EU), the sale of phytopharmaceuticals (including pesticides) is regulated by specific guidelines that require standardized ecotoxicological tests to assess the impact of these substances on nontarget soil organisms [16, 18]. Regarding the application of agro-industrial residues to soil, the EU requires that assessments be performed according to Directive 2008/98/EC [17], which includes an ecotoxicological risk criterion (H14 – “ecotoxic”). This criterion is used to identify wastes that constitute or may constitute immediate or delayed risks for one or more sectors of the environment (including soil invertebrates) and may be the determining factor used to decide the hazard level of more than 80% of wastes [19].
Two different approaches can be distinguished in laboratory ecotoxicological tests [20]. The first approach involves analyses that are predictive/prognostic and aim to determine the possible toxic effects of the substances tested on invertebrates in case the substances are released into the soil. This approach is mainly used to test new substances (e.g., new pesticides and pharmaceutical drugs) for which the safe exposure levels in terrestrial environments are unclear; thus, this approach can be used to regulate their use or prevent their introduction to the market. The second approach involves analyses that are diagnostic and aim to determine the actual ecological risk or current damage using samples of contaminated natural soils. In this case, the assessments are used to define the priorities for remediating contaminated areas and/or actions for reducing ecological risks.
These two approaches include various tests that can be classified according to exposure time (acute or chronic toxicity), observed effect (mortality, reduced growth or reproduction, bioaccumulation, or behavioral changes) or effective response (lethal or sublethal) [21]. In these tests, representative species of the soil fauna are exposed to increasing contaminant concentrations and the contaminant effects are measured in one (single species) or several species (multispecies) to test dose–response relations [22].
There are various methods for evaluating toxicity in invertebrates, including topical application, force-feeding, and immersion tests [23]. However, the main laboratory assays standardized by the norms of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) consist of exposing standard species to samples of contaminated soil. These protocols describe methods used to determine acute and chronic toxicity and the effects on the behavior of earthworms, collembolans, enchytraeids, mites, mollusks, and few other insects [20].
The objective of acute toxicity tests is mainly to assess whether a substance causes organism death. These tests are useful for short-term identifications of highly toxic contaminants; however, they do not consider different stages of the test organism life cycle (growth, reproduction, and birth of juveniles) or determine whether particular life cycle stages present increased sensitivity to toxic substances [24]. These tests are also used as preliminary evaluations (“range-finding tests”) to determine the concentration ranges to be used in definitive acute toxicity tests and/or the sublethal concentrations for chronic toxicity assays [13].
Chronic toxicity tests are medium-term tests that measure the sublethal effects of potentially toxic substances on organisms, such as changes in reproduction and growth, and are more adequate for assessing effects at the population level [20, 25]. The primary standard methods for laboratory chronic toxicity tests have been established in ISO [26–27] and OECD [28–31] guidelines. The objective of these standardized tests is similar for different groups of invertebrates, although they do present differences, especially in test duration, as a result of the different reproductive characteristics of different species. In these tests, adults are exposed to a range of sublethal concentrations of the test substance, with the concentrations defined according to preliminary tests (range finding) or results from the literature.
Behavioral tests with soil invertebrates are also becoming common because they provide a preliminary evaluation of responses to soil pollution over a shorter period relative to that of toxicity tests [13]. In addition to providing ecologically relevant results because of the sensitivity of species in detecting polluting substances in soils, these tests can be performed more quickly (2 days on average) and at a reduced cost [13, 32]. Avoidance tests, for example, can be used as triage tools to assess the habitat suitability of soils because they are based on the ability of animals (e.g., earthworms) to avoid potentially toxic substances upon exposure to contaminated soils [33] because of the presence of chemoreceptors that are highly sensitive to chemicals in the environment [34].
Although behavioral assays offer alternative endpoints for assessing the impact of contaminants on soil invertebrates, it is recommended to use such evaluations along with acute and/or chronic toxicity tests [35] because in certain cases, the substances can cause 100% mortality without the observance of an avoidance effect [32]. Such cases may be related to the test substance’s narcotic properties, an absence of irritating effects, or physiological adaptations associated with the species’ mode of life [36]. Integrated laboratory analyses should therefore be performed when a higher precision is required when assessing the interactions between contaminants, animal species, and soil properties because such analyses decrease the amount of uncertainty when determining ecological risks.
Although the standardized guidelines for ecotoxicological tests for terrestrial environments are relatively new, compared with the guidelines for aquatic environments, the number of tests based on these guidelines has increased considerably, and such tests have been used to investigate the ecological risk assessment of fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, heavy metals, nanomaterials, agro-industrial residues, and other substances in soil [13, 20].
Ideally, the toxic effects of all chemicals introduced to terrestrial ecosystems, such as agro-industrial and urban wastes, should be tested on all species inhabiting the ecosystem before commercialization (xenobiotics) or direct application to the soil [13]. Because these measures cannot be achieved in the laboratory, edaphic invertebrate species that have known sensitivities to anthropogenic changes and provide the main representative ecosystem services of the fauna have been chosen as indicators of the ecotoxicological risk to terrestrial ecosystems. The review presented in Ref. [20] provides a list of the main invertebrates used in terrestrial ecotoxicological assays. This list includes earthworms (
The methods described by the ISO and OECD international guidelines for ecotoxicity tests with terrestrial invertebrates are designed to standardize the tests so that similar results can be obtained in different laboratories regardless of the region. Such standardization facilitates comparisons and increases the reliability of the established toxicity levels. To develop standardized tests, standard species must be selected based on ecological relevance, ease of maintenance in the laboratory, and short-generation time [37–38]. In addition, the selected species should have well-known biological parameters so that a large number of healthy, homogeneous (same size and biomass), and age-synchronized individuals can be obtained. The number of species that meet all of these requirements is small.
In general, toxicity assays with standard species are performed individually; therefore, each species is tested separately to exclude the effects of interactions among species present in soil. However, the use of several species, even when tested separately, increases the ecological relevance of laboratory analyses because different organisms respond differently to pollutants, and the potential risk to the ecosystem varies [20]. The performance of a balanced battery of tests using organisms of different functional and taxonomic groups and different routes of exposure is therefore necessary to improve the reliability of ecological risk assessments determined via laboratory tests [39].
The main standard invertebrates used in batteries of soil ecotoxicological tests are earthworms [29, 40–42], collembolans [26, 31], mites [39], and enchytraeids [22, 28, 43]. Because of different morphological (e.g., epidermis structure) and physiological (e.g., water and oxygen uptake pathways) characteristics as well as feeding and behavioral habits (e.g., movement within the soil or at the soil surface and digging habits), these taxonomic groups encompass different pollutant uptake routes and encounter pollutants through the exposure to water and air present in the soil pores and ingestion of food and soil particles [44].
Earthworms are important components of the soil biota because they aid in the formation and maintenance of soil structure and fertility. Although they are not numerically dominant, their large size makes them one of the main contributors to invertebrate biomass in soil. These organisms are important indicators of soil life and quality because their populations are affected by common agricultural practices, especially by the use of pesticides and fertilizers and application of waste [45]. Because they are soft-bodied organisms, earthworms absorb water mainly through their skin; therefore, they can accumulate chemicals during water absorption [44]. Another important route of contaminant absorption is through ingestion because these organisms ingest large amounts of soil with adsorbed substances along with their food (soil organic material, which may also be contaminated).
Although several earthworm species have been used in terrestrial ecotoxicological tests [22], only
Neither of the two species is typical of most agricultural soils, and they only occur in soils rich in organic matter. Under ideal conditions, their life cycle until maturity is relatively short (varying between 45 and 51 days) compared with that of other species and extends from the recently deposited cocoon until the adult stage, when the worms are sexually mature (with the presence of clitellum) and ready to produce the next generation. The time for juveniles (recently hatched) to reach sexual maturity varies between 21 and 30 days. Both species are prolific, and between two and five juveniles are generated from each viable cocoon. Depending on the rearing temperature and substrate, their maximum life span ranges from four and a half to five years [45].
Enchytraeids (family Enchytraeidae) belong to the same class as earthworms (Oligochaeta) and can live in both water and soil. However, they are mostly found in soil, where they perform important ecosystem services, such as increasing the rate of organic matter decomposition, maintaining the soil structure (creation of biopores), and dispersing microbes on a local scale [47–48]. These services are especially important in acidic, sandy, and nutrient-poor soils, where enchytraeids are the dominant soil fauna group (up to 75% of the biomass) [48–49]. In these environments, the role of enchytraeids in organic matter decomposition may not be performed by other fauna groups [50].
The family Enchytraeidae has over 600 described species [48]. Known as white worms or potworms because of their pale color and small size (many are only a few millimeters long, although some may reach up to 5 cm), most enchytraeids are hermaphroditic (capable of self-fertilization), although certain species are parthenogenetic or reproduce through fragmentation [51]. Enchytraeids have a limited capacity for movement inside the soil; therefore, they live in the most superficial soil layers (0–10 cm) where the organic material and biological activity are concentrated. These organisms are found from arctic to tropical regions, and they are more abundant in forest soils (or soils rich in organic material) and less abundant in pastures and agricultural fields [52]. Their main food source is fungal mycelium; however, they also feed on organic matter that has been predigested by fungi as well as on other microorganisms [48].
These oligochaetes are sensitive to potentially toxic substances abundant in many soils where earthworms are not present or are not well represented. In addition, these animals are easy to handle and rear and have a significantly shorter life cycle than other worms, which is convenient for standardized toxicity assays [28, 43, 53]. These organisms live in close contact with the soil pore water and are exposed to soil contaminants through dermal, intestinal (through feeding), and respiratory routes [44]. Although their use in laboratory ecotoxicological tests was reported for the first time approximately 40 years ago, enchytraeids were selected for use in standardized ecotoxicological laboratory tests only 10 years ago as reported in the guidelines ISO 16387 [43] and OECD 220 [28].
Enchytraeus is the only enchytraeid genus with species selected for ecotoxicological tests standardized by ISO and OECD guidelines (e.g.,
Although
The order Collembola is one of the most diverse and abundant terrestrial arthropod orders, with 21 families and 20,000 described species [61]. In general, collembolans are small, varying from a few to approximately 10 mm in length [62]. The body can exhibit colorful pigmentation, although the inhabitants of deeper soil layers are typically not pigmented [63]. Most species feed on fungal hyphae and decomposing plant material; thus, they have a significant effect on microbial ecology and soil fertility and can control certain plant diseases caused by fungi [62, 64].
Collembolans are vulnerable to the presence of potentially toxic contaminants in soil [3] because they are exposed through water ingestion or absorption from wet/moist surfaces, food (living or dead) consumption, and soil pore air inhalation [44]. The responses obtained in tests using these arthropods may indicate environmental stress levels and the ecological risk of substances; therefore, these organisms supply information that can serve as a basis for legislation [65]. Collembolans have been used to estimate the effects of pesticides and other environmental pollutants on nontarget soil arthropods for approximately four decades, with
Although used in a fewer number of studies,
Mites are arthropods belonging to class Arachnida and subclass Acari, and they have a small size and unsegmented bodies [61]. In total, mites are ordered in 1,200 families and approximately 500,000 species [72], of which many are the most abundant mesofauna inhabitants in many types of soil and litter [73]. Suborder Gamasida (order Mesostigmata) includes the main species of predatory mites inhabiting soil pores [74]. The community structure and abundance of predatory mites are strongly dependent on the nature and availability of their prey [22]. Most mites feed on enchytraeids, nematodes, and microarthropods, although certain groups are considered fungivorous, bacteriophagous, facultative phytophagous, or have unknown feeding habits [73].
The ecosystem services provided by soil predatory mites include the biological control of pests and other species with abundant populations; thus, they significantly contribute to the flow of energy and matter in terrestrial ecosystems as well as to the maintenance of food chains [22]. In addition, several genera have been isolated for over 30 years from soil and tested as quality bioindicators [72]. Currently, reports are available for different toxicity tests using these arthropods; however, only the reproduction test using
Specimens of
In Ref. [22], the main invertebrates used in standardized terrestrial ecotoxicological tests were compared and it was concluded that the standard species of earthworms (
Performing ecotoxicological laboratory tests requires a series of steps, including planning and material preparation, animal rearing and maintenance in the laboratory, contamination of artificial/natural soils (or preparation of previously contaminated soil samples), experimental procedures for the initial test conditions as well as the maintenance and evaluation of toxicity tests using organisms, and data analysis and interpretation. The steps of the standardized tests using the species
Most standardized tests using soil invertebrates were developed to quantify the impact of chemical exposure on organisms in artificial soils [42]. However, although studies using artificial soils supply information that can be internationally compared, natural soils may provide information on local problems. Although the practice is still not described by the guidelines, the use of natural soils in standardized ecotoxicological tests has been increasing.
OECD soil is a standard artificial substrate recommended by ISO/OECD guidelines for most terrestrial ecotoxicology studies [42]. This substrate consists of a mixture of 70% industrial sand (with more than 50% particles between 0.05 and 0.2 mm), 20% kaolinite clay, and 10% peat (ground and dry). However, for assays in tropical regions, studies have used a modified version of this substrate [81–83] known as tropical artificial soil (TAS). TAS uses powdered coconut husks as replacement for peat because of its higher availability in tropical regions. In both cases, after the materials are mixed, the pH (1 M KCL 1:5 weight:volume ratio) of the artificial soil should be adjusted to 6.0 ± 0.5 through the addition of CaCO3. In addition, the soil water-holding capacity should be determined for moisture adjustments [26].
To use natural soils in standardized tests, the soils should offer minimum conditions for the survival and reproduction of the test species without causing morphological or behavioral changes in the absence of the contaminant. To test chemicals for regulation purposes (e.g., ecological risk of pesticides), natural soils are artificially contaminated, and the results should be comparable between laboratories. Therefore, the soils should have similar characteristics, as is the case for LUFA soils [84–85], EURO soils [86], SIM soils [87], and other natural soils selected as standard soils for specific regions, for example, Polish [88] and Mediterranean soils [89]. In the case of natural soils from contaminated areas, the use of a control soil with the same characteristics (texture, pH, organic matter concentration, and C:N ratio) but without contaminants is recommended [87].
Natural soils should be dried, sieved (5 or 2 mm, preferentially), and chemically and physically characterized before use, and at least the texture, pH, WHC, and moisture content should be determined. In addition, the organic matter concentration (or organic C), CEC, C:N ratio, and metal (or other element) concentration may also be measured [87]. Regardless of the type of soil (artificial or natural), defauning is recommended (by soil freezing at −20°C followed by thawing to room temperature) to eliminate the original soil fauna organisms [90].
According to the guidelines, incorporating test substances directly into soil (artificial contamination) varies with the water solubility of the contaminant, and there are three main methods: (a) for water-soluble substances; (b) for water-insoluble but organic solvent-soluble substances; and (c) for water-insoluble and organic solvent-insoluble substances. In all cases, the concentration gradients of the test substances should be prepared immediately before the beginning of the assay in the volume necessary to maintain the soil moisture between 40 and 60% of its WHC. In the case of water-insoluble substances, after applying the solutions in increasing concentrations, the soil moisture should be adjusted through the addition of pure water. It is recommended that the concentrations be prepared in a geometric series separated by a factor of 1.8 or lower. If effects are not observed for the tested substance (e.g., active ingredient of a pesticide) at the highest concentration (1,000 mg kg−1) in the preliminary tests (acute toxicity assays), then a limit test should be performed to evaluate the toxicity using only the control treatment at a concentration of 1,000 mg kg−1.
The environmental conditions of the standardized ecotoxicological tests and laboratory cultures should be controlled. Controlled temperatures and light conditions in the test/culture chamber/room are fundamental for obtaining homogeneous cultures (with the same age and size) with development cycles that occur within the time predicted for the tests. The main recommended protocols are a mean temperature of 20 ± 2°C and constant light intensity between 400 and 800 lux on the culture containers [26, 31]. In addition, it is recommended that cultures be kept under controlled light/dark cycles, preferably 12 hours light/12 hours dark or 16 hours light/8 hours dark. However, the environmental test and culture conditions have been adapted for regions with predominantly tropical climates to better reflect the influence of local climate conditions. To simulate tropical conditions, temperatures varying between 23 and 27°C have been used [83, 91–93].
The earthworms
Laboratory cultures of collembolans and mites should be performed using a substrate composed of a mixture of activated charcoal, plaster of Paris (calcium sulfate), and deionized water, with a recommended 1:8 charcoal:plaster of Paris ratio for
Avoidance assays with
Chronic toxicity tests with
Reproduction tests with
Tests evaluating the impact of contaminants on the reproduction of the collembolan
Reproduction tests with
The following parameters are used to evaluate the critical values: NOEC (no observed effect concentration) and LOEC (lowest observed effect concentration), LC10 and LC50 (lethal concentration to 10 and 50% of the population, respectively), EC10 and EC50 (concentration at which 10 and 50% of the contaminant’s maximal effect is observed on the growth or number of juveniles, respectively), and AC50 (concentration causing the avoidance of 50% of the organisms from the contaminated soils). These toxicity parameters are designed to detect the ecological risk of the chemicals in soil and used to derive protection limits for terrestrial ecosystems.
The significance of avoidance responses (LOEC and NOEC) is tested with Fisher’s exact test using a two-tailed test for the double control conditions and a one-tailed test for the contaminated soil combination conditions [97]. The AC50 values can be obtained using regression analyses [98]. The significance of the effects (LOEC and NOEC) on the body biomass of the earthworms and number of earthworms, enchytraeids, mites, and collembolan juveniles following exposure to the contaminated soils should be tested using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). When differences are detected (
The future prospects for soil ecotoxicology refer to the challenge of increasing the realism of the analyses in the terrestrial environment and to reduce the uncertainties about the real degree of ecological risk obtained by laboratory tests. To improve the ecological relevance of laboratory assays, it needs a transition from research based on artificial soil to the use of natural soils, which consider the real relationship between contaminants and test organisms in the exposure scenarios. Moreover, it is necessary to increase the list of standard organisms for the tests, considering the practicality in assays, and especially the inclusion of species that represent the geographical and ecological conditions of the test site [99]. As an example, Ref. [20] suggests the standardization of the sublethal toxicity tests with isopods, since they represent an ecologically relevant group of soil fauna, and the effects on these arthropods can be determined at biochemical, genomic, individual (growth, behavior), and ecological (feeding activity) levels.
It is still necessary to move forward in the assessments of long-term sublethal effects; besides, there is a need for better understanding of exposure, absorption, and metabolism of substances in individuals, and the identification of the responses at different levels of biological organization (e.g., communities) [20]. Based on this assumption, one of the apparent possibilities to evaluate the long-term impact in standard laboratory tests would be the use of multigenerational assays, where toxic effects such as delayed reproductive failures, transmission of the bioaccumulation to offspring, or accumulation of DNA damage could be identified [100]. For a better understanding of the relationships between pollutants and species, more studies using chemical, biochemical, and molecular prospects (ecotoxicogenomics) are needed, particularly assessments of bioavailability, bioaccumulation, and molecular biomarkers [20, 101]. The assessment of impacts at higher levels of biological organization can be accomplished through multispecies assays, which consider the relationships between species, contaminants, and soil properties. In addition, the semi-field and field tests may offer a better understanding of the contaminant’s impacts on soil communities, although they are more complex, especially when there is the involvement of comparisons between different ecosystems [13, 20].
Finally, it is necessary that future adjustments be performed in the standard assays available, in order to enable them to address the new and emerging needs of the current ecotoxicology, such as the case of evaluation of the toxicity of nanoparticles and mixtures of contaminants, among others [20]. These adjustments also extend to the studies performed in tropical regions, where there is a need for a revision of the methods, especially in terms of soils, species, and climatic conditions, in order to increase the ecological relevance of the analyses at local level.
Immersed tunnelling is an art of guiding the great natural force, the water, to do engineering works: “guiding” buoyancy for transportation, “guiding” water weights for immersion, and “guiding” hydrostatic pressure for connection. Submerged floating tunnel (SFT) is an even more extreme form of this art, as the full weight of tunnel or most of it is balanced by buoyancy. This chapter discusses the method of immersed tunnel design and SFT research.
“In order successfully to conceive and to plan a structure or building of any kind it is necessary to investigate and to know well its reasons for existence …” is the first line of the book the
When a bridge crosses a harbour, the water salinity in the harbour may change due to the slowed water exchange between offshore sea and the fresh inland water, as the bridge piers disturb the water exchange, giving impact to the living condition of sea resident in the harbour region. In Øresund tunnel compensate dredging was performed to eliminate the said effect. In Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge project, the two offshore artificial islands, which connect immersed tunnel and bridges, have a minimum length so that the total water blockage ratio of the entire link is controlled minimum. The water blockage ratio was defined as the projected area of the link that disturbs the water exchange along the axis of the link divided by that of the total area of the water.
The above is the reason of existence for a subaqueous tunnel. Whether to build a bored tunnel or immersed tunnel varies and depends on specific project condition. One commonly seen reason to choose immersed tunnel is more cost-effective because the immersed tunnel is buried shallower than bored tunnel; the latter requires typically a buried depth not less than 1–1.5 times of the bored diameter for construction. In the island and tunnel project of Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge (HZMB Island-Tunnel Project), there were two main reasons for choosing immersed tunnel. Firstly, as both ends of the immersed tunnel connect to bridges via two artificial islands (Figure 1), the length of the artificial islands would be twice smaller, leading to smaller water blockage ratio. Comparatively, the bored tunnel would be buried deeper than that of the immersed tunnel due to its longer transition length. Secondly, the geology risk such as encountering boulder for bored tunnel is high, and thus the risk of time delay for the entire 55 km long link is high.
Overview of HZMB link from Hong Kong side.
Despite the advancing of technology, the understanding about the marine environment is still limited; the risk of construction of an immersed tunnel in the offshore condition is relatively high. “Stories” of sinking, flooding, and damage exist such as [1, 2]. Therefore, one aim of the design of an immersed tunnel is to find a way to mitigate the construction risk by proposing the appropriate scheme and technical requirement.
The earliest attempt was in 1810. The British Engineer Charles Wyatt won the competition by proposing the immersed tunnelling concept, using brick-made cylinders, each around 15.2 m long, and sinking them to a dredged river bed, and then backfilling them. A test was carried out with much care by another British engineer with two specimens, each 7.6 m in length and 2.74 m in diameter. The test results are positive. However, the cost was overrun, the project terminated. It was not until 1893 when three sewer pipelines (diameter of which is only 1.8 m) were made by this construction method. The first traffic immersed tunnel was built in 1910 [1].
The immersed tunnel is, as per the defined term of ITA WG11, a tunnel consisting of several prefabricated tunnel elements, which are floated to the site, installed one by one, and connected under water. Figure 2 shows the working image of the HZMB Island-Tunnel Project. This tunnel consists of 33 tunnel elements and a closure joint (Figure 3). The immersion had been completed on May 5, 2017. Since then it becomes the longest roadway immersed tunnel. This record will soon be broken by the Fehmarn tunnel, which will be around 18 km long and consist of 89 tunnel elements.
Construction works of the immersed tunnel in HZMB Island-tunnel project.
Vertical alignment of the immersed tunnel consists of 33 tunnel elements in the HZMB Island-tunnel project.
The environment acting on the immersed tunnel depends on the location of the tunnel. Thus, the tunnel alignment needs to be fixed in the first place.
The plane alignment of the tunnel mainly depends on its two ends, the access point of the tunnel portal. For the vertical alignment, that is, the elevation of the tunnel, several considerations need to be taken. The elevation of the tunnel ends shall neither be too high nor too low. If the ends of the tunnel were too high, the immersion depth is inadequate for the hydraulic connection of the first tunnel element that connects to the land structure. If the ends of the tunnel were too low, the risk of flooding increases as more massive amount of water could rush into the tunnel due to rain or overtopping. Moreover, the elevation of the middle section of the tunnel depends on the navigational requirement of ships passing over the tunnel. After the elevation of tunnel ends, the section under the navigation channel was fixed. The remained work is to “draw a line” for the vertical alignment of the tunnel. The principle as an experience by the pioneer is to dive down or rise up as quickly as possible. In this way, the tunnel length will always be the shortest, as can be proven in Figure 4.
Illustrative image showing the principle of drawing vertical alignment.
As long as the tunnel alignment is fixed and the environment that will be encountered by the tunnel is thus fixed, the actions such as wind, wave, current, and water depth can be defined as well. In short, structural design can be done.
The immersed tunnel consists of one or several tunnel elements. Therefore, the design of the immersed tunnel is, in fact, the design of tunnel elements. The design of each tunnel element usually distinguishes from each other. One reason is that each tunnel element exists in a more or less different environment and the actions on them are different. The other reasons can be seen in Figure 5, as an example from HZMB Island-Tunnel Project.
Uniqueness of immersed tunnel element design in HZMB Island-Tunnel Project.
As for the design of each tunnel element, the problem can be further discretized into several subproblems, as will be elaborated in Sections 2.4 and 2.5.
The transverse design needs to satisfy three aspects: the structural issue, the weight balance, and the interior space.
The structural issue is a familiar subject to structural engineers. Not only the permanent scenarios but also the temporary scenarios of construction shall be considered regarding the boundary condition and load and actions, because the permanent condition of the immersed tunnel may not govern the design as it would do for many other types of structures.
The weight balance means that the tunnel element can float when being transported and can sink for immersion and underwater connection; those are construction need. Further, in the service period, attention shall be paid to ensuring adequate safety factor against uplift, in case of extreme weather conditions. To note, the construction rigs may affect the freeboard of tunnel element when it was afloat (Figure 6).
Immersion rigs of pontoon sit on tunnel element and reduce the freeboard of the tunnel element while catamaran increases it.
The interior space requirement depends on the traffic clearance (i.e. the minimum space requirement for traffic defined by the relevant regulations/code), the space for interior installations such as ventilator and fireproof panels, and the extra space for accommodating construction tolerances from the prefabrication and immersion of tunnel element.
With the increased awareness of comfort design and life safety, more attention is paid to ventilation and evacuations, in addition to the above said three basic needs. Figure 7 shows three ventilation solutions, namely, the longitudinal ventilation, semi-transverse ventilation, and transverse ventilation. The longitudinal ventilation requires fans that increase the height of the tunnel, leading to a deeper foundation and more dredging works. The transverse ventilation requires special bores and thus increases the width of cross-section, also leading to more dredging volume. The semi-transverse ventilation was somewhere in between. Concerning the setting of the inner walls in the cross-section, Figure 8 shows its relation with the safety concept. Also, purely from a structural point of view, the more inner walls, the less governing the largest span of the cross-section structure. In the 1990s Japan tunnel favoured a cross-section of two tubes with two galleries, and the double walls gave benefit to both the robustness of watersealing and the safety of the structure.
Ventilation solutions of immersed tunnel: (a) longitudinal, (b) semi-transverse, and (c) transverse.
Safety and transverse design: (a) two-way traffic in one bore, collision risk is relatively high; (b) two traffic bores separated by a wall, evacuated people could be hit by vehicle on the other bore; (c) two traffic bores separated by two walls; (d) the centre part is further split into two bores, one for evacuation and the other for smoke extraction.
The longitudinal design needs to consider three aspects as well, namely, the structural system, element length, and joint configurations.
The earlier immersed tunnel had monolithic tunnel element. The cross-section is circular shaped; the structure type is steel shell. To increase the space use from 1937 to 1942, the first reinforced concrete box structure tunnel element was made. Around 10 years later, the segmented-type tunnel element made of reinforced concrete was developed in the Netherlands. In Øresund tunnel, factory method was invented to produce tunnel element of 55,000 tons in a production line [3]. That method was used in the HZMB Island-Tunnel Project (Figure 9) for the second time; the production line was capable of incrementally launching the 76,000 t tunnel elements (in which five of them were plane-curved tunnel elements with curvature R5500) without cracking them. In around 1990 in Japan, no more place along the shore can be found to prefabricate tunnel element. Further, the experienced concrete vibration workers were not adequate. In this background, the steel-concrete-steel sandwich structure box-type immersed tunnel element was developed as its concrete requires no vibration; the pouring of concrete can be completed in the floating stage of the tunnel element.
Factory for prefabrication of immersed tunnel element. (a) Photo HZMB Island-tunnel project and (b) plane layout.
The length of the tunnel element determines the number of tunnel element, given the fixed tunnel length. On the one hand, the longer tunnel element reduces the total number of element and thus reduces the total number of immersion joint, the main works of which are bulkhead and its embedded part, Gina gasket waterstop, and so forth. Further, fewer tunnel elements mean fewer times of the immersion works and thus less risks of construction. On the other hand, the shorter is the tunnel element, the less is the total prefabrication cost as less area of land near the water is needed for prefabrication of tunnel elements, and the less sensitive of the tunnel element structure to the differential settlement issue, hence the less cost of the prestressing system. The above shows that the element length design is a matter of keeping a balance and finding the optimum.
The immersion joints need to ensure watersealing in tunnel’s service period taking into account all the unfavourable scenarios such as earthquake, differential settlement, and accident like sunken ships; it also needs to provide a way of connection of tunnel element for construction. Figure 10 shows immersion joints of a typical tunnel element in prefabrication yard.
Photo of immersion joint of tunnel element in HZMB Island-tunnel project.
To optimise the scheme, the works described in Sections 2.4 and 2.5 may be named as “analysis”, and the subsequent work, on the contrary, as described in this section, can be named as “synthesis”, that is, understanding the links between the factors and then looking for the most satisfying design schemes by means of design iterations.
In the transverse structure of the immersed tunnel, the three aspects mentioned in Section 2.4 are interlinked. For example, strengthened structure causes thickened slab or more densely arranged reinforcing bars, either of them would give additional weight to the structure; the weight balance is broken and thus needs to be rebalanced by adjusting the inner space of the tunnel. Taking another example, enlarged inner space leads to the increased buoyancy, which requires an added weight by thickening the walls to balance the extra buoyancy.
It does the same to the longitudinal structure of the immersed tunnel element. Moreover, the longitudinal structure is interlinked with the transverse structure. Following the above example, the thickened wall allows for larger shear key, which could increase the capacity of shear key; it also means the ability of survival of tunnel element against differential settlement increases. In this way, the tunnel element can be made longer.
Another link is that the design of immersed tunnel is related to time and space, as shown in Figure 11. The prefabrication of tunnel element, the installation, and the inner works of tunnel often take place in three different locations. Moreover, to complete the work, there are sequences to follow. This figure shows that the immersed tunnel design, to some degree, cannot be reproduced; hence, the nature of the design work for an immersed tunnel is indeed to eliminate the gaps of space or discontinuity of time of the immersed tunnelling works.
The workflow of the immersed tunnel shows the discontinuity and gaps of space and time.
The success or failure of an immersed tunnel project largely relies on the prefabrication yard and the water sealing of tunnel. For the former, in HZMB Island-Tunnel Project, great efforts were made to find a suitable place, six locations were investigated, and the final selected location was on an island for three advantages. First, the geological condition is hard rock, suitable for the incremental launching system of the factory method. Second, the transportation distance of the tunnel element for immersion works is shortened to only 11 km. And third, the prefabrication yard is capable of producing two tunnel elements while store six tunnel elements inside the dock, eliminating the risk of tunnel element damage from the frequent typhoon in summer time of each year.
To the author’s best knowledge, in Bosporus Strait, the immersed tunnel had been built around 70 m below the water surface. In Busan immersed tunnel, special facilities were invented to position the tunnel element under the water accurately and to make direction correction of the tunnel element automatically. In HZMB Island-Tunnel Project, 35 times of installations were carried out in 3 years in offshore condition with no major accident. The novel foundation solution of composite foundation layer and underwater surcharge were implemented, and the settlement of the immersed tunnel had been controlled within 5–8 cm. Nearly 100 million cubic metres of concrete were cast for the main structure of the 5.664 km long immersed tunnel element with no cast crack. Further, the tunnel element was deeply buried below the seabed; maximally 22 m thick sediment will cover on the roof of the tunnel element. And this extremely high overload (as for the tunnel element structural design of immersed tunnel longitudinally) is overcame by the structural innovation of semi-rigid tunnel element structure, setting permanent prestressing; the structure can become more robust taking the advantage of both monolithic and segmented tunnel element (Figure 12). The memory bearing can prevent concrete cracking at immersion joint [4]. The deployable element [5] is a highly effective and rick-manageable way to build the closure joint of the immersed tunnel.
The mechanism of the novel semi-rigid tunnel element structure.
The technological development has been pushing the boundary of application in immersed tunnelling regarding length and depth. However, to cross much deeper and broader water, all existing solution of bridge and tunnel would fail; in that case, the SFT shows its good reason of existence. The pioneer engineer of immersed tunnel Walter Grantz left one thought: “all immersed tunnels are briefly SFT’s while they are being lowered into position.”
The SFT is, as per the term defined by ITA WG11, a tunnel through water that is not in direct contact with the bed. Moreover, it may be either positively or negatively buoyant and may be suspended from the surface or supported from or tied down to the bed (Figure 13). It has been proposed a century ago but has never been realised due to various reasons, such as fear of invasion, fishery problem, or ship collision. Therefore, to realise SFT attention must be paid to safety. The safety is in direct connection with SFT’s structural form and environment. The former can be designed and developed as per our will and, hence, should be the main threads of SFT’s research. Further, the more details the SFT’s structural form being developed, the more risk issues regarding it will be raised. Therefore, the risk should be regarded as an accompanying thread in addition to the main thread of SFT’s research. The study of risk can be carried out both quantitatively and qualitatively.
Image of an SFT with positive buoyant tied down to sea bed.
If the SFT is small, we can hold it in our hand; our research method is to produce hundreds of SFT prototypes, test them, improve them, and perfect them. However, our research resources are so limited compared to the real size of SFT; we can hardly build one SFT prototype, not to mention to agitate and test the real SFT. Therefore, the applicable way to research SFT is to build SFT model instead. The model can be further distinguished by tangible and intangible one, which is, in a researcher’s language, the mathematical model and the physical model. The model supports the SFT’s thread to gain the true knowledge of SFT.
Another support to the research is the development of the construction method. An SFT design scheme that can satisfy all needs and requirements but cannot be built in realistic work is of little value/use to the engineering knowledge. Sometimes we can hardly resist our temptation to study the details and believe that our work can improve the efficiency of the work; in fact, the parallel study on construction method can help shorten research period and lower the overall cost. Construction experiences from other relevant works such as immersed tunnel (Figure 14) and offshore structures may be transferable to SFT.
Image of immersion works of a typical tunnel element in Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Island-tunnel project, showing immersion rigs, lines, and positioning system.
In order to understand the links between the SFT structure and its risk, we need to discretize the structural form of SFT into elements, part of which needs to be further discretized into sub-elements. By changing a parameter of the element or sub-element, we can observe how the change affects the structural behaviour or safety of SFT. In this way, we gradually understand SFT’s nature. Figure 15 shows the author’s understanding of the relation of structure and safety. This figure needs to be further expanded to cover the full picture of understanding of SFT before making a real one.
Relation of structural element and safety.
The safety belongs to our feeling and judgement, while the element or sub-element of an SFT is a matter; how do the two interact with each other? Mathematics is the gear of interaction. For example, if we set
The slenderness and the size of an SFT are like a bridge, and the submergence of it is like a ship or submarine, while the slenderness, the size, and the submergence of SFT are comparable to nothing. Moreover, no real SFT exists. Thus, no mathematical model has ever been validated. Therefore, the physical model is essential.
The ultimate purpose of building a model is not to obtain figures but to obtain the tools that can obtain the figures and to see through the figures, beyond them. A scaled (and simplified) prototype of an SFT is a physical model, and a reproduction of a physical model is a mathematical model. Once the mathematical model is calibrated and validated by the physical model, it can then be used to predict the behaviour of the prototype by scaling the model up in the computer. However, one problem in this procedure is the scale effect, which may distort our understanding and judgement. The SFT structure is submerged in the water. Thus, the scaled effect exists in both structure and fluid. In HZMB Island-Tunnel Project, comparison of the current drag force was made to the scaled physical model and the measured data; great discrepancy exists between the two [6]. In the design of the steel-concrete-steel composite structure of closure joint for the immersed tunnel for the same project [7], special measures were made to strengthen the structure since the size is larger than the previous application in Japan.
To deal with the disturbance of scale effect, one countermeasure is to subdivide the physical model test into three stages, the mechanism test, the parameter test, and the validation test. The mechanism test focuses on the understanding of the structural behaviour to guide the direction of structural form; hence, the influence of scale effect may be neglected. In the parameter test, we ensure that the scale of the model is large enough so that the results of the test can be used either directly or by extrapolation to calibrate the mathematical model. The validation test is the last-stage test for validation of the overall designs to ensure the robustness and comprehensiveness of the SFT structural system. Engineers or engineer researchers may find that the mathematical model cannot match with the physical model and that limitation can be effectively solved by asking help from applied mathematicians or physicians.
To study the overall structural behaviour in water and from current and waves, the author proposed and designed a 1:50 physical model test in 2018; the tube model is 24 m long, with a circular cross-section of 252 mm in diameter, representing a 1.2 km long, two-lane traffic road SFT. Figure 15 shows the design of the tube model. A steel bar is in the centre of the tube for simulating bending stiffness and covered by the form that simulates the volume. Steel hoops were on the external side of the form simulating weight. Some hoops were welded with eyes for connecting to steel wire lines; the lines were connected with springs to simulate the stiffness of mooring lines. The lines are spaced at 3 m longitudinally. Both ends of the model were fixed. By setting up a reference model and altering structural parameters such as net buoyant, line arrangement (Figure 16), and boundary conditions, the change of structural behaviour subjecting to the change of structure can be observed. This test is now being prepared (Figure 17) as the first case in the world; results are expected to guide the direction SFT structural form design.
Schematic design drawings.
Photo of SFT overall structural behaviour test sponsored, designed, and led by CCCC; SFT model and sensors prepared by DUT; and basin built by TIWTE.
The high risk of immersed tunnel construction requires a risk reduction through design. Due to varied location, environment, and construction/operation need, almost each tunnel element design varies from each other. The interior space, structural resistance, and tunnel element weight determine the transverse design of the immersed tunnel, while the structural system, element length, and joint configuration determine the longitudinal design of that. Multifactors of the structure were interlinked and linked to construction, time, and space; hence, a satisfying design requires a spiral-up iteration process including the works of analysis and synthesis. The selection of prefabrication yard for tunnel element, the transportation channel, and the water sealing of tunnel element are detrimental for the project.
SFT can cross broader and deeper waterbody. The main threads of our SFT research are structural form and risk, supported by construction method, mathematical model, and scaled physical model. We will find what is unknown, understand the mechanism, obtain parameters through physical model tests, and understand SFT’s behaviour by mathematical measures. When encountering our limit, we need to cooperate with physics and mathematics.
The author’s writing is largely based on his work experience and reflection in CCCC HZMB Island-Tunnel Project, part of which now is CCCC SFT Technical Joint Research Team.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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