Summary of ecological characteristics of Funestus Group in Africa.
1. Taxonomy, biology and distribution of the species within the Funestus Group
1.1. Introduction
1.2. The Funestus Group
The term “Funestus Group” was first coined in its strictest sense by Gillies and De Meillon [3] to designate a group of species morphologically close to
Given the laborious nature of morphological and cytogenetic techniques, several studies were undertaken for the research of simple and useful molecular identification tools [9-12]. These techniques have the advantage to be applicable to all developmental stages. On the basis of morphological [13, 14] and molecular studies [15, 16], the status and position of each species within the Funestus Group was revisited. It is now accepted that
1.3. Geographical distribution
Among the species of the Funestus Group,
The other species of the group exhibit locally defined distribution (Fig. 1B, C).
1.4. Breeding place
1.5. Resting behaviour and host feeding preference: Their impact on vector capacity
Despite the morphological similarities that exist between members of the group, these species show extreme behavioural differences that affect their vectorial capacities. To date, all malaria transmission studies have shown that
The other species of the group are mainly zoophilic, but can occasionally feed on humans [3].
2. Insecticide susceptibility and vector control
Because of its highly anthropophilic and endophilic behaviour,
During the last decade, efforts have been made in order to unravel the molecular mechanisms involved in insecticide resistance. The mechanisms discovered involve insecticide detoxification by one or multiple metabolic pathways mediated by glutathione S-transferases (GST), monooxygenases and/or esterases [61, 71-73]. No evidence for the presence of L1014F
3. Molecular tools
3.1. Introduction
In 2002, the genome of
Three inherent characteristics of
Despite these challenges, and the lack of a publicly available
3.2. Molecular markers
In the late 70’s and beginning of the 80’s, several studies revealed the importance of chromosomal inversions as genetic markers to differentiate species within the Funestus Group [6, 7]. These results mirrored those obtained in the
In
These molecular markers have been key in numerous advances. For instance, SNPs and microsatellites allowed to Wondji and co-workers to explore the genetic basis of insecticide resistance in this malaria vectors [79]. Several genes including the P450 cytochrome (CYP6P9a and CYP6P9b) were associated to DDT resistance by Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) analysis using both markers [72]. The role of microsatellites in population genetic studies is discussed in other sections of this chapter (see below). Despite, we are still far from the molecular advances carried out on
3.3. Expression profiles
Considering the lack of
In 2007, Calvo et al., [96] investigated salivary gland genes from 916 cDNA clones coming from adult females. This study debuted the analysis of transcripts in this mosquito, providing important clues about the evolution of salivary gland proteins in blood feeding insects and Culicidae. In particular, a 30 KDa allergen family and several
4. Population genetic structure across Africa
4.1. Introduction
In malaria mosquitoes, population genetics have been revealed as an excellent tool for implementation of vector control programs. The study of gene flow among vector populations allows the analysis of mosquitoes’ movement in natural populations, and therefore, how those populations are segregated. They can, for instance, assist to follow the expansion of genes of interest, such as those that confer insecticide resistance [98], or potentially help to introduce transgenic mosquitoes, refractory to parasite infection [99, 100]. On the other hand, these population genetic studies might be useful to investigate the genetic basis of speciation and/or local adaptation processes. They evidence a considerable importance in vector control measures [101].
The biology of
4.2. Cytogenetic studies
The study of chromosomal rearrangements – cytogenetics – of
For its predominant role as malaria vector and its wide geographical distribution across sub-Saharan Africa,
Chromosomal inversions have been widely implicated in the process of speciation and local adaptation in a wide range of animals and plants [110, 111]. In recent years, studies on the chromosome composition of the populations of
4.3. Molecular markers
The first assays to characterize wild populations of this mosquito were based on mitochondrial (Internal Transcribed Spacer 2, ITS2) and ribosomal DNA (cytochrome b gene, cyt-b) [116]. The results did not show any differentiation between chromosomal forms previously described by Costantini [42], rather one panmictic population. At the beginning of this century, new microsatellite markers were developed, which allowed more precise studies [89-92]. At the country scale, the results have evidenced a general trend to only one population, with a slight but significant isolation by distance. In Kenya, Braginets et al. [94] did not find any population genetic structure throughout the country, however, an important sub-division due to Rift Valley was found. A similar pattern was already observed in
Similar results were obtained in Cameroon, where for the first time, a latitudinal cline across different environments was analyzed [83, 86]. As in previous studies, genetic differentiation among populations might be explained by isolation by distance. On the other hand, in Burkina Faso, Michel et al. [85] showed a genetic divergence between chromosomal forms on the basis of five microsatellite markers and sequence of a mitochondrial gene (ND-5). These results validated in some extend those precluded by Costantini et al. [42] and Guelbeogo et al. [84]. Unfortunately, they still remain restricted to Burkina Faso, similarly to chromosomal forms of
The very rapid pace of development of genetic and molecular tools will allow characterizing
5. Conclusion
During the last decade, we have seen how new molecular advances have elevated
The
In this chapter, we revisited the
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