1. Introduction
Biodegradation is defined as the biologically catalyzed reduction in complexity of chemical compounds [1]. Indeed, biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are broken down into smaller compounds by living microbial organisms [2]. When biodegradation is complete, the process is called "mineralization". However, in most cases the term biodegradation is generally used to describe almost any biologically mediated change in a substrate [3].
So, understanding the process of biodegradation requires an understanding of the microorganisms that make the process work. The microbial organisms transform the substance through metabolic or enzymatic processes. It is based on two processes: growth and cometabolism. In growth, an organic pollutant is used as sole source of carbon and energy. This process results in a complete degradation (mineralization) of organic pollutants. Cometabolism is defined as the metabolism of an organic compound in the presence of a growth substrate that is used as the primary carbon and energy source [4]. Several microorganisms, including fungi, bacteria and yeasts are involved in biodegradation process. Algae and protozoa reports are scanty regarding their involvement in biodegradation [5]. Biodegradation processes vary greatly, but frequently the final product of the degradation is carbon dioxide [6]. Organic material can be degraded aerobically, with oxygen, or anaerobically, without oxygen [4, 7].
Biodegradable matter is generally organic material such as plant and animal matter and other substances originating from living organisms, or artificial materials that are similar enough to plant and animal matter to be put to use by microorganisms. Some microorganisms have the astonishing, naturally occurring, microbial catabolic diversity to degrade, transform or accumulate a huge range of compounds including hydrocarbons (e.g. oil), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), radionuclides and metals [8].
The term biodegradation is often used in relation to ecology, waste management and mostly associated with environmental remediation (bioremediation) [2]. Bioremediation process can be divided into three phases or levels. First, through natural attenuation, contaminants are reduced by native microorganisms without any human augmentation. Second, biostimulation is employed where nutrients and oxygen are applied to the systems to improve their effectiveness and to accelerate biodegradation. Finally, during bioaugmentation, microorganisms are added to the systems. These supplemental organisms should be more efficient than native flora to degrade the target contaminant [9]. A feasible remedial technology requires microorganisms being capable of quick adaptation and efficient uses of pollutants of interest in a particular case in a reasonable period of time [10]. Many factors influence microorganisms to use pollutants as substrates or cometabolize them, like, the genetic potential and certain environmental factors such as temperature, pH, and available nitrogen and phosphorus sources, then, seem to determine the rate and the extent of degradation [4]. Therefore, applications of genetically engineered microorganisms (GEM) in bioremediation have received a great deal of attention. These GEM have higher degradative capacity and have been demonstrated successfully for the degradation of various pollutants under defined conditions. However, ecological and environmental concerns and regulatory constraints are major obstacles for testing GEM in the field [11].
In this chapter we will try to foster an in-depth understanding of biodegradation process by trying to cover all types of microorganisms implied in degradation of different pollutants. Moreover, although we are aware that the term biodegradation is often used in relation to ecology, waste management, biomedicine, and the natural environment (bioremediation) and is now commonly associated with environmentally friendly products, this chapter will mainly give attention to biodegradation in relation to bioremediation through describing processes (natural attenuation, biostimulation and bioaugmentation) utilizing degradation abilities of microorganisms in bioremediation and factors affecting this process. Microorganisms may be genetically engineered for many purposes. One such purpose is for the efficient degradation of pollutants. So, the second scope of this chapter is to demonstrate the importance of some GEM in this process and to describe obstacles for testing GEM in the field, which must be overcome before GEM can provide an effective clean-up process at lower cost. Figure 1 summarizes the contents of this chapter.
2. Role of microorganisms in biodegradation of pollutants
In this chapter, biodegradation is described associated with environmental bioremediation. Therefore, biodegradation is nature's way of recycling wastes, or breaking down organic matter into nutrients that can be used and reused by other organisms. In the microbiological sense, "biodegradation" means that the decaying of all organic materials is carried out by a huge assortment of life forms comprising mainly bacteria, yeast and fungi, and possibly other organisms.
Bioremediation and biotransformation methods endeavour to harness the astonishing, naturally occurring, microbial catabolic diversity to degrade, transform or accumulate a huge range of compounds including hydrocarbons (e.g. oil), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), radionuclides and metals [12].
2.1. Some biodegradable pollutants
In the last few decades, highly toxic organic compounds have been synthesized and released into the environment for direct or indirect application over a long period of time. Fuels, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pesticides and dyes are some of these types of compounds [9]. Some other synthetic chemicals like radionuclides and metals are extremely resistant to biodegradation by native flora compared with the naturally occurring organic compounds that are readily degraded upon introduction into the environment.
The success of a biological process for color removal from a given effluent depends in part on the utilization of microorganisms that effectively decolorize synthetic dyes of different chemical structures.
2.2. Bacterial degradation
There are many reports on the degradation of environmental pollutants by different bacteria. Several bacteria are even known to feed exclusively on hydrocarbons [22]. Bacteria with the ability to degrade hydrocarbons are named hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria. Biodegradation of hydrocarbons can occur under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, it is the case for the nitrate reducing bacterial strains
Bacterial strains that are able to degrade aromatic hydrocarbons have been repeatedly isolated, mainly from soil. These are usually gram negative bacteria, most of them belong to the genus
Although many bacteria are able to metabolize organic pollutants, a single bacterium does not possess the enzymatic capability to degrade all or even most of the organic compounds in a polluted soil. Mixed microbial communities have the most powerful biodegradative potential because the genetic information of more than one organism is necessary to degrade the complex mixtures of organic compounds present in contaminated areas [27].
Both, anaerobic and aerobic bacteria are capable of biotransforming PCBs. Higher chlorinated PCBs are subjected to reductive dehalogenation by anaerobic microorganisms. Lower chlorinated biphenyls are oxidized by aerobic bacteria [28]. Research on aerobic bacteria isolated so far has mainly focused on Gram-negative strains belonging to the genera
Successful removal of pesticides by the addition of bacteria had been reported earlier for many compounds, including atrazine [31]. Recent findings concerning pesticide degrading bacteria include the chlorpyrifos degrading bacterium
Researches on bacterial strains that are able to degrade azo dyes under aerobic and anaerobic conditions have been extensively reported [34]. Based on the available literature, it can be concluded that the microbial decolourization of azo dyes is more effective under anaerobic conditions. On the other hand, these conditions lead to aromatic amine formation, and these are mutagenic and toxic to humans requiring a subsequent oxidative (aerobic) stage for their degradation. In this context, the combined anaerobic/aerobic biological treatments of textile dye effluents using microbial consortia are common in the literature [35]. For exemple, Chaube et al. [36] have used the mix consortia of bacteria consisting of
Heavy metals cannot be destroyed biologically (no“degradation”, change in the nuclear structure of the element, occurs) but are only transformed from one oxidation state or organic complex to another [39]. Besides, bacteria are also efficient in heavy metals bioremediation. Microorganisms have developed the capabilities to protect themselves from heavy metal toxicity by various mechanisms, such as adsorption, uptake, methylation, oxidation and reduction. Reduction of metals can occur through dissimilatory metal reduction [40], where bacteria utilize metals as terminal electron acceptors for anaerobic respiration. In addition, bacteria may possess reduction mechanisms that are not coupled to respiration, but instead are thought to impart metal resistance. For example, reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) under aerobic [41] or anaerobic conditions [42], reduction of Se(VI) to elemental Se [43], reduction of U(VI) to U(IV) [44] and reduction of Hg(II) to Hg(0) [45]. Microbial methylation plays an important role in heavy metals bioremediation, because methylated compounds are frequently volatile. For example, Mercury, Hg(II) can be biomethylated by a number of different bacterial species
Most works on pollutants bioremediation uses pure microbial cultures. However, the use of mixed microbial cultures is undoubtedly advantageous. Some of the best examples of enrichment cultures comprising several specific consortia involve the bioremediation. In the case of heavy metals removal, Adarsh et al. [50] have used an environmental bacterial consortium to remove Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb from a synthetic wastewater effluent. For Cr(VI) removal we reported that the survival and stability of bacteria are better when they are present as a mixed culture, especially, in highly contaminated areas and in the presence of more than one type of metal [51]. Indeed, the indigenous bacteria enriched from chromium contaminated biotopes, were able to remove Cr(VI) successfully in multi-contaminated heavy metal solution [51]. A microbial consortium consisting of three bacterial Pseudomonas species originally obtained from dye contaminated sites was capable of decolorizing textile effluent and dye faster than the individual bacteria under static conditions [52].
2.3. PGPR and PGPB degradation
Plant associated bacteria, such as endophytic bacteria (non-pathogenic bacteria that occur naturally in plants) and rhizospheric bacteria (bacteria that live on and near the roots of plants), have been shown to contribute to biodegradation of toxic organic compounds in contaminated soil and could have potential for improving phytoremediation [53]. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are naturally occurring soil bacteria that aggressively colonize plant roots and benefit plants by providing growth promotion [54]. Some plants can release structural analogs of PAHs such as phenols, to promote the growth of hydrocarbon degrading microbes and their degradation on PAHs. For such plant/microbe systems, an important class of bacteria is
2.4. Microfungi and mycorrhiza degradation
Microfungi are described as a group of organisms that constitute an extremely important and interesting group of eukaryotic, aerobic microbes ranging from the unicellular yeasts to the extensively mycelial molds [60]. Yeasts preferentially grow as single cells or form pseudomycelia, whereas molds typically grow as mycelia-forming real hyphae.
Fungi are an important part of degrading microbiota because, like bacteria, they metabolize dissolved organic matter; they are principal organisms responsible for the decomposition of carbon in the biosphere. But, fungi, unlike bacteria, can grow in low moisture areas and in low pH solutions, which aids them in the breakdown of organic matter [61]. Equipped with extracellular multienzyme complexes, fungi are most efficient, especially in breaking down the natural polymeric compounds. By means of their hyphal systems they are also able to colonize and penetrate substrates rapidly and to transport and redistribute nutrients within their mycelium [62]. Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant. In a mycorrhizal association, the fungus colonizes the host plant's roots, either intracellularly as in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), or extracellularly as in ectomycorrhizal fungi. They are also an important component of soil life and soil chemistry. Bioremediation using mycorrhiza is named mycorrhizoremediation [63]. Fungi possess important degradative capabilities that have implications for the recycling of recalcitrant polymers (e.g., lignin) and for the elimination of hazardous wastes from the environment [27]. Below, some aspects of the microfungal degradation of some pollutants by unicellular and filamentous fungi are discussed.
2.4.1. Yeasts degradation
Several yeasts may utilize aromatic compounds as growth substrates, but more important is their ability to convert aromatic substances cometabolically. Some species such as the soil yeast
Furthermore, biodegradation of aliphatic hydrocarbons occurring in crude oil and petroleum products has been investigated well, especially for yeasts. The n-alkanes are the most widely and readily utilized hydrocarbons, with those between C10 and C20 being most suitable as substrates for microfungi [65]. However, the biodegradation of n-alkanes having chain lengths up to n-C24 has also been demonstrated [27]. Typical representatives of alkane-utilizing yeasts include
In addition to aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons compounds, microfungi may transform numerous of other aromatic organopollutants cometabolically, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and biphenyls, dibenzofurans, nitro aromatics, various pesticides, and plasticizers [69]. There have also been studies of PCB metabolism by yeasts C.
Yeasts are known for playing an important role in the removal of toxic heavy metals. There are many reports on biosorption of heavy metals by yeasts. Several investigations demonstrated that yeasts are capable of accumulating heavy metals such as Cu(II), Ni(II), Co(II), Cd(II) and Mg(II) and are superior metal accumulators compared to certain bacteria [73]. In the case of hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) we found that
2.4.2. Filamentous fungi degradation
The attributes that distinguish filamentous fungi from other life forms determine why they are good biodegraders. First, the mycelial growth habit gives a competitive advantage over single cells such as bacteria and yeasts, especially with respect to the colonization of insoluble substrates. Fungi can rapidly ramify through substrates, literally digesting their way along by secreting a battery of extracellular degradative enzymes. Hyphal penetration provides a mechanical adjunct to the chemical breakdown affected by the secreted enzymes. The high surface to cell ratio characteristic of filaments maximizes both mechanical and enzymatic contact with the environment. Second, the extracellular nature of the degradative enzymes enables fungi to tolerate higher concentrations of toxic chemicals than would be possible if these compounds had to be brought into the cell. In addition, insoluble compounds that cannot cross a cell membrane are susceptible to attack [3].
Many workers divide bioremediation strategies into three general categories: 1) the target compound is used as a carbon source; 2) the target compound is enzymatically attacked but is not used as a carbon source (cometabolism) and 3) the target compound is not metabolized at all but is taken up and concentrated within the organism (bioaccumulation). Although fungi participate in all three strategies, they are often more proficient at cometabolism and bioaccumulation than at using xenobiotics as sole carbon sources [79]. The isolates identified as deuteromycetes belonging to the genera
The majority of filamentous fungi are unable to totally mineralize aromatic hydrocarbons; they only transform them into indirect products of decreased toxicity and increased susceptibility to decomposition with the use of bacteria suggesting that the interaction among fungi and bacteria is profitable for the process of petroleum hydrocarbon mineralization. Among the filamentous fungi participating in aliphatic hydrocarbon biodegradation are
The most widely researched fungi in regard to dye degradation are the ligninolytic fungi [91]. Nine strains of filamentous fungi were isolated by Abruscia et al. [79] from cinematographic film consisted of three species of
2.5. Degradative capacities of algae and protozoa
In spite of algae and protozoa are the important members of the microbial community in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, reports are scanty regarding their involvement in hydrocarbon biodegradation [5]. Walker et al. [93] isolated an alga,
Information on the interactions between pesticides andalgae were compiled by Kobayashi and Rittman [99], showing that not only algae were capable of bioaccumulating pesticides, but they were also capable of biotransforming some of these environmental pollutants.
Degradation of azo dyes by
Species of
The protozoa are the main grazer on the degrading bacteria for organic contaminants, so the interaction between protozoa and degrading bacteria will affect the result of bacteria degradation directly. Mattison and Harayama [106] constructed a model for the food chain in order to study the influence of grazing bacteria of protozoa flagellate
3. Bioremediation and biodegradation
The application of bioremediation as a biotechnological process involving microorganisms has become a crescent study field in microbiology, because of its increasing potential of solving the dangers of many pollutants through biodegradation. Microorganisms might be considered excellent pollutant removal tools in soil, water, and sediments, mostly due to their advantage over other bioremediation procedures [108]. Moreover, bioremediation using biodegradation represents a high impact strategy, but still a low cost way tool of removing pollutants, hence a very viable process to be applied. The principles of bioremediation are based on natural attenuation, bioaugmentation and biostimulation [109]. The simplest method of bioremediation is natural attenuation, in which soils are only monitored for variations in pollution concentrations to ensure that the pollutant transformation is active [110]. Bioaugmentation is usually applied in cases where natural active microbial communities are present in low quantities or even absent, wherein the addition of contaminant degrading organisms can accelerate the transformation rates [111]. In such cases, the adaptation of exogenous strains that exert highly efficient activities for pollutant transformation to new environments is a key challenge in implementation [112]. The capacity of a microbial population to degrade pollutants can be enhanced also by stimulation of the indigenous microorganisms by addition of nutrients or electron acceptors [109].
3.1. Natural attenuation
Natural attenuation or bioattenuation is the reduction of contaminant concentrations in the environment through biological processes (aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation, plant and animal uptake), physical phenomena (advection, dispersion, dilution, diffusion, volatilization, sorption/desorption), and chemical reactions (ion exchange, complexation, abiotic transformation). Terms such as intrinsic remediation or biotransformation are included within the more general natural attenuation definition [113]. Although, one of the most important components of natural attenuation is biodegradation, the change in form of compounds carried out by living creatures such as microorganisms. Under the right conditions, microorganisms can cause or assist chemical reactions that change the form of the contaminants so that little or no health risk remains. Natural attenuation occurs at most polluted sites. However, the right conditions must exist underground to clean sites properly. If not, cleanup will not be quick enough or complete enough. Scientists monitor these conditions to make sure natural attenuation is working. This is called monitored natural attenuation or (MNA). So, Monitored natural attenuation is a technique used to monitor or test the progress of natural attenuation processes that can degrade contaminants in soil and groundwater. It may be used with other remediation processes as a finishing option or as the only remediation process if the rate of contaminant degradation is fast enough to protect human health and the environment. Natural processes can then mitigate the remaining amount of pollution; regular monitoring of the soil and groundwater can verify those reductions [114].
When the environment is polluted with chemicals, nature can work in four ways to clean it up [115]: 1) Tiny bugs or microbes that live in soil and groundwater use some chemicals for food. When they completely digest the chemicals, they can change them into water and harmless gases. 2) Chemicals can stick or sorb to soil, which holds them in place. This does not clean up the chemicals, but it can keep them from polluting groundwater and leaving the site. 3) As pollution moves through soil and groundwater, it can mix with clean water. This reduces or dilutes the pollution. 4) Some chemicals, like oil and solvents, can evaporate, which means they change from liquids to gases within the soil. If these gases escape to the air at the ground surface, sunlight may destroy them.
If the natural attenuation is not quick enough or complete enough, bioremediation will be enhanced either by biostimulation or bioaugmentation.
3.2. Biostimulation
Biostimulation involving the addition of soil nutrients, trace minerals, electron acceptors, or electron donors enhances the biotransformation of a wide range of soil contaminants [115]. There are many examples of biostimulation of pollutants biodegradation by indigenous microorganisms. Trichloroethene and perchloroethene are reported to be completely converted to ethane by microorganisms in a short span of time with the addition of lactate during biostimulation [116]. Electron shuttles, such as humic substances (HS), may play a significant stimulation role in the anaerobic biotransformation of organic pollutants through enhancing the electron transfer speed. Anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate (AQDS) from the category of HS can serve as an electron shuttle to promote the reduction of iron oxides and transformation of chlorinated organic contaminants [117]. Chen et al. [118] reported that the biostimulation of indigenous microbial communities by the addition of lactate and AQDS led to the enhanced rates of Pentachlorophenol PCP dechlorination by the dechlorinating and ironreducing bacteria in soils. Among various nutrient media, glycerol appeared to show the most favorable metabolic characteristics against phenol toxicity on the indigenous Rhizobium
3.3. Bioaugmentation
We can define bioaugmentation as the technique for improvement of the capacity of a contaminated matrix (soil or other biotope) to remove pollution by the introduction of specific competent strains or consortia of microorganisms [123]. The basic premise for this intervention is that the metabolic capacities of the indigenous microbial community already present in the biotope slated for cleanup will be increased by an exogenously enhanced genetic diversity, thus leading to a wider repertoire of productive biodegradation reactions [111]. Moreover, genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs) exhibiting enhanced degradative capabilities encompassing a wide range of aromatic hydrocarbons have also potential for soil bioaugmentation [124]. It is thought that bioaugmentation approach should be applied when the biostimulation and bioattenuation have failed [111].
Many studies have shown that both abiotic and biotic factors influence the effectiveness of bioaugmentation, the most important abiotic factors are temperature, moisture, pH and organic matter content, however, aeration, nutrient content and soil type also determine the efficiency of bioaugmentation. Biotic factors, including competition between indigenous and exogenous microorganisms for limited carbon sources as well as antagonistic interactions and predation by protozoa and bacteriophages, also play essential roles in the final results of bioaugmentation [124].
The combination of bioaugmentation and biostimulation might be a promising strategy to speed up bioremediation. Both indigenous and exogenous microorganisms could benefit from biostimulation by the addition of energy sources or electron acceptors [111]. Bioaugmentation-assisted phytoextraction using PGPR or AMF is also a promising method for the cleaning-up of soils contaminated by metals [123].
4. Factors affecting microbial degradation
Microorganisms can degrade numerous of organic pollutants owing to their metabolic machinery and to their capacity to adapt to inhospitable environments. Thus, microorganisms are major players in site remediation. However, their efficiency depends on many factors, including the chemical nature and the concentration of pollutants, their availability to microorganisms, and the physicochemical characteristics of the environment [111]. So, factors that influence the rate of pollutants degradation by microorganisms are either related to the microorganisms and their nutritional requirements (biological factors) or associated to the environment (environmental factors).
4.1. Biological factors
A biotic factor is the metabolic ability of microorganisms. The biotic factors that affect the microbial degradation of organic compounds include direct inhibition of enzymatic activities and the proliferation processes of degrading microorganisms [125]. This inhibition can occur for example if there is a competition between microorganisms for limited carbon sources, antagonistic interactions between microorganisms or the predation of microorganisms by protozoa and bacteriophages [126]. The rate of contaminant degradation is often dependent on the concentration of the contaminant and the amount of “catalyst” present. In this context, the amount of “catalyst” represents the number of organisms able to metabolize the contaminant as well as the amount of enzymes(s) produced by each cell. Furthermore, the extent to which contaminants are metabolized is largely a function of the specific enzymes involved and their “affinity” for the contaminant and the availability of the contaminant. In addition, sufficient amounts of nutrients and oxygen must be available in a usable form and in proper proportions for unrestricted microbial growth to occur [126]. Other factors that influence the rate of biodegradation by controlling the rates of enzyme catalyzed reactions are temperature, pH and moisture. Biological enzymes involved in the degradation pathway have an optimum temperature and will not have the same metabolic turnover for every temperature [127]. Indeed, the rate of biodegradation is decreased by roughly one-half for each 10°C decrease in temperature [159]. Biodegradation can occur under a wide-range of pH; however, a pH of 6.5 to 8.5 is generally optimal for biodegradation in most aquatic and terrestrial systems. Moisture influences the rate of contaminant metabolism because it influences the kind and amount of soluble materials that are available as well as the osmotic pressure and pH of terrestrial and aquatic systems [128].
4.2. Environmental factors
Soil type and soil organic matter content affect the potential for adsorption of an organic compound to the surface of a solid. Absorption is an analogous process wherein a contaminant penetrates into the bulk mass of the soil matrix. Both adsorption and absorption reduce the availability of the contaminant to most microorganisms and the rate at which the chemical is metabolized is proportionately reduced [126]. Variations in porosity of the unsaturated and saturated zones of the aquifer matrix may influence the movement of fluids and contaminant migration in groundwater. The ability of the matrix to transmit gases, such as oxygen, methane and carbon dioxide, is reduced in fine grained sediments and also when soils become more saturated with water. This can affect the rate and type of biodegradation taking place [126].The oxidation-reduction potential of a soil provides a measurement of the electron density of the system. Biological energy is obtained from the oxidation of compounds in which electrons are transferred to various more oxidized compounds referred to as electron acceptors. A low electron density (Eh greater than 50 mV) indicates oxidizing, aerobic conditions, whereas high electron density (Eh less than 50 mV) indicates reducing, anaerobic conditions [126].
5. Degradation by genetically engineered microorganisms
As mentioned above, bioaugmentation and biostimulation are methods that can be applied to accelerate the recovery of polluted sites. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, bacterial genes encoding catabolic enzymes for recalcitrant compounds started to be cloned and characterized. Soon, many microbiologists and molecular biologists realized the potential of genetic engineering for addressing biodegradation [128]. A genetically engineered microorganism (GEM) or modified microorganism (GMM) is a microorganism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques inspired by natural genetic exchange between microorganisms. These techniques are generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs) have shown potential for bioremediation of soil, groundwater and activated sludge, exhibiting the enhanced degrading capabilities of a wide range of chemical contaminants [129]. As soon as the prospect of releasing genetically modified microorganisms for bioremediation became a reality, much of the research effort in the field was aimed at biosafety and risk assessment [128].
There are at least four principal approaches to GEM development for bioremediation application [11]. These include: 1) Modification of enzyme specificity and affinity; 2) Pathway construction and regulation; 3) Bioprocess development, monitoring and control; 4) Bioaffinity bioreporter sensor applications for chemical sensing, toxicity reduction and end point analysis.
5.1. Genetically engineered microorganisms
Molecular biology offers the tools to optimize the biodegradative capacities of microorganisms, accelerate the evolution of "new" activities, and construct totally "new" pathways through the assemblage of catabolic segments from different microbes [130].
Genes responsible for degradation of environmental pollutants, for example, toluene, chlorobenzene acids, and other halogenated pesticides and toxic wastes have been identified. For every compound, one separate plasmid is required. It is not like that one plasmid can degrade all the toxic compounds of different groups. The plasmids are grouped into four categories: 1) OCT plasmid which degrades, octane, hexane and decane; 2) XYL plasmid which degrades xylene and toluenes, 3) CAM plasmid that decompose camphor and 4) NAH plasmid which degrades naphthalene [130].
The potential for creating, through genetic manipulation, microbial strains able to degrade a variety of different types of hydrocarbons has been demonstrated by Friello et al. [131]. They successfully produced a multiplasmid-containing
This product of genetic engineering was called as superbug (oil eating bug). The plasmids of
Reports on the degradation of environmental pollutants by genetically engineered microorganisms are focused on genetically engineered bacteria using different genetic engineering technologies: Pathway modification, modification of substrate specificity by
The application of genetic engineering for heavy metals removal has aroused great interest. For example,
For polychlorinated biphenyls degradation, chromosomally located PCB catabolic genes of
Genetic engineering of endophytic and rhizospheric bacteria for use in plant associated degradation of toxic compounds in soil is considered one of the most promising new technologies for remediation of contaminated environmental sites [53]. To select a suitable strain for gene recombination and inoculation into the rhizosphere, there are three criteria that has been recommended: first, the strain should be stable after cloning and the target gene should have a high expression, second, the strain should be tolerant or insensitive to the contaminant; and third, some strains can survive only in several specific plant rhizosphere [135]. Many bacteria in the rhizosphere show only limited ability in degrading organic pollutants. With the development of molecular biology, the genetically engineered rhizobacteria with the contaminant-degrading gene are constructed to conduct the rhizoremediation [58]. Examples about the molecular mechanisms involved in the degradation of some pollutants such as trichloroethylene (TCE) and PCBs has been studied [136].
For heavy metals, Sriprang et al. [136] introduced
Finally, the use of GEM strains as an inoculum during seeding would preclude the problems associated with competition between strains in a mixed culture. However, there is considerable controversy surrounding the release of such genetically engineered microorganisms into the environment, and field testing of these organisms must therefore be delayed until the issues of safety and the potential for ecological damage are resolved [138].
5.2. Obstacles associated with the use of GEM in bioremediation applications
While genetic engineering has produced numerous strains able to degrade otherwise intractable pollutants in a Petri dish or in a bioreactor, the practical translation of this research into actual in situ bioremediation practices has been quite scanty [129]. One major issue in this respect is the growing realization that the strains and bacterial species that most frequently appear in traditional enrichment procedures are not the ones performing the bulk of biodegradation in natural niches and may not even be any good as bioremediation mediators. The use of stable isotope probing (SIP) and equivalent methods in microbial ecology have revealed that
The efficacy of a desired in-situ catalytic activity (biodegradation or otherwise) depends first on its presence in the target site. One key enzyme may not be there, or it may preexist in the site but not be manifested. Alternatively, it can be hosted by just a very minor part of the whole microbial population, so that its factual expression in the site might not be significant [129].
A field release of
The major problem encountered in successful bioremediation technology pertains to hostile field conditions for the engineered microbes. Besides, the molecular applications are mainly confined to only few well characterized bacteria such as
6. Conclusion
Microbial activities are very important for the renewal of our environment and maintenance of the global carbon cycle. These activities are included in the term biodegradation. Amid the substances that can be degraded or transformed by microorganisms are a huge number of synthetic compounds and other chemicals having ecotoxicological effects like hydrocarbons and heavy metals. However, in most cases this statement concerns potential degradabilities which were estimated in the laboratory by using selected cultures and under ideal growth conditions. Due to a whole range of factors: competition with microorganisms, insufficient supply with essential substrates, unfavorable external conditions (aeration, moisture, pH, temperature), and low bioavailability of the pollutant, biodegradation in natural conditions is lesser. So, environmental biotechnology has the objective of tackling and solving these problems so as to permit the use of microorganisms in bioremediation technologies. For this reason, it is necessary to support the activities of the indigenous microorganisms in polluted biotopes and to enhance their degradative abilities by bioaugmentation or biostimulation. Genetic engineering is also used to improve the biodegradation capabilities of microorganisms. Nevertheless, there are many risks associated to the use of GEM in the field. Whether or not such approaches are ultimately successful in bioremediation of pollutants may make a difference in our ability to reduce wastes, eliminate industrial pollution, and enjoy a more sustainable future.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful for the financial and scientific support rendered by Microbial Biotechnology Laboratory of Faculty of Sciences and Innovation City, SMBA University, Fez, Morocco.
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