DMA data of PU/EP IPN and HTLN‐modified PU/EP IPN composites at 10 Hz [46].
Abstract
Polyurethane is a versatile thermoplastic polymer with a range of characteristics (tensile strength, chemical resistance, thermal stability, and processability) as coating, elastomer, foam, and fiber for technical application. Epoxy resin, on the other hand, is thermoset having fine mechanical, chemical, and adhesion properties to be utilized as adhesives, coatings, and matrix for advanced composite materials. However, epoxy resins are rigid and brittle in nature and have poor crack resistance. To overcome these problems, polyurethane phase has been introduced in the epoxy network for toughening. Considerable research has been carried out to introduce a second reactive polymer in the matrix to generate interpenetrating polymer network (IPN). Consequently, mechanical properties, glass transition behavior, thermal resistance, and damping features of polyurethane have been enhanced by introducing epoxy to form polyurethane/epoxy interpenetrating polymer network structure. Different modifiers have been employed to modify the properties of polyurethane/epoxy IPNs such as montmorillonite nanoclay, fibers, fly ash, conducting polymers, etc. The polyurethane/epoxy crosslinked networks have shown a range of high‐performance application in ion‐exchange resins, aircraft, engineering materials, biomedical devices, and other commercial IPN products.
Keywords
- polyurethane
- epoxy
- network
- IPN
- application
1. Introduction
Polyurethane (PU) has been used in several technical applications due to high tensile strength, chemical resistance, processability, and mechanical properties [1, 2]. In polyurethane, hydrogen bonding is sufficient to produce a physical link between polymer chains to enhance overall improved properties. Phase separation in PU has been found to influence by hard and soft segment structures, molecular weight, polydispersity, and crosslinking ability. Epoxy polymers are tough and flexible with good corrosion and chemical resistance. The epoxy reactions are highly temperature dependent, epoxy oligomer/monomer‐dependent, and energetic [3, 4]. Polymerizations can be typically carried out at or above ambient temperature (90–130°C). Solvent‐free reactions are also used. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the development of mixtures with a second reactive polymer to generate interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) [5]. Interpenetrating polymer network is often considered as a novel type of polymer alloy, also known as polyblend. IPNs of polyurethane and epoxy have been reported by several investigators [6, 7]. In order to improve mechanical properties, thermal resistance, and damping properties of polyurethane, epoxy has been introduced in polyurethane systems to form polyurethane/epoxy IPN structure. Polyblends of linear polymers as well as grafted IPNs due to covalent bonding between the polymers have been established. Semi‐IPN has also been developed from linear and crosslinked polymers [8]. Glass transition behavior and morphology studies have been used to explore the effective IPN. Generally, IPNs show excellent engineering properties due to synergetic effect induced by the compatibility of individual components in PU/epoxy IPNs [9]. Polyurethane/epoxy IPNs have been widely applied to foams, coatings, fibers, leather, and other applications [10]. To broaden the applications of PU/epoxy IPNs, these network structures have been modified using various filler structures. In this chapter, initially brief outlook on polyurethane and epoxy is illustrated. Afterward, the interpenetrating polymer network is discussed with special focus on polyurethane/epoxy IPNs. Applications of these networks produced by using the two unique polymers (polyurethane and epoxy) have also been conversed.
2. Prolog to polyurethane
Polyurethane (PU) is one of the most important classes of thermoplastic polymers having versatile structural relevance. Polyurethane elastomers are segmented copolymers consisting of hard and soft segment domains [11]. Soft domains are consequential of a macrodiol, while hard segments are derived from diisocyanate (Figure 1). When a short chain compound commonly referred as chain extender is used, polyurethanes are considered as segmented. In shape memory polyurethane (an important class of PU), hard segments in polyurethane are also known as fixed phase
3. Epoxy thermoset
Epoxy is generally illustrated by three‐membered rings known as epoxy or oxirane or ethoxyline group. Epoxy resin is a prepolymer having more than one epoxide group. It is generally a low molecular weight compound. The most common type of epoxy resin is bisphenol‐A epoxy resin (Figure 2). It is a type of epoxy resin produced by the reaction of epichlorohydrin with bisphenol‐A in the presence of a basic catalyst. The properties of epoxy resin depend on the number of monomers in the epoxy chain [18]. Epoxy with low molecular weight usually has high viscosity and exists in the liquid state. High molecular weight epoxy occurs in solid state [19]. Depending upon the chemical structure of epoxy, they may have excellent electrical properties, thermal stability, UV stability, and weather ability [20]. In addition to linear epoxy resins, they can be cycloaliphatic, tri‐functional, and tetra‐functional epoxy resins [21, 22]. Various types of epoxy resins are shown in Figure 3.
Among these types, tetra‐functional epoxy resin has high crosslinking density and high thermal resistance. Novolac epoxy resin is produced by the reaction of aromatic novolac resin with epichlorohydrin. It has high crosslinking density due to the bulk of epoxide groups. Because of crosslinking property, it has excellent chemical, thermal, and solvent resistance properties [23]. Another other phenomenon is hardening of epoxy resins. The thermosetting resins are hardened using extensive range of hardening agents. The properties of thermosets also depend on the specific combination of hardening agents and epoxy resins constituting a system [24]. Molecular structure of hardening agents affects the final structure and properties particularly the glass transition temperature of epoxy. The hardening agents are also of various types such as amine, anhydride, and catalytic hardening agents [25]. Different types of amine hardening agents have been employed in epoxies [26]. The reactions between amine hardener and the epoxy are generally nucleophilic addition. These hardeners provide excellent chemical, physical, and electrical properties to the epoxy systems [27]. Hardening can be performed at room temperature, or in the presence of light, or heat. Room temperature hardeners provide high tensile properties, electrical conductivity, thermal resistance, and low
4. Interpenetrating polymer network (IPN)
Interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) is a unique type of polyblend. IPNs can be simply defined as a mixture of two or more crosslinked polymeric networks [30]. The interpenetrating polymer network can be generated using physical or chemical interlocking between the polymer chains [31, 32]. IPNs can be considered as the crosslinking of one polymer component in the presence of another polymer component to form crosslinked polymer network. In this regard, fully formed interpenetrating polymer network and semi‐interpenetrating polymer network have been identified [33]. Fully formed interpenetrating polymer network are acknowledged by the presence of crosslinks in both the network polymers, and the whole polymer components are crosslinked. Semi‐IPN exists when one of the components is crosslinked and other is linear or non‐crosslinked [34]. Semi‐IPN is also referred to as pseudo‐IPN. In
5. Polyurethane/epoxy interpenetrating polymer network
Due to high modulus, strength, and mechanical properties, epoxy resins have been used in high‐performance structural composites. However, engineering applications of epoxy resins have been limited in several cases such as damping materials [35]. In contrast, polyurethane is a flexible and elastic polymer with low mechanical strength [36]. PU prepolymers have been prepared and incorporated into epoxy resin to form IPNs. The mechanical properties of PU/epoxy IPNs largely depend on the amount of polyurethane in the blend network. Jin et al. [6] investigated tensile properties of soybean oil‐based PU/epoxy IPNs. The tensile strength and tensile modulus of PU/EP IPNs with 5–20 mass% PU were lower than pure epoxy. This means that the addition of PU turned epoxy to the rubbery elastomer increased the elongation at break by 13‐fold as compared to pure epoxy. However, increasing the amount of epoxy increased tensile strength and tensile modulus drastically. IPNs basically integrate the structure and properties of these versatile polymers (epoxy and polyurethane). Integrated performance of epoxy/polyurethane networks have been improved by the structural modification. The glass transition temperature of PU/epoxy IPNs provides important information about the miscibility of the blend components and blend compatibility. Moreover, the glass transition temperature of PU/epoxy IPNs also provides information about the cure rate of the reaction. At the beginning of cure reaction,
6. Modified polyurethane/epoxy IPNs
Polyurethane/epoxy IPNs have been prepared by adopting several modifications. The reinforced PU and diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) IPN composites have been prepared with aramid fibers. The mechanical properties have been found to improve [38]. The PU/epoxy IPNs exhibited higher tensile and Izod impact strength. Montmorillonite‐filled polyurethane/epoxy IPN nanocomposites were prepared, and the influence of hydrogen bonding on free volume and miscibility of clay was studied [39]. Polyethylene glycol‐based polyurethane and epoxy IPN composite filled with fly ash have also been studied [40]. Semiconductive polyaniline and polyurethane/epoxy nanocomposite have been prepared for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding and charge dissipation applications. The damping properties of the modified PU/epoxy IPN composites have also been studied [41].
PU/epoxy/HTLN (%) | tan | |
---|---|---|
50/50/0 | 1.063 | 68.2 |
50/50/5 | 1.105 | 71.0 |
50/50/10 | 1.031 | 70.9 |
50/50/15 | 1.081 | 70.0 |
50/50/20 | 1.041 | 71.9 |
The tensile strength of polyurethane/epoxy IPN composites filled with montmorillonite (MMT) has been studied [8]. According to Figure 6, 1% MMT resulted in the maximum tensile strength of the composites. The tensile strength of all the filled composites increased by about 40% relative to pure PU/epoxy IPNs. The results were attributed to the large interface area and strong interfacial adhesion between the IPN matrix and MMT. Figure 7 shows the impact strength of MMT‐filled PU/epoxy IPN composites. The impact strength primarily increased and then decreased with the increase in the MMT content. The impact strength reached higher values for 1 and 3% MMT contents. The results showed strong mutual interactions between the filler and matrix, and thus the impact strength of MMT‐modified composites was improved.
7. Structure‐property relationship in interpenetrating polymer network
The understanding of structure‐property relationship in polyurethane/epoxy interpenetrating network is essential for a wide range of technical applications. Particularly, in the search of broadband damping materials, it is desirable to form IPNs with high loss region in shear or extension, covering the entire temperature and frequency range. Polyurethane/epoxy IPNs have been prepared for broadband damping materials. Epoxy and PU composites have been prepared to increase the crosslink density to improve polymer toughness. Epoxies have low toughness and poor crack resistance at room temperature due to high crosslinking density. Therefore, the literature focused on the matter of toughening of epoxies. Thermoplastic polymers/rubbers have been added to epoxy resins to improve the toughness of epoxy [47, 48]. Interpenetrating polymer network has been formed by the combination of crosslinked polymer networks in which at least one polymer is crosslinked in the immediate presence of the other. The mechanical properties of IPN structures are superior to the neat polymers. The presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl group of epoxy and isocyanate group in PU plays an important role in interlocking network formation. IPNs of polyurethane and epoxy resin are very efficient for improving the fracture properties of the epoxy resin. Epoxy resin/polyurethane IPN nanocomposites with various contents of organophilic montmorillonite have been prepared through an
8. Application of IPNs
As described in the preceding sections, polyurethane/epoxy IPNs are of interest because they own enhanced glass transition temperature, impact strength, tensile strength, and damping properties relative to the neat/individual polymers [7, 8, 37, 46–49]. These properties are definitely superior to the polymer blends, which are usually obtained by blending the polymers together. If two homopolymers are blended, in most of the cases two distinct glass transition temperatures are observed. A major advantage is that the IPN may display a broad glass transition temperature. In this regard, Zhang and Hourston et al. [37] prepared a series of rigid interpenetrating polymer networks of rosin‐based polyurethane and epoxy resin by a simultaneous polymerization technique. The chemical structure, dynamic mechanical properties, and morphology of the materials were investigated using relevant techniques. The PU/epoxy IPN showed a single broad glass transition over a wide range of composition, with the tan
9. Conclusions
The principal routes for the formation of IPNs are successive and simultaneous polymerization of the two polymer components. Polyurethane elastomers are segmented copolymers consisting of soft segment domains derived from a macrodiol and hard segment domains derived from a diisocyanate and chain extender. Usually, the two segments are incompatible, resulting in microphase separation, which is responsible for fine mechanical properties. Epoxy resins are well known for unique properties such as high mechanical strength, chemical resistance, and outstanding surface adhesion. However, they are rigid and brittle in nature, and have poor crack resistance, which prevent its engineering applications. To overcome these problems, toughening of epoxy resins with polyurethanes has been performed. Various factors affect the final properties of IPNs such as hard and soft segment structures, molecular weight, polydispersity, crosslinking, and phase separation. Consequently, the design of hard and soft segment structures affects the structure of PU prepolymer. The molecular weight of PU prepolymer also influences the formation of IPN structure. Phase separation is truly dependent on the content of polyurethane and epoxy contributing to the IPN network. Furthermore, the degree of crosslinking defines the glass transition temperature of the final PU/epoxy IPN. Two types of forces may form the IPN network in polymers, i.e., primary (chemical bond) and secondary (vander Waals). The presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl group in epoxy and the isocyanate group in PU plays an important role in increasing network interlocking in IPN formation. Depending on the specific components selected for IPN formation, surface free energy of the blend system, and other structural parameters, there are several technical applications identified for epoxy/polyurethane systems.
References
- 1.
Usman A, Zia KM, Zuber M, Tabasum S, Rehman S, Zia F. Chitin and chitosan based polyurethanes: A review of recent advances and prospective biomedical applications. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2016; 86: 630–645. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.02.004. - 2.
Mahmood N, Yuan Z, Schmidt J, Xu CC. Depolymerization of lignins and their applications for the preparation of polyols and rigid polyurethane foams: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2016; 60: 317–329.DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.037 - 3.
Kausar A. Role of thermosetting polymer in structural composite. American Journal of Polymer Science & Engineering. 2017; 5: 1–12. - 4.
Qu T, Yang N, Hou J, Li G, Yao Y, Zhang Q, He L, Wu D, Qu X. Flame retarding epoxy composites with poly (phosphazene‐co‐bisphenol A)‐coated boron nitride to improve thermal conductivity and thermal stability. RSC Advances. 2017; 7: 6140–6151. DOI: 10.1039/C6RA27062J. - 5.
Chen S, Wang Q, Wang T, Pei X. Preparation, damping and thermal properties of potassium titanate whiskers filled castor oil‐based polyurethane/epoxy interpenetrating polymer network composites. Materials & Design. 2011; 32: 803–807. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2010.07.021. - 6.
Jin H, Zhang Y, Wang C, Sun Y, Yuan Z, Pan Y, Xie H, Cheng R. Thermal, mechanical, and morphological properties of soybean oil‐based polyurethane/epoxy resin interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs). Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry. 2014; 117: 773–781. DOI: 10.1007/s10973‐014‐3849‐5. - 7.
Wang C, Jia J. Damping and mechanical properties of polyol cross‐linked polyurethane/epoxy interpenetrating polymer networks. High Performance Polymers. 2014; 26: 240–244. DOI: 10.1177/0954008313508421. - 8.
Chen S, Wang Q, Wang T. Damping, thermal, and mechanical properties of montmorillonite modified castor oil‐based polyurethane/epoxy graft IPN composites. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2011; 130: 680–684. DOI: 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2011.07.044. - 9.
Simendić JB, Bjelović Z, Jovanović SS, Aleksić V, Valentova H, Szecseny KM, Krakovsky I. Thermal stability and damping properties of polyurethane hybrid material based on castor oil. Contemporary Materials. 2014; 1: 64–68. DOI: 10.7251/cm.v1i5.1500. - 10.
Prashantha K, Rashmi BJ, Pai KV. Preparation and characterization of Poly (2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate) and castor oil based uralkyds interpenetrating polymer networks. Polymers & Polymer Composites. 2015; 23: 223. - 11.
Oprea S. Synthesis and properties of polyurethane elastomers with castor oil as crosslinker. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society. 2010; 87: 313–320. DOI: 10.1007/s11746‐009‐1501‐5. - 12.
Ahmed N, Kausar A, Muhammad, B. Advances in shape memory polyurethanes and composites: A review. Polymer‐Plastics Technology and Engineering. 2015; 54: 1410–1423. DOI: 10.1080/03602559.2015.1021490. - 13.
Kausar A. Review on technological significance of photoactive, electroactive, pH sensitive, water‐active, and thermo‐responsive polyurethane materials. Polymer‐Plastics Technology and Engineering. 2017; 56: 606-616. DOI: 10.1080/03602559.2016.1233279. - 14.
Kausar A, Zulfiqar S, Sarwar MI. High performance segmented polyurethanes derived from a new aromatic diisocyanate and polyol. Polymer degradation and stability. 2013; 98: 368–376. DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2012.09.004. - 15.
Sattar R, Kausar A, Siddiq M. Advances in thermoplastic polyurethane composites reinforced with carbon nanotubes and carbon nanofibers: A review. Journal of Plastic Film & Sheeting. 2015; 31: 186–224. DOI: 10.1177/8756087914535126. - 16.
Sattar R, Kausar A, Siddiq M. Thermal, mechanical and electrical studies of novel shape memory polyurethane/polyaniline blends. Chinese Journal of Polymer Science. 2015; 33: 1313–1324. DOI: 10.1007/s10118‐015‐1680‐5. - 17.
Kausar A. Poly (urethane urea)/polythiophene/carbon black composite: Morphology, mechanical, and conducting shape memory behavior. Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials. 2016; DOI: 10.1177/0892705716679477. - 18.
Brady RF. editors. Comprehensive Desk Reference of Polymer Characterization and Analysis. American Chemical Society: Oxford, New York. 2004, 81: 1425, DOI: 10.1021/ed081p1425.2. - 19.
Jin FL, Ma CJ, Park SJ. Thermal and mechanical interfacial properties of epoxy composites based on functionalized carbon nanotubes. Materials Science and Engineering. 2011; 528: 8517 – 8522. DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2011.08.054. - 20.
Yoo MJ, Kim SH, Park SD, Lee WS, Sun JW, Choi JH, Nahm S. Investigation of curing kinetics of various cycloaliphatic epoxy resins using dynamic thermal analysis. European Polymer Journal. 2010; 46: 1158–1162. DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2010.02.001. - 21.
Kwak GH, Park SJ, Lee JR. Thermal stability and mechanical behavior of cycloaliphatic–DGEBA epoxy blend system initiated by cationic latent catalyst. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2000; 78: 290–297. DOI: 10.1002/1097‐4628(20001010)78:2<290::AID‐APP80>3.0.CO;2–9. - 22.
Park SJ, Jin FL, Lee JR. Thermal and mechanical properties of tetrafunctional epoxy resin toughened with epoxidized soybean oil. Materials Science and Engineering. 2004; 374: 109–114. DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2004.01.002. - 23.
Lee MC, Ho TH, Wang CS. Synthesis of tetrafunctional epoxy resins and their modification with polydimethylsiloxane for electronic application. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 1996; 62: 217–225. DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1097‐4628(19961003)62:1<217::AID‐APP25>3.0.CO;2–0. - 24.
Bascom W, Cottington, R, Jones P, Peyser R. The fracture of epoxy‐ and elastomer‐modified epoxy polymers in bulk and as adhesives. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 1975; 19: 12545–2562. DOI: 10.1002/app.1975.070190917. - 25.
Hsu YG, Lin KH, Lin TY, Fang YL, Chen SC, Sung YC. Properties of epoxy‐amine networks containing nanostructured ether‐crosslinked domains. Matererials Chemistry and Physics. 2012; 132: 688–702. DOI: 10.1080/1536383X.2016.1172067. - 26.
Ferdosian F, Ebrahimi M, Jannesari A. Curing kinetics of solid epoxy/DDM/nanoclay: Isoconversional models versus fitting model. Thermochim Acta. 2013; 568: 67 – 73. DOI: 10.1016/j.tca.2013.06.001. - 27.
Fan M, Liu J, Li X, Cheng J, Zhang J. Curing behaviors and properties of an extrinsic toughened epoxy/anhydride system and an intrinsic toughened epoxy/anhydride system. Thermochim Acta. 2013; 554: 39–47. DOI: 10.1016/j.tca.2012.12.007. - 28.
Ahmad Z, Ansell MP, Smedley D. Effect of nano‐and micro‐particle additions on moisture absorption in thixotropic room temperature cure epoxy‐based adhesives for bonded‐in timber connections. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives. 2010; 30: 448–455. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2010.04.001. - 29.
Jiang W, Jin FL, Park SJ. Thermo‐mechanical behaviors of epoxy resins reinforced with nano‐Al2O3 particles. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 2012; 18: 594–596. Doi: 10.1016/j.jiec.2011.11.140. - 30.
Ma C, Goang DY, Han JL, Hsieh KH. Interpenetrating polymer networks of polyurethane and furfuryl alcohol, IIa. Processability and properties of pultruded fiber‐reinforced composites. Die Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie. 1994; 218: 41–52. DOI: 10.1002/apmc.1994.052180104. - 31.
Kausar A. Estimation of thermo‐mechanical and fire resistance profile of epoxy coated polyurethane/fullerene composite films. Fullerenes, Nanotubes and Carbon Nanostructures. 2016; 24: 391–399. DOI: 10.1080/1536383X.2016.1172067. - 32.
Kausar A. An investigation on epoxy/poly (urethane‐amide)‐based interpenetrating polymer network reinforced with an organic nanoparticle. Materials Research Innovations. 2016; DOI: 10.1080/14328917.2016.1265232. - 33.
Tan F, Qiao X, Chen J, Wang H. Effects of coupling agents on the properties of epoxy‐based electrically conductive adhesives. International journal of adhesion and adhesives. 2006; 26: 406–413. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2005.06.005. - 34.
Kim SC, Klempner D, Frisch KC, Frisch HL. Polyurethane interpenetrating polymer networks. II. Density and glass transition behavior of polyurethane‐poly (methyl methacrylate) and polyurethane‐polystyrene IPN’s. Macromolecules. 1976; 9: 263–266. DOI: 10.1021/ma60050a017. - 35.
Jeevananda T. Synthesis and characterization of polyaniline filled PU/PMMA interpenetrating polymer networks. European Polymer Journal. 2003; 39: 569–578. DOI: 10.1016/S0014‐3057(02)00272‐0. - 36.
Lin SP, Han JL, Yeh JT, Chang FC, Hsieh KH. Composites of UHMWPE fiber reinforced PU/epoxy grafted interpenetrating polymer networks. European Polymer Journal. 2007; 4: 996–1008. DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2006.12.001. - 37.
Zhang Y, Hourston DJ. Rigid interpenetrating polymer network foams prepared from a rosin‐based polyurethane and an epoxy resin. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 1998, 69: 271–381. DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1097‐4628(19980711)69:2^#x003C;271::AID‐APP8>3.0.CO;2‐K. - 38.
Han JL, Lin SP, Ji SB, Hsieh KH. Graft interpenetrating polymer networks of polyurethane and epoxy containing rigid rods in side chain. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2007; 106: 3298–3307. DOI: 10.1002/app.26874. - 39.
Zhu YC, Wang B, Gong W, Kong LM, Jia QM. Investigation of the hydrogenbonding structure and miscibility for PU/EP IPN nanocomposites by PALS. Macromolecules. 2006; 39: 9441–9445. DOI: 10.1021/ma0621066. - 40.
Wu GH, Gu J, Zhao X. Preparation and dynamic mechanical properties of polyurethane‐modified epoxy composites filled with functionalized fly ash particulates. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2007; 105: 1118–1126. DOI: 10.1002/app.26146. - 41.
Chiou WC, Han JL, Lee SN. Synthesis and studies of the physical properties of polyaniline and polyurethane‐modified epoxy composites. Polymer Engineering and Science. 2008; 48: 345–354. DOI: 10.1002/pen.20944. - 42.
Park SJ, Jin JS. Energetic studies on epoxy–polyurethane interpenetrating polymer networks. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2001; 82: 775–780. DOI: 10.1002/app.1903. - 43.
Kausar A. Nanodiamond tethered epoxy/polyurethane interpenetrating network nanocomposite: Physical properties and thermoresponsive shape‐memory behavior. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization. 2016; 21: 348–358. DOI: 10.1080/1023666X.2016.1156911. - 44.
Kausar A, Rahman Ur A. Effect of graphene nanoplatelet addition on properties of thermo‐responsive shape memory polyurethane‐basednanocomposite. Fullerenes, Nanotubes and Carbon Nanostructures, 2016; 24: 235–242. DOI: 10.1080/1536383X.2016.1144592. - 45.
Buravalla VR, Remillat C, Rongong JA, Tomlinson GR. Advances in damping materials and technology. Smart Materials Bulletin. 2001, 8: 10–13. DOI: 10.1016/S1471‐3918(01)80184‐2. - 46.
Chen S, Wang Q, Wang T. Hydroxy‐terminated liquid nitrile rubber modified castor oil based polyurethane/epoxy IPN composites: Damping, thermal and mechanical properties. Polymer Testing. 2011, 30: 726–731. DOI: 10.1016/j.polymertesting.2011.06.011. - 47.
Russell B, Chartoff R. The influence of cure conditions on the morphology and phase distribution in a rubber‐modified epoxy resin using scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. Polymer. 2005, 46: 785–798. DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2004.11.090. - 48.
Liu Y, Zhang W, Zhou H. Mechanical properties of epoxy resin/hydroxyl‐terminated polyester blends: Effect of two‐phase structure. Polymer International. 2005. 54: 1408–1415. DOI: 10.1002/pi.1862. - 49.
Li J. High performance epoxy resin nanocomposites containing both organic montmorillonite and castor oil‐polyurethane. Polymer Bulletin. 2006, 56: 377–384. DOI: 10.1007/s00289‐005‐0492‐0. - 50.
Coughlin CS, Samuels MQ, Capps RN. Structure–property relationships in polymer interpenetrating networks for use as broad band damping materials. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 1993; 94: 1840–1840. DOI: 10.1121/1.407750. - 51.
Thompson CM, Ting RY, Leimer LM. New fiber‐reinforced polyurethane composites as a soft sonar window. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 1993; 94: 1840–1840. DOI: 10.1121/1.407752. - 52.
Thompson CM, Ting RY, Jenkins LL, Chiou CC. Development of a new rigid composite for high‐frequency sonar window applications. Acoustical Society of America Journal. 1993; 94: 1840. DOI: 10.1121/1.407753. - 53.
Cerqueira DA, Rodrigues Filho G, Assunção RM. A new value for the heat of fusion of a perfect crystal of cellulose acetate. Polymer Bulletin. 2006; 56: 475–484. DOI: 10.1007/s00289‐006‐0511‐9 - 54.
Yang J, Winnik, MA, Ylitalo D, Devoe RJ. Polyurethane‐polyacrylate interpenetrating networks. 1. Preparation and Morphology Macromolecules. 1996; 29: 7047–7054. DOI: 10.1021/ma9601373. - 55.
Li Y, Mao S. Study on the properties and application of epoxy resin/polyurethane semi‐interpenetrating polymer networks. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 1996; 61: 2059–2063. DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1097‐4628(19960919)61:12<2059::AID‐APP2>3.0.CO;2–9. - 56.
Zhanzheng B, Xiuli Z, Xuefang L, Shikai LU. Preparation and characterization of epoxy encapsulating materials toughened by polyurethane. Chemical Industry and Engineering Progress. 2009; 28: 1010–1085.