Largest built-up urban centres in Nigeria with population of 500,000 and above (source: adapted from Demographia world urban areas [6]).
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Furthermore, in the last few years, such microstrip antennas found numerous applications in both the military and the commercial sectors. Therefore, microstrip patch antenna has become a major focus to the researchers in the field of antenna engineering. In this book, some recent advances in microstrip antennas are presented. This book contains mainly three sections. In the first section, some new approaches to modern analytical techniques rather than the conventional cavity model, transmission line model, or spectral domain analysis have been discussed. In the second section of the book, a light has been showered on some new techniques for bandwidth enhancement of microstrip radiators. In the last section of the book, the recent trends in microstrip antenna research have been showcased. Some newfangled application-oriented approach to this field is vividly discussed. The book’s main objective is to facilitate the microstrip antenna researchers for exploring the subject in more vibrant manner and also to revolutionize wireless communications. A sufficient number of topics have been covered, some for the first time in a research handbook. 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Since then, he has started his independent research in the field of Antenna Engineering. He is currently working as an associate professor and head at the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Mizoram University (a Central University, Government of India), Mizoram, India. Before joining Mizoram University, he served Siliguri Institute of Technology, West Bengal, India, for 15 years as a faculty member. His area of research includes microwave antennas, microstrip and integrated antennas, defected ground structures, and computer-aided design of patch antennas. He regularly serves as the reviewer of IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine; IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters; IET Microwaves, Antennas, & Propagation journal, UK; IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation; International Journal of RF and Microwave Computer-Aided Engineering, Wiley; International Journal of Microwave and Wireless Technologies, Cambridge; and also Taylor and Francis journal. 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Every country in the world is experiencing urbanization in different dimensions. Urbanization has been defined as the increased concentration of people in cities rather than in rural areas [1]. Demographic Partitions [2] describes urbanization as the “process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas”. It is the gradual increase in the number of people living in urban areas, with subsequent decrease in those living in rural areas [3].
\nUrbanization is a fundamental phenomenon of multidimensional transformation which rural societies go through in order to evolve into modernized societies from sparsely populated areas to densely concentrated urban cities. Urbanization is an ongoing trend in both developed and developing countries, including Nigeria which is the main focus of this chapter. Nigeria is the largest country in West Africa; classified as a low-middle income country despite the fact that it is the biggest oil exporter in Africa with the largest natural gas reserve in the continent. The Nigeria Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is $405.10 billion in 2016 [4]. However, the huge revenue derivable from oil and allied products have not positively impacted an average low income earners in the country, as they live below 1 dollar per day. The impoverishment of the citizens has also been largely worsened by the corrupt and wasteful handling of petrol dollars by successive governments in the country. Simply put, the huge money made from oil remains a noticeable paradoxical contradiction when viewed against prevailing endemic infrastructural deficit and abject poverty in the country.
\nPrior to the colonial era, Nigeria had several cities of different sizes and importance. Examples of such cities are Lagos, Ibadan and Ilorin, in the south western region, Kano and Zaria, in the northern part, and Onitsha and Aba, in the eastern area, as well as Port Harcourt and Calabar in the south. The aforementioned are all with their distinctive socio-cultural identities even as they are locations occupied by the three major ethnic groups in Nigeria, plus the southern sub-ethnic group, respectively. The rate of movements of the people from rural areas to the cities during this era was low, as majority concentrated on agricultural occupation. In the post independence era, starting from 1960, people in Nigeria kept migrating at an increasing rate from the rural areas to the urban centres in pursuit of better living conditions. Like every other nation of the world, the migration has been causing rapid and extensive growth in the urban centres. The urban population in Nigeria has grown from 6.9 million, 15.4% of the total population of 45 million in 1960 to 99.9 million, which is 48.9% of the total population of 195.8 million today [5] (Figures 1 and 2).
\nPercentage change in population from 1960 to 2018. Source: adapted from Worldometer.info [5].
Percentage growth of urban population from 1960 to 2014. Source: adapted from Worldometer.info [5].
Consequently, many more towns such as Akure, Osogbo, Bauchi and Sokoto have emerged, and they are fast turning into urban centres due to explosion induced by migration, both in numbers and sizes. There are 26 urban centres in the country, with a populations of approx. 500,000 in each urban centre (Table 1) [6]. Lagos, the former capital city, still remains the most urbanized city despite the movement of the country’s capital to Abuja. This may not be unconnected to the fact that Lagos still remains the commercial capital for Nigeria.
\n\n | Urban centre | \nPopulation | \n\n | Urban centre | \nPopulation | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \nLagos | \n13,910,000 | \n14. | \nIkorodu | \n825,000 | \n
2. | \nOnitsha | \n7,850,000 | \n15. | \nOwerri | \n815,000 | \n
3. | \nKano | \n3,875,000 | \n16. | \nMaiduguri | \n795,000 | \n
4. | \nIbadan | \n3,070,000 | \n17. | \nWarri | \n770,000 | \n
5. | \nAbuja | \n2,605,000 | \n18. | \nEnugu | \n755,000 | \n
6. | \nUyo | \n2,230,000 | \n19. | \nZaria | \n750,000 | \n
7. | \nPort Harcourt | \n2,060,000 | \n20. | \nOsogbo | \n715,000 | \n
8. | \nNsukka | \n1,840,000 | \n21. | \nAkure | \n630,000 | \n
9. | \nBenin City | \n1,445,000 | \n22. | \nSokoto | \n620,000 | \n
10. | \nAba | \n1,290,000 | \n23. | \nLokoja | \n570,000 | \n
11. | \nKaduna | \n1,140,000 | \n24. | \nBauchi | \n560,000 | \n
12. | \nIlorin | \n935,000 | \n25. | \nAbeokuta | \n540,000 | \n
13. | \nJos | \n830,000 | \n26. | \nOgbomosho | \n505,000 | \n
Largest built-up urban centres in Nigeria with population of 500,000 and above (source: adapted from Demographia world urban areas [6]).
Trade and politics are the two predominant causes of urbanization in pre-colonial era in Nigeria (before 1900). The existing urban centres serve as trade centres where goods, mainly agricultural produce, and traditional production of crafts commodities, like clothing and household utensils, are brought from their neighboring rural communities to be traded or stored for the purpose of exportation. They also serve as hubs for importation of merchandise from other countries. Consequently, there are massive concentrations of wealth, political power, prestige and the seats of regional governments with its attendant employment opportunities and the need to provide housing for the rich and powerful people; thereby attracting increased number of traders and migrants from their catchment areas and also from other regions and nations.
\nAt the advent of colonialism in Nigeria (1900–1960), the colonial masters and missionaries developed the urban centres into cities with good infrastructural facilities like electricity, good roads, rail networks, European style housing, educational, religious and recreational facilities for themselves and the Nigerian elites. Furthermore, new urban cities were built by them for the purpose of industry and improved trade centres. Industry, according to Anamgba, is “a collection of individual firms producing similar commodities” [7]. He further describes industry as “any commercial activity that provides goods and services”. Examples of such cities are Jos, with an established Tin mining industry, Enugu, known for coal mining, and Bida, with industries manufacturing glass and brass.
\nLater, there came a shift from the old agricultural practices to the new mechanized agriculture for larger production outputs and increased employment opportunities. The era also witnessed the provision of social services and infrastructural facilities like electricity, potable water, education, public health care, banking, postal services and modern transportation: namely, rail, road and air. Consequently, an improved standard of living was ushered in, in terms of better housing, transportation, food production and health care. In addition, traditional attires were replaced with new formal white collar dresses, and sophisticated fashion products, which equally involved women enlightenment and empowerment.
\nAfter the amalgamation in 1914, Lagos was made the capital city, thereby becoming the seat of the national government and a centre of trade, commerce, industry and economic development. All these became pull factors, attracting rural dwellers to Lagos. Afterwards, the capital of Nigeria was moved to Abuja in 1991. Hence, the seat of the Federal government and all Federal government agencies were moved to Abuja. This development made a large number of people to migrate from Lagos and other parts of Nigeria, including the rural areas, into Abuja, the new Federal capital of Nigeria.
\nThe creation of new states in 1989 and 1991, led to the creation of new state capitals and new local government areas in different parts of the country. Consequently, many new Federal and States-owned Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education were also established. All these contributed, in no small measure, to urbanization. They have also encouraged mass expansion of other commercial and industrial establishments such as banking, construction and manufacturing industries, in these newly created states, resulting in the movement of more people into them [8].
\nThe rapid growth of urbanization in Nigeria has affected the society, both positively and negatively. The following are the advantages of urbanization in the country:
\nUrbanization has induced modernization to a certain level which has enabled the use of the modern methods of construction and equipments in some areas of living and accomplishing day-to-day activities, both at work and at home; hereby enhancing the lives of the urban populace, from the rural to modern. It has also brought about an improved economic development in form of improvement in trades and industry which has in turn contributed to the gross domestic product (GDP) [4].
\nWith the establishment of industries, powered by mechanized equipment, workers required training on the technical mode of operating the equipment. This created learning and training opportunities for workers, which were often provided by the employing companies resulting in subsequent technological advancement, enlightenment and improvements for the workers generally. This also came with attendant growth of the literacy rate of the urban populace with the consequence of improved standards of living for the workers.
\nNigeria has experienced tremendous economic growth from independence to date as indicated by the GDP which was US$4.1 in 1960 and is presently US$405.10 billion. However, the GDP experienced its highest in 2014 with a GDP of US$568.49 billion [4], after which it started witnessing a decline. It is yet to regain an upward growth since then. Owing to the presence of industries in the urban centres, many of the dwellers are involved in the processing of staple foods, using agricultural products as raw materials. Commercial activities are in the increase due to urbanization, which encourages the establishment of shopping centres, markets and offices.
\nMany of the urban centres are seats of the Federal, States and Local governments, thereby providing administrative and contract jobs for the people. Urbanization also encourages the establishments of educational institutions like universities, polytechnics, secondary and primary schools; places of worship like churches and mosques; relaxation centres like restaurants and hotels. As a result, these improve the socio-cultural interactions and development among the population. Conversely, urbanization also has some attendant disadvantages as described below:
\nOverpopulation is a major setback of urbanization, as people keep migrating en masse from the rural areas to the urban centres without a commensurate increase in the existing social infrastructure. Decent accommodation is not always adequate, leading to overcrowding and slum life. Inadequacy of resources and acute shortage of land space as the density per km2 keep increasing with subsequent overcrowding and overburdening of the existing resources resulting in shortage of the resources.
\nThere is shortage of jobs as more people migrate to the urban centres in search of jobs to sustain their daily living without the government creating new job opportunities. This is more so as a result of some industries that shut down because of the downturn in the economy. There is also a shortage of the required job opportunities to adequately engage majority of the populace in the urban centres. Hence, there are a lot of people, especially the youths, without any jobs who find it difficult to make ends meet on a daily basis. Consequently, the rate of criminal activities within the urban centres is very high. The unending influx of youths and jobless able-bodied people into urban centres is posing a serious threat to the already precarious state of the country’s security challenges like kidnapping, robbery, ritual killings and so on.
\nThe cost of living in urban centres is relatively high, hence, making it difficult for the low income groups to maintain a decent standard of living. This can be gleaned from the huge number of people demanding for scarce or inadequate facilities such as houses, transportation facilities, foods, drugs and clothings. Needless to mention that the stiff competition for limited resources and facilities would engender contestatious living among the people.
\nAnother negative characterization of urban life is pollution. Air and water pollution may be caused mainly by either the release of greenhouse gases (GHG) and effluents from the industries into the environment or produced by exhaust emissions from vehicles used for transportation. It can also be caused by poor indoor air quality due to overcrowding and lack of proper waste disposal. Continuous release of these GHG, over time, has resulted in global warming. This is a critical issue which is affecting the world as a whole and every nation including Nigeria still face challenges in terms of finding a long-lasting solution to the predicament.
\nMigrants who cannot afford the high rent of housing in the urban centres tend to develop make-shift houses in and around the cities where there are vacant and unclaimed parcels of land that are farther away from the core urban centres, thereby resulting in slums. A slum is defined by the UN Habitat as “a heavily populated urban area characterized by substandard housing and squalor” [9]. It further describes it as “the poorest quality housing, and the most unsanitary conditions; a refuge for marginal activities including crime, ‘vice’ and drug abuse; a likely source for many epidemics that ravaged urban areas; a place apart from all that was decent and wholesome” [9].
\nThese slums and shanties are not built in accordance with building regulations. None of the rules and regulations is considered from land use to permit and approval, to materials used to structural considerations. They are built with any material within the reach of the people, such as scrap wood, cardboards, bamboo, zinc roofing sheets, rammed earth, tarpaulin, to mention a few. Some are even occupied without basic features such as windows, doors or roofs; most of which are being substituted with used fabrics or polythene materials to protect them, however minimally, from the adverse weather conditions. These areas attract the urban poor, and thereby, they are usually overpopulated, thereby resulting in poor indoor air quality, poor ventilation and day lighting as well as lack of proper waste disposal/management, lack of potable water; without proper furniture leading to indecent and substandard way of living and inaccessibility to good public health care services and so on. All these lead to severe illnesses and sicknesses which could be acute or chronic and might lead to reduced life-span and increased morbidities and mortalities. Most urban centres are not spared from these unlawful settlements. Slum areas in Lagos include: Makoko, Ajegunle, Bariga, Mushin and so on. Likewise slum settlements in Abuja include: Nyanya, Lokogoma, Garki village, Gishiri, Lugbe to mention a few. Figures 3 and 4 are samples of slums in Lagos.
\nMakoko, a slum with part of its community built on stilts along the Lagos lagoon. Picture credit: CNN [10].
A slum in central Lagos. Picture credit: BBC [11].
With increased and ongoing influx of people into the cities, there is a consequent increase in household waste. Most landfills, which are not located within the urban core but in and around the squatter settlements, are completely full and overflowing to the surrounding areas with open decomposition of wastes. This leads to the outbreaks of diseases, festered by insects and rodents like houseflies, rats, and cockroaches, which in turn take a negative toll on the swamp dwellers. In addition, there are inadequate sewage facilities in areas of unchecked rapid growth of slums and squatter settlements which are unlawfully developed by the urban poor who cannot afford the exorbitant rent within the cities. The result is a huge crisis of untreated sewage, which carelessly drains into the open environment and leaves behind either decomposed or dried-up elements causing eventual water and environmental pollution as it drains into the nearby streams, rivers and oceans.
\nAs evident from above, urbanization in the country results in poor health condition of many urban dwellers. This is a resultant effect of mainly slums and indecent settlements that are usually precipitated by urbanization. Urbanization also brings about environmental degradation. This is any change or disturbance that is harmful to the environment [12]. It is the destruction of the natural habitat or ecosystem through the depletion of natural resources such as air, water and soil. In comparison, Mason, states that urbanization “can, and in some cases does, contribute effectively to overall national economic growth and development”. Examples are China and Korea where urbanization is accompanied by income growth [13]. The UNFPA asserts that “no country in the industrial age has ever achieved significant economic growth without urbanization” [13]. It further argues that the urban centres have the capabilities of finding solutions to the challenges they face, claiming that “the potential benefits of urbanization far outweigh the disadvantages: The challenge is in learning how to exploit its possibilities” [14]. Thereby establishing a fact that urbanization in itself is not really bad, and if properly managed, it will result in socio-economic and environmental development of the nation.
\nProblems of urbanization can simply be solved, among others, as follows:
Provision of sustainable affordable housing i.e. housing that is affordable in a sustainable way, with effective waste management for ensuring environmentally friendly cities. Such steps will also include effective planning of development activities.
Provision of essential infrastructural facilities and services for the urban residents such as potable water, constant electricity, access to education and public health services, good transportation and communication network and technology for the urban residents will make life in the urban centres easy for the inhabitants. Investing substantially in infrastructural facilities can help to eliminate urban slum and squatter settlements thereby creating decent living and working environments.
Provision of job opportunities, both skilled and unskilled labour, for the urban residents will boost their standard of living, self-reliance and subsequent self -dignity. This can help in reducing the rate of crime in the urban areas.
Embarking on an effective land policy will go a long way in reducing slum and squatter settlements. For instance, effective land use plan, zoning regulation and a reduction in land cost will promote easy accessibility to land by the low income urban dwellers.
Out of all the negative impacts of urbanization, lack of adequate housing, which has resulted in discriminate development of slums and squatter settlements affects one of the three fundamental human rights and basic needs of life; that is, shelter [15]. As mentioned in 1 of 4.3 above, many of the problems relating to urbanization can be solved through effective planning of housing in the country. This is because most of the other disadvantages are relative to the development of slums and squatter settlements. The main aim of this chapter is to show that if this particular need of affordable housing, which is shelter, is met in the urban centres; it would go a long way in addressing most of the other negative impacts of urbanization in Nigeria.
\nHousing, also referred to as shelter, is one of the three fundamental human rights, and it forms an essential part of human settlement with great impact on the health, welfare, productivity and quality of life of man [15, 16]. Coker et al. citing Fanning (1967), Macpherson (1979) and Riaz (1987) stated that “researchers have shown that housing can affect mental and physical health, both positively and negatively [17]; hence its provision for the people should be one of the primary concerns of every nation. The provision of adequate affordable housing for Nigerians will initiate a notable growth as it will provide shelter for the people and also, bring about lots of infrastructural development, thereby meeting some of the social needs of the populace. It will also generate an increase in the activities of the housing and building industry, thereby creating more job opportunities for both skilled and unskilled labour through the construction industry, resulting in increased productivity and a subsequent rise in the country’s GDP; thus improving its economic development. A well planned housing system will also promote environmental sustainability because the provision of adequate housing will go hand in hand with the provision of improved indoor air quality, potable water, good sanitary, sewage and waste management, improved and sustainable transportation network and consequent reduction in environmental pollution. This achievement would, overall, be a driver for the nation towards development in a sustainable way; indicating that housing has significant effects on all the three domains of sustainable development.
\nTo a nation such as Nigeria, housing is a very important and critical component in its social and economic framework [18] because it accommodates the smallest unit of its society, referred to as the family. Hence, housing is an indicator of a family’s standard of living or societal class [19]. Consequently, housing also signifies the living standards of a society [20]. However, the difference between the demand for housing and its supply in Nigeria and most developing countries is overly incongruent. With the high cost of building materials as a result of the cost of production and importation as adduced by Fasakin and Ogunseni [21], it may still be a very challenging situation for the government to solve the affordable housing problems, except something is done to cut down on cost [22, 23].
\nEvidently, there is an increasing rise in the housing deficit which now stands between, 17 and 20 million housing units at a growth rate of 900,000 units per annum, due to the fast population growth and urbanization which will require at least 1000,000 housing units and approximately US$363 billion to curtail [24]. The Nigerian population is at 195,875,237 of which the urban population is 48.9% [5]. Over 90% of the country’s population are of the no/low-income groups [25]. The present Gross Domestic Product (GDP) equals US$405.10 billion presently nonetheless; the Per Capita Income is very low at US$2457.80 as lastly recorded in 2016 [26] which indicates clearly the fact that there is an unequal distribution of wealth as people’s income is not commensurate with the economic growth.
\nThe current cost of renting a standard 3-bedroom apartment is US$5000 per annum and the average purchase price of US$100,000 [24]. This simply implies, taking into account the present US$2457.80 Per Capita Income in Nigeria, that housing is not affordable as affordable housing should cost 30% or less of a household’s income [27]. This has left the population struggling with poverty, inequality and indecent form of housing that is not sustainable. The fast rate in population growth and urbanization infer an exponential rate of housing deficit, with 61.7% of the urban population being slum dwellers [24].
\nThe reasons for the high demand for housing and its limited supply in Nigeria can be traced to the following factors namely: (1) high cost and lack of easy access to land [28, 29]; (2) high cost of building materials [30]; (3) high cost and long processing duration of property registration [28]; (4) inability of earlier policies and programmes to adequately resolve the backlog of housing problems [30, 31, 32]; (5) Absence of proper monitoring and evaluation of public housing policies and programs [31, 32]; (6) Absence of proper monitoring and evaluation of public housing policies and programs [31, 32]; (7) Absence of proper monitoring and evaluation of public housing policies and programs [31, 32]; low capacity of public housing agencies [32]; (8) poor government administration, inadequate funding, insufficient infrastructural amenities, as well as inadequate housing finance [33].
\nConsequently, the need for an urgent solution of adequate and affordable housing supply to the population is imperative, if the problem of shortage of housing it to be solved. Further review of pertinent literature reveals that there had been several attempts made by both the Public and Private Sectors of the country to address the fast increasing housing demands, which have recorded very minimal success [29, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. There have been, and currently are, government strategies and efforts in form of housing policies and programmes to address the aforementioned problems/challenges. Nonetheless, these have also attained very little success. Housing policy is the act put up by a government for the purpose of managing and controlling homelessness and improving the quality of the housing stock of dwellings within its domain [39]. It could also mean government intervention in the housing provision with respect to the regulation of housing finance markets to influence activity in the national economy or restrictions on the amount paid in subsidy to low income households to encourage available incentives to work. The Housing Policies in Nigeria have evolved from the pre-colonial era to date.
\nBefore the colonial period in Nigeria (1928–1960), most communities engaged in a communal system of housing delivery. This is a situation whereby peer groups turn out collectively to assist any member to build his/her house on appointed days and the builder provides sumptuous meals for all in return [40]. This is alternated between all members, thereby enabling housing delivery.
\nThe evolution of housing policies dates as far back as 1928 by the government of Lagos Colony during the Bubonic Plague that lasted till 1929 [32] when the Lagos State Development Board (LEDB) was established. This era is tagged the Colonial Period between 1928 and 1960. It was basically for addressing the problem of housing at a national scale [37] and was targeted on the provision of quarters for expatriates and some selected indigenous civil servants [41] such as: the Armed Forces, Police, Marine and Railway workers in Lagos and other regional headquarters like Enugu, Ibadan and Kaduna. This approach to African Urban Housing by the Colonial Masters aimed at redeveloping ‘decaying core areas’, renewal of slums or squatter settlements and the construction of rental public housing estates. The Nigeria Building Society (NBS), which is similar to a mortgage institute with the intention of giving both workers in public and private sectors opportunities to have their own houses, was founded after the World War II.
\nNigeria was divided into three regions within this era and all the regions established housing corporations in 1964 respectively with a vision of developing housing estates. These are meant to provide mortgage for people so they can build their own houses and pay back over a long duration of time. However, only the capital cities of these regions were impacted by this programme. An example is Bodija Estate developed by the defunct Western Regional government [42]. The Federal Government made a direct effort on the housing sector by establishing the National Council on Housing in 1971. The NBS was renamed by the Federal Government to Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN) in 1973. This was when it took over its ownership through the indigenous Act with the aim to expand mortgage lending services to all segments of the population. It started with a capital base of 20 million Naira and this was increased in 1979 to one 150 million Naira. FMBN functions as a secondary mortgage market and hence, primary mortgage market was made opened to the private sector giving rise to another problem of how to fund the Primary Mortgage Institutions (PMI). Consequently, every Nigerian earning up to 3000 Naira per month were mandated to contribute 2.5% of monthly salary to the National housing Fund (NHF), [43] with the benefit of borrowing money from the fund through the PMIs after 6 months for the purpose of housing. This also not productive as majority of the workers could neither access the fund to get loans nor recover their saved money.
\nBefore the colonial period in Nigeria (1928–1960), most communities engaged in a communal system of housing delivery. This is a situation whereby peer groups turn out collectively to assist any member to build his/her house on appointed days and the builder provides sumptuous meals for all in return [40]. This is alternated between all members, enabling housing delivery.
\nThe evolution of housing policies dates back as far as 1928 by the government of Lagos Colony during the Bubonic Plague that lasted till 1929 [32] when the Lagos State Development Board (LEDB) was established. This era is tagged the Colonial Period between 1928 and 1960. It was basically for addressing the problem of housing at a national scale [37] and was targeted on the provision of quarters for expatriates and some selected indigenous civil servants [41] such as: the Armed Forces, Police, Marine and Railway workers in Lagos and other regional headquarters like Enugu, Ibadan and Kaduna. This approach to African Urban Housing by the Colonial Masters aimed at redeveloping ‘decaying core areas’, renewal of slums or squatter settlements and the construction of rental public housing estates. The Nigeria Building Society (NBS), which is similar to a mortgage institute with the intention of giving both workers in public and private sectors opportunities to have their own houses, was founded after the World War II.
\nNigeria was divided into three regions in within this era and all the regions established housing corporations in 1964 respectively with a vision of developing housing estates. These are meant to provide mortgage for people so they can build their own houses and pay back over a long duration of time. However, only the capital cities of these regions were impacted by this programme. An example is Bodija Estate developed by the defunct Western Regional government [42]. The Federal Government made a direct effort on the housing sector by establishing the National Council on Housing in 1971. The NBS was renamed by the Federal Government to Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN) in 1973. This was when it took over its ownership through the indigenous Act with the aim to expand mortgage lending services to all segments of the population. It started with a capital base of 20 million Naira and this was increased in 1979 to one 150 million Naira. FMBN functions as a secondary mortgage market and hence, primary mortgage market was made opened to the private sector giving rise to another problem of how to fund the Primary Mortgage Institutions (PMI). Consequently, every Nigerian earning up to 3000 Naira per month were mandated to contribute 2.5% of monthly salary to the National housing Fund (NHF), [43] with the benefit of borrowing money from the fund through the PMIs after 6 months for the purpose of housing. This also not productive as majority of the workers could neither access the fund to get loans nor recover their saved money.
\nThe Federal Housing Authority was inaugurated in 1973 through the promulgation of Decree No. 40 of 1973 and begins formal operation in 1976. Its main objectives were: (1) to make proposals to the Federal Government on Housing and ancillary infrastructural services; and (2) to implement those approved by the government. During this period, the first low cost housing estate, Festac Town was developed in preparation for the first all African Festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC) slated for 1977. Another government housing scheme was the Ipaja Town followed by the Amuwo Odofin Phase 1 estate and more low cost housing estates in 11 state capitals. This era marked the first major Federal Government effort in providing affordable housing to the citizens on long term mortgage repayment arrangement. The FMBN had plans to deliver 202,000 housing units but because it was solely dependent on government, it could not pass the test of time; out of the 202,000 houses planned to be provided, only 28,500 units were realized which amount to just 14.1% [32]. The National Housing Programme was later instituted to provide 350 medium and high income housing units by the FHA during the 1981–1985 post colonial era. This is in addition to the national low income housing programme known as Shagari Low Cost Housing in each of the then 19 states of the federation [44]. In addition, the NHP targeted 200,000 units of which just 47,500 (23.75%) units were constructed [45]. Afterwards, a period known as “A Period of Consolidation” between 1986 and 1993 was ushered in. Emphasis was shifted from founding more new housing schemes to the completion of the many suspended and abandoned housing projects that resulted from the past unsuccessful housing schemes [43].
\nThe military government established a different housing policy tagged “Housing for all by the year 2000”. This was meant to provide decent and affordable housing for all before the end of the year 2000. It estimated 700,000 housing units per year with 60% built in urban areas by providing housing loans to individuals and corporate bodies through the FMBN and other mortgage institutions which collect, manage and administer contributions to the National Housing Fund (NHF). This era marked a huge success in the provision of housing for the population. Although the housing provided cannot be termed affordable as the housing cost more than 30% of their income.
\nAs development increases in the urban centres, the rate of urbanization also increases; meaning more people moving in from the rural areas in search of better lives. Subsequently, there is more deficit in housing as the available housing supply could not meet its demands. In 1991, the National Housing Policy was promulgated in order to propose possible solutions to housing problems. A pool of funds was established for this purpose called the NHF in 1992. The NHF was based on realistic standards affordable to the owners to encourage every household to own its own house; through the provision of more credit and fund. Thus, giving priority to housing programmes intended for the low income group [36]. The number of housing units to be delivered by NHF in 1994 was 121,000 but only 5% were achieved. This implies that the NHF was ineffective as it could not meet its target and the success rate was too low. Meanwhile the movement of people from the rural to the urban cities kept increasing, thereby aggravating the problems that come with urbanization.
\nBetween 2000 and 2004 the Federal Government established the Federal Ministry of Housing and Urban Development. During this period, the federal government only concerned itself with the provision of basic infrastructures leaving the provision of affordable housing delivery to the private sector [32] which seems to be the main solution to shortage of housing in the country [45] as most of the government efforts have failed. In 2004, the Federal Government declared its willingness to adequately fund researches that have to do with the use of local materials in the housing sector with a target of 40,000 housing units of at least 1000 houses per state before the year 2007 [32, 46] with the assistance of the Nigeria Building and Road Research Institute, NBRRI. Another version of the National Housing Policy, NHP 2012 was adopted with an improvement on the NHP 1999. The main purpose of the NHP 2012 is to ensure not just the provision of housing units but also ushers in the need for affordability in housing by the year 2020 [25]. The generally acceptable definition of Affordable Housing is ‘housing which cost no more than 30% of the income at each income level’ [27, 47, 48]. It is the capability of households to meet their housing needs and at the same time maintaining the capability of meeting other basic costs of living. Aribigbola 2011 citing MacLennan and Williams 1990 defined housing affordability as the ability to assure some “given or different standards of housing at a price or rent which does not impose an unreasonable burden on household incomes, assessed by the ratio of a chosen definition of household costs to a selected measure of household income in a given period” [48] and usually defined by the income of the population served [49]. Approximately 50% or more of household income spent on housing is described as “severe burdens” [47].Another good thing that comes with housing provision is the infrastructural development. Such as: good transport communication network, potable water, planned waste management systems, job opportunities especially within the construction and property sector. With all these in place, good health, reduced pollution and environmental degradation will also be achieved.
\nTable 2 shows the take home of the no-income, low-income and medium low-income groups in Nigeria. It also illustrates the level of poverty and the severe burdens most households are subjected to in order to meet with its housing needs as well as the reason why there would be a continuous increase in the development of slums and unlawful settlements within the urban areas of the country if nothing is done to improve the delivery of housing. Thus, it is clear that these three income groups are under a ‘severe burden’ and incapable of meeting their housing needs as the cost of renting a 3-bedroom apartment in ranges from US$5000 per annum and the average purchase price of US$100,000 [24]. This has resulted in about 68 million i.e. about 36% of the population remaining homeless [50] or living in houses that are not affordable.
\nS/N | \nIncome group | \nAnnual income with respect to NMW* | \nActual annual income ( | \nActual annual income (US$) | \n30% of annual income for housing (US$) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \nNo income | \nLess or equal to 25% of | \n0–54,000 | \nLess or = 150 | \n0 – Approx. 45 | \n
2. | \nLow income | \nMore than no-income but not more than NMW | \n54,001–216,000 | \n150–600 | \nApprox. 45.3 - Approx. 180 | \n
3. | \nLower-medium | \nMore than NMW but does not exceed 4 × NMW | \n216,001–864,000 | \n600–2400 | \nApprox. 180 – Approx. 720 | \n
An overview of the take home of the no-income, low-income and medium low-income groups in Nigeria (source: adapted from NHP 2012 [25]).
NMW – Annual National Minimum Wage in Nigeria = 216,000.
However, this policy, so far like the others, has been rendered ineffective. This is because of the persistent increase in the cost of building materials, stringent loan conditions from mortgage banks, deficiency of proper housing finance arrangement, high cost and lack of easy access to land, high cost and long processing duration of property registration amidst other problems [51]. All these imply that the policy has not been properly implemented, and until something is done to ensure the implementation of these policies, as brilliant as they might be, Nigeria will not be able to enjoy the positive impacts of urbanization.
\nFurthermore in 2014, the Federal Government inaugurated an independent company, Nigeria Mortgage Refinance Company (NMRC), with the intent of finally increasing the opportunities for Nigerians to ‘own homes at affordable prices’ through mass housing [52]. Mass housing is housing that is funded publicly and given out to low-income families. This is the latest programme of the Federal Government on housing towards the provision of affordable housing for the Nigerian population. There is a rapid emergence of housing development by the NMRC but majority are neither affordable nor accessible to the no-income/low-income/lower-medium families because of their exorbitant prices. Nonetheless, the urban rich, who could afford more than needed for their families purchase many of these housing units and in turn sublet them to the lower income group at high cost and those who cannot afford the rent have no other option but to go to the slums or remain homeless. This takes us back to the cycle of the negative impacts of urbanization within the country. It is evidently clear that it would end up like the others if nothing is done to ensure fairness in its implementation. For urbanization to deliver a socio-economic and environmental development in Nigeria, then the government and all stakeholders must see the provision of affordable housing as a very critical and crucial subject of concern and make it their utmost priority.
\nNigeria, like other developing countries, is faced with increased rate of urbanization, with different urban centres emerging as a result. There are both positive and negative impacts of urbanization on the nation. Apparently, the negative ones outweigh those that are positive, and the former affect the urban populace than the positive variables. Nonetheless, most of them are hinged on the housing deficit which keeps increasing because it is not affordable to majority of the population. Hence, it has been identified that is pertinent to ensure the availability of affordable housing by giving a better commitment and attention to the delivery of housing facilities that are affordable and accessible to Nigerians, especially those within the no-income, low-income and lower medium-income groups. It has also been established that infrastructural development accompanies housing delivery; signifying the resolution of most of the negative impacts of urbanization. The authors believe that Nigeria does not need any new policy because the NHP 2012 is a brilliant instrument, with potentials for achieving success in housing delivery. We agree that the proposed outcomes of this policy are achievable, if effectively and fairly implemented by the successive governments of Nigeria. The chapter proposed that achieving affordable housing will raise home ownership to about 50%, improve the country’s Human Development Index (HDI) Ranking and contribute over 20% to its GDP. It will also expand the construction sector and the mortgage market. Furthermore, poverty will be significantly reduced in households; and at the same time as well as increase the productivity and quality of lives of the citizenry. Consequently, there will be a remarkable impact on the society and communities as it stimulates economic growth and job creation. The benefits of urbanization can then be enjoyed, not only by the urban rich but the poor as well. Hence, the NHP 2012 should be critically explored towards the delivery of affordable housing, as it will certainly and subsequently go a long way in solving urbanization issues in Nigeria.
\nThere is no conflict of interest concerning this chapter.
Soils with an excessive amount of soluble salts or exchangeable sodium in the root zone are termed salt-affected soils. Owing to limited rainfall and high evapotranspiration demand, coupled with poor soil and water management practices, salt stress has become a serious threat to crop production in arid and semi-arid regions of the world [1, 2]. Although the general perception is that salinization only occurs in arid and semi-arid regions, no climatic zone is free from this problem [3]. More than 800 million hectares of land worldwide is affected by either salinity (397 million hectares) or sodicity (434 million hectares) [4, 5, 6].
Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important cereal crop after rice and wheat and is grown under a wide spectrum of soil and climatic conditions. It is an important C4 plant from the Poaceae family and is moderately sensitive to salt stress; nonetheless, wide intraspecific genetic variation for salt resistance exists in maize. According to the biphasic model of salinity-induced growth reduction [7], osmotic stress during the first phase and ion toxicity during the second phase are responsible for reduced growth in cereals, specifically wheat. The same model for salinity-induced growth reduction in maize was confirmed by [8], but ion toxicity and the associated growth reduction can occur, to a small extent, in the first phase in maize. The sensitivity of maize to salinity is associated with higher accretion of Na+ in the leaves. A saline level of more than 0.25 M NaCl damages maize plants and may stunt growth and cause severe wilting [9].
Sodium is the main toxic ion interfering with potassium uptake and thus disturbs stomatal undulations causing severe water loss and necrosis in maize; a reduction in potassium content in the leaf symplast of maize has been reported under saline conditions. High osmotic stress due to low external water potential, ion toxicity by sodium and/or chloride, and imbalanced nutrition due to interference with the uptake and transport of essential nutrients are three potential effects of salt stress on crop growth. The latter may not have an immediate effect because plants have some nutrient reserves which can be remobilized [10, 11]. Osmotic stress is linked to ion accumulation in the soil solution, whereas nutritional imbalance and specific ion effects are connected to ion buildup, mainly sodium and chloride, to toxic levels which interferes with the availability of other essential elements such as calcium and potassium [12]. Toxic levels of sodium in plant organs damage biological membranes and subcellular organelles, reducing growth and causing abnormal development before plant mortality [13, 14]. Several physiological processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, starch metabolism, and nitrogen fixation are also affected under saline conditions, leading to losses in crop productivity.
Moreover, salt stress also induces oxidative damage to plant cells with overproduction of reactive oxygen species in maize [15]. The ability of plants to survive and produce harvestable yields under salt stress is called salt resistance. Salt resistance is a complex phenomenon, and plants manifest a variety of adaptations at subcellular, cellular, and organ levels such as stomatal regulation, ion homeostasis, hormonal balance, activation of the antioxidant defense system, osmotic adjustment, and maintenance of tissue water status to grow successfully under salinity [16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. An integrated approach encompassing conventional breeding together with marker-assisted selection, biotechnology, exogenous use of growth regulators/osmoprotectants, and nutrient management may be needed for successful maize cultivation on salt-affected soils [21, 22, 23].
Salt stress affects the growth and development of maize; however, the response of plants varies with the degree of stress and crop growth stage. Short-term exposure of maize plants to salt stress influences plant growth, owing to osmotic stress in the first phase of salt stress without reaching toxic sodium concentrations.
Seed germination is the most critical stage in a seedling establishment which determines the success of crop production on salt-affected soils. Generally, salt stress during germination delays the start, reduces the rate, and enhances the dispersion of germination events [23, 24, 25]. It is important to note that germination and early seedling growth are more sensitive to salinity than later developmental stages [26]. Salt stress influences seed germination primarily by sufficiently lowering the osmotic potential of the soil solution to retard water absorption by seeds, by causing sodium and/or chloride toxicity to the embryo or by altering protein synthesis. Hyper-osmotic stress and toxic effects of sodium and chloride ions on germinating seeds in a saline environment may delay or inhibit germination [25, 27]. However, in maize, it is sodium toxicity and not chloride toxicity that is the major problem in the second phase of salt stress.
Although the root is the first organ exposed to salt stress, shoots are more sensitive to salt stress than roots [7]. Salinity promotes the suberization of the hypodermis and endodermis, and the Casparian strip develops closer to the root tip than in non-saline roots [28]. Salinity reduces shoot growth by suppressing leaf initiation and expansion, as well as internode growth, and by accelerating leaf abscission [29, 30, 31]. Salt stress rapidly reduces the leaf growth rate due to a reduction in the number of elongating cells and/or the rate of cell elongation. As a salt-sensitive crop, shoot growth in maize is strongly inhibited in the first phase of salt stress [32, 33, 34].
Salt stress may also displace calcium from plasma membrane binding sites, thus causing membrane leakiness as a primary cellular response to salt stress [35]. However, it is interesting to note that if salt stress influences the integrity of the plasma membrane, then the cell wall acidification process, which is partially dependent on adenosine triphosphate-driven outward pumping of protons across the intact plasma membrane, may also be affected [36]. Acidification of the apoplast is the major requirement for increasing cell wall extensibility, which controls extension growth [37]. In this regard, cell wall proteins such as expansions are of great interest. Expansions, wall-loosening enzymes located within the apoplast of the elongation zone of leaves [38], regulate cell elongation. The assimilate supply to growing tissues is not limited during the first phase of salt stress [39], suggesting that photosynthesis is not responsible for any growth reduction in maize during this phase. Salinity-induced growth reduction in maize is caused by suppressed leaf initiation, expansion, and internode growth and by increased leaf abscission. In maize, suppression of expansion growth by salinity is principally caused by reduced apoplastic acidification and activity of wall-loosening enzymes.
In salt-affected soils, excessive buildup of sodium and chloride ions in the rhizosphere leads to severe nutritional imbalances in maize due to strong interference of these ions with other essential mineral elements such as potassium, calcium, nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, manganese, copper, and zinc [40, 41]. Generally, salt stress reduces the uptake of nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron [42]. For maize, sodium is the principal toxic ion interfering with potassium uptake and transport, leading to disturbance in stomatal modulations and causing water loss and necrosis. Competition between potassium and sodium under salt stress severely reduces potassium content in both leaves and roots of maize [19] and reduces potassium content by up to 64% in the symplast of expanding tissues under salt stress. Moreover, salt stress not only reduces potassium uptake rates but, to a greater extent, disturbs potassium translocation from root to shoot tissues in maize, leading to lower potassium shoot contents than root contents. Reduced leaf expansion with reduced calcium contents in expanding shoot tissues in maize is due to reduced transport in a saline environment; some calcium is required to uphold cell membrane integrity for proper functioning [43]. The high values for sodium/potassium, sodium/calcium, and sodium/magnesium ratios in the total plant and apoplast and symplast of expanding tissues in maize confirm that impaired transport of potassium, calcium, and magnesium by sodium might upset plant metabolism, leading to reduced growth under saline conditions. Besides potassium and calcium, nitrogen uptake and translocation are severely inhibited under salt stress, leading to reduced nitrogen contents in different maize tissues [41, 44]. Higher buildup of sodium and chloride concentrations in different plant tissues is the principal reason for nutritional imbalances. Accumulation of high sodium and chloride ions, due to salinity, in the rhizosphere decreases plant uptake of nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron and thus causes severe nutritional imbalances in maize.
Carbon fixation in maize is very sensitive to salt stress [45]. Reduced stomatal conductance, impaired activities of carbon fixation enzymes, reduced photosynthetic pigments, and destruction of photosynthetic apparatus are among the key factors limiting carbon fixation capacity of maize plants under salt stress [31, 46]. Total photosynthesis decreases due to inhibited leaf development and expansion as well as early leaf abscission, and as salt stress is prolonged, ion toxicity, membrane disruption, and complete stomatal closure become the prime factors responsible for photosynthetic inhibition. Salt stress affects stomatal conductance immediately due to perturbed water relations and shortly afterward due to the local synthesis of abscisic acid. Gas exchange analysis confirmed that reductions in net photosynthetic rates are connected with the limited availability of intercellular carbon dioxide due to reduced rates of transpiration and stomatal conductance in salt-treated maize plants.
Salt stress in maize, during the reproductive phase, decreases grain weight and number, resulting in substantial reductions in grain yield [47, 48]. Salinity-induced reductions in photosynthesis and sink limitations are the major causes of poor kernel settings and reduced grain number [49]. Salinity-induced reductions in assimilate translocation, from source to developing grains, are also responsible for poor grain setting and filling and ultimately grain yield [50].
Maize plants undergo a variety of adaptations at subcellular, cellular, and organ levels to grow successfully under salinity. Salt tolerance is a complex phenomenon; maize plants manifest several adaptations such as stomatal regulation, changes in hormonal balance, activation of the antioxidant defense system, osmotic adjustment, maintenance of tissue water contents, and various mechanisms of toxic ion exclusion under salt stress.
Osmotic adjustment or osmoregulation is the key adaptation of plants at the cellular level to minimize the effects of salinity-induced drought stress, especially during the first phase of salt stress. Osmoregulation is primarily met with the accretion of organic and inorganic solutes under salinity and/or drought to lower water potential without lessening actual water contents [51]. Soluble sugars, sugar alcohols, proline, glycine betaine, organic acids, and trehalose are among the major osmolytes. Proline and glycine betaine are the major osmolytes responsible for osmoregulation in maize under salt stress. Physiologically, the exclusion of excessive salt is an adaptive trait of plants to acquire salt resistance. Accumulation of sodium in excessive amounts is highly toxic for maize growth due to its strong interference with potassium, leading to disturbed stomatal regulation. Therefore, the exclusion of excessive sodium or its compartmentation into vacuoles through tonoplast hydrogen/sodium antiporters driven by the proton gradient is an important adaptive strategy for plants under salt stress. Through this strategy, maize plants not only evade the cytosol from the toxic effects of excessive sodium and gain tissue resistance for sodium but also significantly lower the osmotic potential which contributes to osmoregulation. In root cells of maize, shifting sodium into vacuoles through the tonoplast appears to be a viable strategy to minimize sodium transport to developing shoots [16]. Absorption of excessive sodium from xylem by parenchyma cells in the xylem to limit sodium translocation to shoots is also reported in maize [52]. However, salt tolerance in maize is not linked to sodium content in shoots, but rather the ability of cells to shift excessive sodium in vacuoles to maintain low sodium concentrations in the cytoplasm seemed more important [53].
Salt tolerance in maize is also linked with higher potassium and lower sodium and chloride fluxes and cytoplasmic contents and their ability to rule out sodium and chloride from leaves to sustain a higher potassium/sodium ratio. Moreover, shifting sodium and chloride in the stems and/or leaf sheaths to lessen the buildup of toxic ions in more sensitive leaf blades is another adaptive strategy of maize plants in a saline environment [54].
Salinity-induced osmotic effects alter general metabolic processes and enzymatic activities, leading to over-generation of reactive oxygen species which causes oxidative stress in maize. Overproduction of reactive oxygen species is highly toxic and damages proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and deoxyribonucleic acid. Photosystems I and II in chloroplasts and complex I, ubiquinone, and complex III of the electron transport chain in mitochondria are key sites for reactive oxygen species synthesis [55]. Plants have multigenic responses against salt stress that involve both osmotic and ionic homeostasis, as well as cell detoxification, which is primarily met by antioxidant defense mechanisms [56, 57]. The better leaf growth, leaf water content, and membrane stability index observed in salt-tolerant maize were associated with higher antioxidant activity with greater accumulation of polyphenols under saline conditions [19]. Catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and guaiacol peroxidase enzymes in combination with superoxide dismutase have the greatest hydrogen peroxide scavenger activity in both leaves and roots of salt-stressed maize plants [15].
Plant growth and development is governed by the synthesis of hormones with small amounts sufficient to regulate plant growth. Auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, and abscisic acid are the most important phytohormones; among them, the first three are growth promoters, while the other two are growth retardants. Maize plants under salt stress make certain modifications to the synthesis of these growth substances. In a saline environment, root tips are the first to sense impaired water availability due to the osmotic effect, sending a signal to shoots to adjust whole plant metabolism [18]. Higher abscisic acid levels in salt-tolerant maize help to minimize water loss and may even regulate growth promotion. Leaf growth sensitivity decreases as abscisic acid levels increase under such conditions.
Maize plants facing salt stress undergo a variety of adaptive mechanisms at the molecular level to counteract the damaging effects of salinity stress. Of these, accumulation or inhibition of several proteins and the upregulation and downregulation of many gene transcripts are important [58]. Expression of antioxidant defense genes is triggered in maize to protect the cells from salinity-induced oxidative damage. In photosynthesizing shoots of maize, catalase activity increased due to the induction of mRNA accumulation in response to higher reactive oxygen species levels under salt stress. Likewise, the buildup of superoxide dismutase transcripts increased without any notable change in total superoxide dismutase enzymatic activity or isozyme profiles [9]. The alteration/adaptation in cell wall chemical composition may also contribute to salt resistance in maize, as a low accumulation of non-methylated uronic acid in leaf cell walls may contribute to salt resistance in the first phase of salt stress [59].
Remediation of salt affected areas with low cost, efficient, and adaptable methods is a challenging goal for scientists [11]. Different practices are used to improve growth and tolerance of crops in salt-affected areas.
For saline soil management, many chemicals and organic amendments are applied to combat the adverse effect of salinity in maize crops. Chemicals mostly applied to soil for maize crops include silicon, salicylic acid, potassium, phosphorus, gypsum, biochar, and boron, and many organic amendments are also applied. Silicon application and an increase in their availability reduce the changes caused by salinity in plants by altering the plant and soil factors [60]. Silicon application increases the photosynthetic apparatus efficiency of maize plants under salinity stress by improving and maintaining the continuity of the electron transport chain [61] Silicon is recognized as a resistance improver against salinity in the maize crop. Silicon application lessened both oxidative and osmotic stress in maize crops by improving the defensive machinery performance under salinity stress. Silicon also improved water-use efficiency. Silicon-treated maize plants showed better survival under saline conditions, and their biochemical and photosynthetic apparatus was better working than silicon non-treated plants [62]. The application of brackish water is also reported in maize plants to reclaim salt effects. Brackish water irrigation boosted K uptake and retarded Na uptake in some maize genotypes. Selection of tolerant genotypes for growing in salt affected areas would be a better reclamation method [63]. Boron is an important element for many biochemical and physiological reactions of plants [64]. Boron application alleviated the negative effect of sodium chloride-induced salinity in sweet corn. Boron improved potassium concentration and maintained membrane integrity [65]. Combined application of silicon and boron also proved effective in alleviating the salinity effect on maize crops. They both in combination enhanced maize plant physical and biological parameters and also increased total soluble sugars and proline content [66]. In saline conditions, sodium concentration increased that caused an imbalance in sodium to potassium ratio. Application of potassium maintained or lowered this ratio and alleviates the deleterious effects of sodium. Potassium application to maize crop grown in saline soil decreased sodium percentage and enhanced potassium percentage in maize grain and stalk as well as distinctly boosted the maize salt tolerance by decreasing the sodium to potassium ratio. The most significant effect was observed at higher potassium fertilizer application rates [67].
Combined application of potassium sulfate and diammonium phosphate on maize in saline soil for maize (Zea mays L.) showed that maize responded well to potassium and phosphorus fertilization. Salinity effects were amended by potassium and phosphorus fertilizer application and improved yield. The influence of potassium was great on grain yield compared to phosphorus. K affected yield-related parameters, and phosphorus showed substantial effects on sodium, potassium, magnesium, and sodium to potassium ratio. Potassium application decreased sodium concentration and ultimately decreased sodium to potassium ratio [68]. Foliar application of potassium chloride, boron, and thidiazuron was done on maize crops in saline stress. Thidiazuron and potassium application improved the physiological parameters of the crop. Thidiazuron proved more efficient in alleviating the adverse effects of salinity than potassium and boron. Potassium content, chlorophyll content, total carbohydrate protein percentage, and total soluble salt percentage were substantially improved by foliar application of thidiazuron; however, transpiration rate and proline content were decreased [69].
Flue gas desulfurization gypsum (FGDG) application can reduce sodium toxicity by replacing it with calcium at the cation exchange site and results in increased clay particle flocculation near the surface of the soil [70]. Furfural residue is rich in organic carbon and can increase the SOC content, reduce soil bulk density, and lower soil pH [71]. Flue gas desulfurization gypsum and furfural residue combined application reduced the yield gap of maize and recovered soil properties. Flue gas desulfurization gypsum and furfural residue increased the organic carbon (SOC) and calcium contents and decreased the upper soil layer pH and sodium content. Mineral nutrients like phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, and calcium accumulations in maize increased significantly, and sodium accumulation decreased in the flue gas desulfurization gypsum and furfural residue treatment compared with control [72].
Hydrogen peroxide as foliar spray effectively curtailed the effects induced by salinity because of increased antioxidant enzyme activities: ascorbate peroxidase, guaiacol peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and the most responsive catalase [73].
Salicylic acid is an imperative secondary metabolite that is used in salinity management as it induces resistance against salinity in plants by regulating physiological processes through signaling. Maize plants exposed to sodium chloride induced salinity, reduced plant dry biomass, increased membrane permeability, and reduced nutrient availability, while those plants supplied with exogenous salicylic acid increased dry biomass, decreased membrane permeability and lipid peroxidation, and increased iron, zinc, copper, and manganese contents. Salicylic acid application further improved nutrient uptake by maize plants except for zinc in the saline condition. Salicylic acid reduced chloride and sodium accumulation considerably [22].
In another study, a maize crop dry weight and leaf area decreased by 51.43 and 53.18%, respectively, when irrigated with saline water, while salicylic acid foliar application at the rate of 200 ppm remedied the harmful salinity effects and improved whole plant dry weights and leaf area and improved proline and amino acid contents such as lysine, arginine, glutamic acid, and serine accumulation under saline stress conditions [74].
Organic amendments proved as an effective strategy for saline soil amelioration. Organic amendments improve soil chemical and physical properties. Solid waste, vermicompost, and cow dung influence soil salinity and alleviate its adverse effects on the growth of plants by changing the physico-chemical properties of soil. Solid waste, vermicompost, and cow dung reduced soil electrical conductivity as well as improved shoot and root length [75].
Compost and vermicompost application increased maize plant dry matter and plant height and reduced soil pH and electrical conductivity. Extractable phosphorus, total nitrogen, soil organic carbon, cation exchange capacity, and potassium, calcium, and magnesium concentrations were improved by the application of vermicompost and compost. Sodium concentration decreased because of its replacement by calcium ions and then leaching. This results in a decrease in soil salinity levels [76].
Biochar also improved physico-chemical properties of soil, including soil cation exchange capacity, pH, water holding capacity, surface area, and soil structure under abiotic stresses [77]. Biochar application improved potassium availability uptake and decreased sodium availability and uptake under salt stress [78, 79]. Biochar made by cow manure is a rich source of many plant nutrients which significantly increased nutrient uptake in maize crop. Cow manure biochar application improved net WUE, field-saturated hydraulic conductivity, and significantly increased Oslen-P, total N, pH, total C, exchangeable cations, and cation exchange capacity [80]. Compost manure and crop straw biochar and pyroligneous solution can improve maize productivity and combat salinity stress. Compost manure and crop straw biochar both increased nutrient statuses and decreased salinity by reducing chloride and sodium accumulation and increasing potassium concentration. Manures also increased plant performance, maize grain yield, and leaf area index, with a decrease in electrolyte leakage. Leaf bioactivity associated with osmotic stress was improved significantly [81]. It is concluded that exogenously applied organic matters such as plant residues, manure, a by-product of municipal or farming activities, etc. are an efficient and feasible way to mitigate the effects of salinity on plant growth and soil health. Organic amendments at optimal rates (>50 tons per hectare) can improve soil chemical like cation exchangeable capacity, pH, etc. and physical properties like permeability, soil structure, water holding capacity, etc., approving maize plant growth [82].
Hormones govern many processes inside plants that regulate plant growth: auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins are growth promoter hormones, while abscisic acid and ethylene are the growth retardants. Under salt stress conditions, growth-promoting hormones are applied exogenously to overcome the adverse effects of salinity on maize plant growth and development.
Cytokinin is a plant growth regulator that plays a vital role in cytokinin-dependent processes that regulate plant adaptation, growth, and development processes [83]. It is reported in recent research that cytokinins of developing maize seeds may come from both transport and local synthesis. Cytokinin fertilization at higher rates suggested parental control on plant metabolism [84]. Cytokinin and auxin application alone or in combination with maize plants reduced the deleterious effect of salinity on plant growth and increased physical parameters like stem diameter, plant height, ear length, row number per ear, and biological yield like grain yield and number at different concentrations. A single application of cytokinin played a role in improving kernel number per row, while a single application of auxin increased grain weight and better harvest index in saline condition [85].
Kinetin is one form of cytokinins and is known to boost the crop plant growth grown under saline conditions [86]. Kinetin and indoleacetic acid (auxin) applications as foliar spray overcame to adversative effects of sodium chloride induced stress on physiological parameters at the earlier stages of maize plants at a variable extent. Foliar combined application of both kinetin and indoleacetic acid substantially increased K+ and Ca2+ concentration and reduced those of Na+. Their application also increased essential inorganic nutrients and maintained membrane permeability and in result thwarted some salt-persuaded adversative effects [19]. Exogenous combined application of inorganic nutrients and indoleacetic acid improved phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium contents and decreased sodium concentration in maize plants grown in saline condition. Improvement in growth by indoleacetic acid and organic nutrient application is linked with an improved concentration of photosynthetic pigment, more leaf sodium to potassium ratio, rehabilitated activities of some antioxidant enzymes such as CAT and SOD, and reduced membrane permeability under salinity. Exogenous foliar application of indoleacetic acid additionally improved the CAT and SOD activities in salt-stressed maize plants, while increasing effect was not detected in activities of POX or PPO [87]. Previously, foliar application of indoleacetic acid enhanced the essential nutrient uptake along with a noteworthy decrease in sodium uptake that resulted in better growth and yield of maize plant under salt stress condition [88].
The combined application of sodium chloride-induced salinity and gibberellic acid on maize plant growth and nutritional status was studied. Salinity decreased chlorophyll content, total dry matter, and relative water content, whereas increased enzyme activities peroxidase polyphenol oxidase superoxide dismutase and proline accumulation. Gibberellic acid overcame the deleterious effects of sodium chloride-induced salinity stress on the above physiological characteristics to a variable extent. Gibberellic acid decreased enzyme activities and increased physiological parameters and macro- and micronutrient concentration. Foliar application of gibberellic acid counteracted some salinity adverse effects by the buildup of proline concentration which sustained membrane permeability [89]. A comparison between gibberellic acid and salicylic acid under the saline condition in maize plant showed that gibberellic acid was more efficient in resisting salinity effect on leaves than salicylic acid. Gibberellic acid also improved the nutrient status of plant except for copper and manganese [90].
Soil has an enormous microbial versatility that belongs to different groups of fungi, Archaea, and bacteria [91]. Microorganisms are used in agricultural fields, and they can lessen many abiotic stresses [92, 93]. Usually, bacteria are used for promoting plant growth and alleviating many abiotic stresses. These bacteria are usually termed as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). PGPR is rhizospheric or endophytic bacteria that colonize the root either interiorly or exteriorly. Bacterial genera such as Achromobacter, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Burkholderia, Enterobacter, Methylobacterium, Microbacterium, Paenibacillus, Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, Variovorax, etc. provide tolerance to host plants against abiotic stresses [94, 95]. Stress tolerance is boosted by microbes by various mechanisms and production of indoleacetic acid, gibberellins, and many other elements. These elements improved the root growth and enhance nutrient content, thus improving the plant health under salt stress [95]. Bacteria that help plants in alleviating salt stress are called halotolerant or salt-tolerant or salt-loving bacteria. These halotolerant microbes have vital importance in the field of agriculture. In arid and semi-arid regions, they improve crop productivity [91]. Specific PGPR inoculations help to boost salt stress tolerance in plants by induced systemic tolerance (IST). Induced systemic tolerance changes many biochemical and functional characteristics. The PGPR improves salinity tolerance by either direct mechanism (indoleacetic acid (IAA) synthesis phosphate solubilization, nitrogen fixation, etc.) or indirect mechanism (exopolysaccharides (EPS), antioxidant defense, osmotic balance, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)) and improves plant growth [96] (Table 1).
PGPR strain | Mechanism | Improvement in crop | References |
---|---|---|---|
Pseudomonas syringae, P. fluorescens | ACC deaminase | Improved plant growth | [97, 98, 99, 100] |
Pseudomonas spp. | EPS | [101] | |
P. aeruginosa | IAA production, ACC deaminase, phosphate solubilization, and biofilm formation | [102] | |
Pseudomonas spp. | Osmotic regulation | [103] | |
Proteus penneri | EPS | [101] | |
Pantoea agglomerans, Staphylococcus sciuri, Arthrobacter pascens | Upregulation of aquaporin genes | [94, 104, 105] | |
Gracilibacillus, Staphylococcus, Virgibacillus, Salinicoccus, Zhihengliuella, Brevibacterium, Oceanobacillus, Exiguobacterium, Arthrobacter, and Halomonas spp. | Antioxidant enzyme phosphate solubilization, osmotic regulation and antioxidant enzymes IAA production, ACC deaminase, phosphate solubilization, and biofilm formation | [102] | |
Serratia liquefaciens KM4 | Facilitated gas exchange, osmoregulation, antioxidant enzymes, nutrient uptake, and downregulation of ABA biosynthesis | [106] | |
Enterobacter aerogenes, Enterobacter spp. | ACC deaminase | Reduced ethylene production | [97, 98] |
Azospirillum brasilense | Ion toxicity, NOR, and nitrogenase activity | Improved chlorophyll content Improved nutrition | [100] |
A. faecalis, A. brasilense strains Ab-V5 and Ab-V6 | EPS, antioxidant enzymes, and proline contents | [101, 107] | |
Azotobacter chroococcum | Improved K/Na ratio, polyphenol content, and proline concentration | [108] | |
B. amyloliquefaciens | Soluble sugar content and antioxidant enzymes | Improved plant growth and photosynthetic rate | [109] |
Bacillus spp. | Phosphate solubilization, osmotic regulation, and antioxidant enzymes | [104] | |
Bacillus aquimaris | Chlorophyll content, osmotic regulation, and antioxidant enzymes | [110] | |
Bacillus | IAA production, ACC deaminase, phosphate solubilization, and biofilm formation | [102] | |
Geobacillus sp. | Increased proline content | [111] | |
Rhizobium | Osmotic regulation | Increased chlorophyll and photosynthesis rate | [103] |
Rhizobium tropici strain CIAT 899 | Antioxidant enzymes and proline contents | [107] |
PGPR and their mechanisms for salt tolerance.
Osmotic adjustment is the maintenance of cell turgidity by increasing compatible solutes, vital for regular cell functioning. Compatible solutes decrease osmotic stress caused by salts [55]. PGPR produce and secrete compatible osmolytes to mitigate the harmful effect of salts and help plants improve their growth. Proline is the main osmolytes in reducing osmotic stress and produced by the hydrolysis of proteins in the plant. Under salt stress, glycine betaine and proline are usually produced and accumulated in plants. There is a dearth of organic osmolytes production such as trehalose in plants [112]. Under salinity, proline plays a multifunctional role like regulating cytosolic acidity, protein maintenance, ROS scavenging decrease in peroxidation of lipids, etc. PGPR inoculation in plants showed improved proline levels under salt stress. Arthrobacter pascens inoculation produces more proline in corn plants [104]. Pseudomonas spp. improved growth of maize plant by production of proline that helps in osmotic adjustments [103]. Azotobacter chroococcum improved nutrition [108], Geobacillus sp. increased photosynthetic rate [111], and Rhizobium spp., Rhizobium tropici strain CIAT, A. brasilense strains Ab-V5 and Ab-V6 [107], and A. faecalis [101] enhanced chlorophyll content and photosynthetic rate by increased accumulation of proline and osmotic adjustments in maize plants.
Plants normally produce reactive oxygen species during cellular metabolism in less quantity. However, under salinity stress conditions, increased production of reactive oxygen species occurs, which alters redox state, denatures membrane bound proteins, reduces fluidity of membrane, causes DNA damage, destroys enzymatic actions, changes formation of protein, and destroys cell homeostasis, which can damage the cell and finally cause cell death [113]. PGPR excrete many enzymatic antioxidants (ascorbate peroxidase (APX), catalase (CAT) dehydro-ascorbate reductase, glutathione reductase (GR), superoxide dismutase (SOD), non-enzymatic antioxidants, ascorbate, tocopherols, glutathione, and cysteine) [114]. Staphylococcus sciuri induction induces more antioxidant production in maize plants that helped in the degradation of reactive oxygen species and improved plant growth [94]. A. faecalis [101], Serratia liquefaciens KM4 [106], and Bacillus sp. [104] are reported to increased maize growth, nutrition, and photosynthetic rate by producing more antioxidative enzymes. Azotobacter vinelandii, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Pseudomonas putida restored lipids and antioxidant enzymes peroxidase and catalase to semi-normal levels under saline condition [115].
PGPR produce exopolysaccharides (EPS), which are either homo- or heteropolysaccharides. These EPS bind to the cell surface like a capsule and make a biofilm [116]. Different microbes produce different types of polysaccharides, but some common monomers comprise glucose, galactose, and mannose. Uronic acids (fucose and rhamnose), amino sugars (N-acetylamino sugars), neutral sugars (galacturonic), pyruvate ketals, and ester-linked substituents are EPS constituents [117]. PGPR produce EPS and form hydrophilic biofilms under saline conditions and improve plant growth significantly [118]. EPS producing PGPR makes rhizosheaths around roots that help fight against salt stress by attaching Na+ ions with EPS. Attachment of Na+ ions to EPS decreases the toxicity of Na+ and makes it inaccessible for plants [119]. P. aeruginosa improved plant growth because of more EPS content production. Pseudomonas spp. produced more EPS and increased root growth and nutrition in maize plants [101]. Many other PGPRs such as Gracilibacillus, Salinicoccus, Staphylococcus, Zhihengliuella, Bacillus, Brevibacterium, Virgibacillus, Oceanobacillus, Arthrobacter, Exiguobacterium, and Halomonas spp. are reported to improve maize growth by the formation of biofilm [102]. B. amyloliquefaciens improved plant growth by the accumulation of soluble sugar content [109].
Rhizobacteria that produce lipophilic fluids with high vapor pressures are called volatile organic compounds. They communicate by cell signaling between organisms to improve growth. The VOCs are species-specific and promote the biosynthesis of glycine betaine and choline. These osmolytes improve plant tolerance against osmotic stress. A high level of VOCs in plants is a sign of activated self-protective response against salt stress [120].
The VOCs produced by Bacillus subtilis triggered the gene of HKT1/K+ transporter and inhibited sodium ion influx through roots and eliminated salt stress. It also encouraged the glycine betaine synthesis that decreased the uptake of Na+ through roots and transported more nutrients toward shoot than during salt stress [120].
Poor crop stands because of low seed germination rate in salt-affected areas are a challenge for the lucrative production of a crop. Maize seed germination rate is affected by toxic effects of chloride and sodium ions [25]. Seed priming helps to recover maize germination rate in salt-affected areas. Seed priming is a pre-sowing treatment either with water or any chemical of interest that boosts seed performance with a quicker and harmonized germination under sub-optimal and optimal conditions [121]. This is a physiological treatment under salinity in which seeds are moderately hydrated and radicle does not emerge [122]. Priming treatments include hydropriming with water, osmopriming with salts or osmolytes, and hormonal priming with hormones. Partial hydration is enough for the physiological process occurrence that is typical of the first stages of imbibition (pre-germinative metabolism) [123]. Under saline conditions germination rate improved by soaking maize seeds in water priming with water under salinity-enhanced maize seedling vigor index, germination index, final germination percentage, and seedling length, showing its potential as a seed invigoration technique under salinity for better maize performance [23].
Priming of seeds with salt solution enables them to break their dormancy and escape from disease-causing agents and competent seeds of weeds [124]. Priming seeds with NaCl significantly enhanced maize plant growth. Fresh and dry weights of roots and shoots were increased. Under salt stress, seed priming lessened the inhibitory effect of salt stress on maize seedling growth [125]. Priming with NaCl also increased plant height and yield and induced early emergence, more germination rate, more shoot length and dry weight, and more leaf chlorophyll, area, and number [126]. Seed halopriming with calcium chloride, sodium chloride, and potassium chloride was effective in mitigating the salt adversities on maize seed germination. Calcium chloride priming was most operative. Calcium, sodium, and potassium concentrations improved significantly in all parts of germinating seed. Most of the calcium was reserved in mesocotyl and seed, thus limiting its transference to radicles and plumules.
Seed priming with NaCl and CaCl2 had significant effects on germination rate, earlier growth, number of branches, cobs number, and yield. This increase in growth traits likely helps to reduce the competition for water and nutrients with associated improvements in seed yield. Sodium chloride seed priming increased shoot length, and calcium chloride seed priming increased root length. In vertisol soil, seed priming is preferred for improved crop yield and stand establishment, while in lithosol soils, seed priming is preferred for well germination of seed and increased cob number [124].
Other priming agents include thiamin, pyridoxine, and ascorbic acid, which not only improved the germination of pretreated seed but also improved seed growth and yield under salinity. Enhanced maize seedling biomass under saline conditions is reported by hormonal priming with chloro-ethyl-phosphonic acid, an ethylene releaser [127]. Salicylic acid application under saline conditions at the rate of 0.1 mM enhanced growth and development of plants [128]. Priming with 28-homo-brassinolide improved the antioxidative enzyme activities and lowered lipid peroxidation and increased concentration of protein, thus signifying that 28-homo-brassinolide can lessen oxidative stress in salt-affected maize plants [129]. Priming with hydrogen peroxide improved activities of catalase ascorbate peroxidase and guaiacol peroxidase and increased seed germination percentage, under salt stress condition in maize plants [73].
Seeds of maize hybrid FH-810 were soaked in water (hydropriming), calcium chloride (2.2%, osmopriming), Moringa leaf extracts (MLE 3.3%, osmopriming), and salicylic acid (SA, 50 mg L−1, hormonal priming), each for 18 h. Plant length, biological yield, 1000-grain weight, and harvest index were improved by seed priming. However, osmopriming with MLE and hormonal priming were more effective in these parameters. Hormonal priming at seedling stage increased the leaf chlorophyll contents and decreased the electrical conductivity followed by osmopriming with CaCl2. Hormonal or osmopriming with MLE improved the yield performance at early planting primarily by increased crop growth, net assimilation rates, a leaf area index, and maintenance of green leaf area at maturity. Hormonal priming with SA and osmopriming with MLE were the most economical methods in enlightening early planted spring maize productivity by early seedling growth stimulation at low temperature [130].
Maize is a polymorphic plant because of its cross-pollinated nature and genetic variations for salinity resistance. It is commonly a moderately salt-sensitive crop, but some salinity tolerant genotypes also exist. Tolerance in these genotypes occurs because of higher potassium and lower chloride and sodium cytoplasmic contents. Mass screening of maize genotypes is done to identify and isolate salt-tolerant germplasm for breeding purposes and to develop better performing genotypes. Screenings for salt tolerance or resistance are usually done at the early growth stages of maize plants [21]. Many plant characteristics are identified as salt-tolerant traits. Acidification of cell wall because of better H+-ATPase activity in the plasma membrane in salt-tolerant maize hybrid (SR 03) appeared as an important tolerance/resistance trait. Turgor, cell wall acidification, and osmotic adjustment, in newly established salt-resistant maize hybrids, are a salt-resistant trait [48]. More abscisic acid accumulation in salt-resistant genotypes plays a role in osmotic adjustments under saline condition [39]. Salt-tolerant genotypes usually had lower sodium accumulation and more potassium to sodium and calcium to sodium ratio. Sensitive genotypes had more sodium accumulation, suggesting that accumulation of sodium in shoots is a reliable screening parameter for salt tolerance/resistance in maize at early stages of growth [21]. However, higher sodium accumulation was observed in salt-tolerant Giza 2 roots than in salt-sensitive Trihybrid 321. Many other traits of maize plants such as growth rate, seedling weight, and photochemical efficiency should also be used for screening and breeding of salt-tolerant crops [131].
A proteomic approach is also used to recognize salt resistance-associated proteins in maize in breeding programs for markers to develop salt-tolerant/salt-resistant genotypes. The use of physiological and molecular markers to recognize salt-resistant genotypes of maize is a reliable approach [132]. Sodium and soluble organic solute accumulations in roots were associated with maize salt resistance. More soluble organic solute and sodium accumulation in maize salt-tolerant genotype roots (BR5033) than in salt-sensitive genotype (BR5011) was reported. Hence, soluble organic solute and sodium accumulations in roots can be used as physiological markers to screen and isolate salt-resistant maize genotypes [15]. More total separated proteins (>80%) in severe saline stress in maize genotypes and 45 and 31% increase in root and shoot proteins under mild salinity showed differential regulation of proteins [58].
Transferring one or more salt-resistant genes from one species to another to insert required quantitative and qualitative characteristics is stated as the transgenic approach. This practice is much quicker than conventional breeding practices, and it warrants wanted genes induction without the addition of excess genes from the donor organism [133]. Improvements and advances in biotechnology and functional genomics have made it feasible to identify and distinguish salinity-tolerant genes that help to develop salt-resistant plants by the use of transgenic tactics (27).
By using the Flippase recombination enzyme P/Flippase recognition target-based marker elimination system to eliminate the als gene [134]. Marker-free salt-tolerant transgenic maize is produced to improve the bio-safety of the environment. Under the saline condition, transgenic maize seed inserted with AtNHX1 gene and wild-type maize were planted. Wild-type maize plants withered, and upper leaves shriveled, whereas 56% of transgenic plants survived salinity up to the six-leaf stage. More grain yield, 1000-grain weight, was recorded in transgenic plants under saline condition than those under non-saline conditions. More potassium accumulation in root and shoot was observed in transgenic plants [134].
The sodium vacuolar compartmentation or cytoplasmic exclusion into the apoplasts through tonoplast sodium/hydrogen antiporters or plasma membrane is an adaptive mechanism to alleviate the adverse excess sodium effects in maize plants [26]. Under saline conditions, transgenic maize plants were better than wild-type plants because of higher hydrogen/sodium exchange rates in vesicles of tonoplast. Also, the efficient sodium vacuolar compartmentalization in cells of transgenic maize plants improved salt tolerance as well as the productivity of grain [134].
Salt stress boosted ZmNHX transcription which caused an increase in antiporters (sodium/hydrogen) of tonoplast in salt-resistant maize leaves by impounding sodium into vacuoles of the leaf to reduce sodium ion effects on the cytoplasm [135]. Transgenic maize plants with inserted sodium/hydrogen antiporter (OsNHX1) gene from Oryza sativa gave better yield than wild-type maize at 200 mM NaCl. Lower osmotic potential coupled with higher potassium and sodium contents in transgenic maize leaves was recorded under saline condition compared to wild maize [136].
The complementary DNA (cDNA) micro-array is an operative method for expression profile studies to assess differences and similarities under salinity stress in diverse patterns of expression. A cDNA macro-array with 190 maize expressed sequence tags persuaded by water stress was applied to cold stress, abscisic acid, and high salinity conditions. High salinity stress upregulated 41 sequence tags in roots and 36 sequence tags in leaves [137]. Quan et al. (2004) [138] introduced the betA gene encoding choline dehydrogenase (AtNHX1), which was inserted in maize line DH4866 from Escherichia coli to develop transgenic maize. This gene improved the biosynthesis of glycine betaine from choline under salinity and increased salt resistance in maize plants [139]. In conclusion, maize genotypes with externally inserted genes of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase and vacuolar sodium/hydrogen antiporter, etc. performed better under salinity stress and can be used for inducing salt resistance in maize plants.
Salinity stress poses a serious threat to maize. It affects the plant physiology and reduces growth and yield. Salinity affects the maize crop at different growth stages. Seed germination is the stage that is affected adversely by salinity, and germination rate is reduced. At vegetative and reproductive stages, salinity affects photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, stomatal and hormonal regulation, and water relation processes. These processes affect the growth pattern of plants and cause reduction in growth and yield. To mitigate the effects of salinity on maize crop, different management practices are used. Management by agronomic means, such as application of nutrients (through the application of biochar, compost, gypsum and nutrient fertilizers, etc.), either exogenously or as seed priming with different chemical and hormones, exogenous application of hormones, and growing of resistant cultivars, proved effective in reducing the adverse effects of salinity on maize crops. PGPR application mitigates the salinity stress by the production of different hormones, exopolypolysaccharides, or volatile organic compounds. Different genetic and molecular techniques are also used for inducing salinity tolerance by the insertion of tolerant genes in maize plants. For the future, more work on improved genetic and molecular techniques is needed.
Shazia Iqbal is thankful to Saline Agriculture Research Center, Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, for the award of doctoral fellowships. Shazia Iqbal is giving special thanks to Dr. Sajid Hussain and Dr. Muhammad Ashraf for motivating him to write this chapter and providing guidance. The authors are also highly thankful to Muhammad Qayyaum, for contributing in the chapter write-up and providing them supporting material.
There is no conflict of interest among all the authors. All the authors revised and approved the chapter.
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