\r\n\tthe dental (malocclusions) and facial deformities (midfacial deformities), dental anomalies (number and shape anomalies), orthodontic treatment applications before lip and palate surgery for early normalization of infant cleft defect (latham appliance, nazoalveolar molding, Hotz appliance), primary alveolar grafting, gingivoperiosteoplasty, secondary alveolar grafting (timing, goals, evaluation of success) primary lip and palate surgical approach, orthodontic treatment (during mixed dentition, adolescence period), distraction osteogenesis, orthognathic surgery, language and speech disorders and treatment, velofarengeal insufficiency and treatment and secondary aesthetic surgical procedures.
",isbn:"978-1-83880-014-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-013-0",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1ea8bb8925e069ffefa169997727a53f",bookSignature:"Prof. Ayşe Gülşen and Dr. Elcin Esenlik",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7973.jpg",keywords:"Cleft Lip, Cleft Palate, Presurgical Orthodontic Treatment, Orthodontics, Surgery, Speech, Orthognatic Surgery, Aesthetics",numberOfDownloads:117,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 14th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 4th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 3rd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 21st 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. She worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. She work as Cranoiofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"291188",title:"Dr.",name:"Elcin",middleName:null,surname:"Esenlik",slug:"elcin-esenlik",fullName:"Elcin Esenlik",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Elçin Esenlik graduated in 1997 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did postgraduate program in the same university. She worked at Süleyman Demirel University in Isparta Turkey. She worked as a research assistant in New York University Plastic Surgery Wyss Department Craniofacial Orthodontics Program/NYC/USA and since 2007, she has been working as the chairman at the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Akdeniz University.",institutionString:"Akdeniz University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"70155",title:"Optimizing Outcomes in Cleft Surgery",slug:"optimizing-outcomes-in-cleft-surgery",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"68449",title:"Dental Development and Anomalies in Cleft Lip and Palate",slug:"dental-development-and-anomalies-in-cleft-lip-and-palate",totalDownloads:84,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"69846",title:"Orthognathic Surgery in Cleft Lip and Palate Patients",slug:"orthognathic-surgery-in-cleft-lip-and-palate-patients",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177731",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Pemac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177731/images/4726_n.jpg",email:"dajana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"René Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"rene-mauricio-barria",fullName:"René Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3794",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5332a71035a274ecbf1c308df633a8ed",slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",bookSignature:"Felix T.S. Chan and Manoj Kumar Tiwari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"252210",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Chan",slug:"felix-chan",fullName:"Felix Chan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"44933",title:"Holographic Sensors for Detection of Components in Water Solutions",doi:"10.5772/53564",slug:"holographic-sensors-for-detection-of-components-in-water-solutions",body:'
1. Introduction
Currently optical sensors for measuring considerable concentrations of specific components of solutions and their parameters attract persistent worldwide interest. One of the advantages of these sensors is that they permit one to determine simply concentrations both instrumentally and visually. These sensors include holographic sensors [1, 2] and photonic crystal sensors [3, 4]. They can be used for measuring the concentration of protons (pH) in water solutions, heavy metal ions [5-8], glucose in blood [7-12] and other biological liquids [13,14], bacterium spores [15,16], metabolites [17] bacterial growth [18,19], humidity and temperature responses [20,21].
Holographic sensors are quite promising because they are highly sensitive, are easy to operate, provide high enough accuracy and can be used for various applications. At present time they belong to sensors with a moderate sensitivity (10-5 -10 -1 mol•L-1), depending on the type of the analyzed component, the design and the composition of the sensor matrix. Such a sensitivity range is required, for example, in measurements of the glucose concentration in blood and other biological liquids. Holographic sensors represent a polymer hydrogel matrix grafted onto the surface of glass or transparent polymer films and doped with nanosize solid grains, so that their concentration changes periodically in space and the mean distance between the grains is much smaller than the visible-light wavelength.
Holographic diffraction gratings [22] are generated within photosensitive polymer-silver halide photographic emulsions upon exposure to a single collimated laser beam, which passes through the polymer film and then reflected back by a plane mirror. Interference between the mutually coherent incident and reflected beams generates a standing wave pattern which, after development and fixing, creates a three-dimensional pattern comprising fringes of ultrafine metallic silver grains embedded within the thickness (from 5 to 50 μm) of the polymer film. Under white light illumination, the holographic fringes reflect light of a specific narrow band of wavelengths, hence acting as a sensitive wavelength filter and recreating a monochromatic image of the original mirror used in their construction. Constructive interference between partial reflections from each plane produces a distinctive spectral peak with a wavelength governed by the Bragg equation (mλmax\n\t\t\t\t= 2n d sinθ). Any physical, chemical, or biological reaction that that alters the spacing (d) between fringes or the refractive index (n) will generate visible changes in the wavelength (color) or intensity (brightness) of the reflection hologram. The intensity of holographic diffraction is also determined by the number of planes and the modulation depth of the refractive index. Swelling of the holographic film increases the distance between fringes producing a red-shift in the wavelength of reflected light, whereas film shrinkage results in a blue-shifted light. In essence, the holographic gratings act as a reporter, whose optical properties are dictated by the physical characteristics of the holographic film. Reflection holograms have proven to be advantageous in many aspects, including the simplicity bestowed by the holographic element providing both the analyte-sensitive matrix and the optical transducer. Special components embedded into the hydrogel matrix to cause a change in the swelling (or shrinkage) of hydrogel under the action of component solution to be analyzed. This leads to the change in the period of the structure and, therefore, in the reflected radiation wavelength. By measuring this wavelength with the help of an optofibre spectrometer or observing it visually, we can estimate the concentration of tested components (metal ions, glucose, acidity, etc.).
The main goal at this stage is the development of sensors for measuring the glucose concentration in blood - low-cost and simple to handle of test plates. In addition, we assume the possibility of the development of sensors to control the conditions of transport and storage of vaccines, serums, ferment preparations, food, and also simple test systems in homes. In our opinion, the study of mechanisms of changes in the holographic response will make it possible to perform the precise adjustment of a sensor for particular operating conditions.
2. Results and discussion
Photosensitized nanocrystals of AgBr were synthesized in the hydrogel matrix by diffusion method [2]. By exposing photographic emulsions in water or acetic acid (1%) solution to radiation from a He-Ne (632.8 nm, 15 mW) laser in the counter propagating-beam scheme, we obtained silver nanograins [23-28] with the period of layers providing the location of reflected radiation peaks in the operating region of the spectrometer. A number of matrices of different compositions and designs were investigated. Hydrogel matrices were consisted of three-dimensional polymer of acrylamide (AA), N, N’-methylene-bis-acrylamide (bis) as crosslinking agent and other comonomers: N-ε-methacryloyl-lysin (Lys), 2-(dimethylamino)-ethylmethacrylate (DMA), acrylic acid (AC), N-acryloyl-2-glucosamine (GA), N-acryloyl-3-aminophenylboronic acid (AMPh). Matrices based on copolymers of acrylamide with ionogen comonomers are sensitive to the solution acidity and ionic strength, while matrices based on aminophenylboronic acid are sensitive to glucose.
Figure 1 shows the typical reflection spectrum of the sensitive layer of a sensor. The reflection spectrum for the ideal layer should be described by the function (sin x/x)2. In our case, the spectrum is well described by a Gaussian. This is explained apparently the imperfect arrangement of silver grain layers.
Figure 1.
The experimental reflection spectrum of the sensor ( 1) and its approximation by a Gaussian of width 8 nm ( 2 ). (Sensor: AA-AMPh-bis – 87-12-1 mol.%,)
Note that metal silver grains are located in the hologram in a very complex environment containing molecules and ions of solution, elements of the hydrogel matrix. When the solution composition is changed, the composition of ions in solution and the structure of the matrix itself are redistributed. As a result, the sensor response, i.e. the mean wavelength of reflected radiation changes, and the radiation intensity also changes due to the change in the diffraction efficiency of the hologram.
One of the most important properties of holographic sensors is reversibility of the response when changing composition of the solution (Fig.2). Figure 2a shows the time dependence of the reflection line shape during the transfer of the sensor based on aminophenylboronic acid from the citrate buffer to distilled water and back. This change is reversible. The complex shape of the line is explained by the inhomogeneous distribution of the distance between silver layers over depth. One can see that the diffraction efficiency decreases during layer swelling. Figure 2b presents the time dependences of the reflection line wavelength for aminophenylboronic acid sensor after the replacement of the alkali solution in a cell by the acid solution and vice versa (transition processes). The wavelength was measured during swelling and transition to the stationary state. In this case, the swelling changes monotonically and approximately exponentially. Figure 3 shows the time dependence of the reflection wavelength in the transition process after the replacement of the citrate buffer by distilled water. The initial state of this sensor was not stationary. The time dependences of the reflection wavelength and intensity are nonmonotonic, their signs being opposite. The nonmonotonic behavior can be explained by the complicated character of variations ionic composition of solution in the emulsion. It can be assumed that at the initial moment there is rapid diffusion of hydrogen ions from the hydrogel matrix. Then the dissociation of aminophenylboronic acid take place and negative charge appear on polymer chains. This leads to an increase in the period of the holographic grating and is accompanied by an increase in the wavelength of reflected light. The larger anion citrate diffuses slowly, and the system is gradually coming to an equilibrium state, which is accompanied by compression of the hydrogel matrix and decreasing the wavelength of the reflected light. The observed change in intensity, appear to reflect the change in the microenvironment of silver particles. This effect requires additional studies.
Figure 2.
a) Change in the reflection line shape during the transfer of a sensor from the citrate buffer to distilled water (on the right) and back (on the left). The time step is 0.5 s. The arrows indicate the direction of the line shift in time for each group of the lines. b) Refection line wavelengths during the transfer of a sensor based on aminophenylboronic acid from alkali to acid [shrinkage, (1)] and vice versa [swelling, (2)]. (Sensor: AA-AMPh-bis – 87-12-1 mol.%,)
Figure 3.
The reflection wavelength line (■) and intensity (▲) during the transfer of the sensor based on aminophenylboronic acid from the citrate buffer to distilled water (b).
Figure 4a shows the response of the sensor located in the NaOH solution titrated hydrochloric acid with (the solution acidity was measured with a usual pH-meter). During titration, the reflected radiation wavelength and diffraction efficiency change drastically at the point where the solution acidity drastically changes. In this case, the diffraction efficiency changed almost by an order of magnitude. This means that the change in the ionic composition is accompanied not only by the swelling of hydrogel matrix of the sensor but also by a strong change in the scattering properties of a holographic layer. This fact was unknown before our studies. Figure 4b presents the dependences from Fig. 4a reduced to the same scale by using the following algorithm. For some dependence F (m), we determined the maximum (A) and minimum (B) of its values for the boundary values of its argument m (in Fig. 4, the volume of the added acid solution): A= max(F (0), F (mmax)), B= min(F (0), F (mmax)). Then, the dependence F (m) was transformed to the dependence f (m) as f (m)=\n\t\t\t\t(F (m) - B)(A - B). One can see from Fig. 4b that all the features of the titration curve are reflected in optical characteristics, i.e. they can be used to control the acidity. Note that the sign of a change in the diffraction efficiency during a change in the amount of added acid is opposite to the sign in the wavelength change.
Figure 4.
Dependences of the acidity (measured in solution) (♦-a,●-b), the wavelength (■), and intensity (▲) of radiation reflected from a sensor in the NaOH (0,01 N) solution during its titration with hydrochloric acid (0,1 N) (a) and also the so-called reduced dependences (see the text) (b). (Sensor: AA-AC-bis – 96-3-1 mol.%,)
Figure 5 shows the responses of sensors with acrylic acid to metal ions in a broad concentration range from 10-7 to 10-1M. They can be divided into three groups: 1- Pb, Co+ ions; 2- other bivalent metal ions; 3- alkali metal ions. The sensor is most sensitive to Pb2+ and Co3+ ions (10-5 M). Among the bivalent metal ions (Mg, Sr, Mn, Pb), the presence of Pb2+ ions in the solution led to the most noticeable contraction of the hydrogel and changes (542 nm, 37% contraction). The reflection maximum was shifted down by 320 nm with respect to that of the distilled water. The sensor sensitivity to Mg2+, Sr2+and Mn2+ ions was two orders of magnitude lower. Note that, unlike other metal ions, the sensor\'s response to the alkali metal ions (Na+, K+) is changed - the first wavelength increases (swelling of hydrogel occurs) and then decreases (shrinkage).
The sensor with acrylic acid can be used for determining the presence of metal ions in water (Fig.6). Figure 6a presents the reflection spectra of the sensor located in different solutions. Stationary response for distilled water is λ=735 nm while response for tap water - λ=615.2 nm which we explain by the presence of metal ions in tap water. The maxima of the reflection lines in water after filtration by household filters are located at 676 nm (Barrier filter) and 711.7 nm (Aquafor filter). The response of sensor on tap water is closer to position for mineral water containing calcium salt at concentration 3.10-3 M (λ=585.4 nm) and to lead salt (5.10-3 M) in distilled water (λ=542 nm). Sensors can be used repeatedly after regeneration, by washing them, for example, in sodium citrate and then in distilled water. A sensor response rapidly passes to the IR region (λ=860 nm) and then slowly passes to the stationary state (735 nm). Figure 6b shows the typical kinetics of the response maximum.
Figure 5.
The sensors response (λmax ) on different metal ions (1-7) in water solution. (Sensor: AA-AC-bis – 96-3-1 mol.%,)
Fig.7 shows the responses of sensors for matrices of two types (with AC or AMPh) for different concentrations of ethanol in water. Figure 7a presents the reflection lines of a sensor based on acrylic acid for different concentrations of ethanol in water, while Fig. 7b shows the dependences of the reflection line wavelength on the ethanol concentration for this sensor and a sensor based on aminophenylboronic acid. The wavelength of reflected light at zero EtOH concentration depends both on the properties of the sensor matrix and on the recording conditions of holograms and can be changed in a controllable way within some range. The concentration dependence in the ethanol solution differs from that upon titration because in this case the decrease in swelling is probably caused by simple dehydration of solution inside the matrix, without ionization.
The spectral region of the sensor’s response can be modified in various ways: changing the composition of the solution in the recording hologram (swelling of the hydrogel matrix to change), using a laser at a different wavelength (e.g., instead of the He-Ne laser - semiconductor lasers with an appropriate photosensitizer) or changing the composition of the hydrogel matrix. This can be performed by varying the matrix design and selecting proper co-monomers and their concentrations. Figure 8 shows the dependences of the reflection line wavelength on the solution acidity for matrices of different compositions. One can see that the properties of the sensor response can be controlled in a broad range. Differences in the response of these sensors at titration of HCl solution correspond to pKa of components in polymeric matrices, when the charge changes and matrices swelling (or shrinkage) take place. Thus, we have instruments to influence on wavelength maximal response of the holographic system with aminophenylboronic acid from 450 nm (Lys) to 720 nm (DMA) at pH 7.4 (pH of blood serum). The response of the sensor AA-AMPh-GA pointed to the fast swelling when the pH solution is approaching to pKa= 8.9 aminophenylboronic acid and following slowly shrinkage of the polymeric matrix, at pH more 9.2 – only the swelling. The optical response can be a consequence of a number of different processes: diffusion of H+ out the gel, complex formation between GA and AMPh groups, and structural rearrangements of the gel due to the increasing concentration of negative charges resulting in gel hydration and swelling.
Figure 6.
Sensors response to metal ions in water. Reflection spectra in distilled water after the transfer of the sensor from the citrate solution (λ = 860 nm); distilled water (stationary state) (λ = 724 nm); tap water after an Aquafor filter (λ = 711,7 nm); tap water after Barrier filter (λ = 676.3 nm); cold tap water (λ = 615,2 nm); mineral water containing [Ca2+] 3.10-3 M (λ = 585.4 nm); lead salt solution in distilled water [Pb2+] 5.10-3 M (λ = 542 nm) (a) and the shift of the response wavelength of a sensor in distilled water to the stationary state after regeneration (6b). (Sensor: AA-AC-bis – 96-3-1 mol.%,)
It is known that boronic acid can reversibly interact with 1,2-diols or 1,3-diols in aqueous solution to form 5- or 6-membered ring cyclic esters [27-30], (Fig.9). The neutral trigonal form of boronic acid molecules transforms into the anionic tetrahedral form on binding a saccharide, upon which a proton is released. Ester formation by interaction of the corresponding arylboronate with a diol is known to occur very fast and reversibly in aqueous media. Five and six membered cyclic arylboronate esters are formed upon binding between arylboronic acids and cis-1,2- or 1,3-diols respectively. With d-glucose the boronic acid has a choice of binding either the 1,2- or 4,6-diols, but with d-glucosamine hydrochloride, binding with just the 4,6-diol is possible. The stability constant with d-glucose is higher than that observed with d -glucosamine hydrochloride. It may be assumed that this behavior agrees with binding GA with tetrahedron B--atoms of boronic acid that carry into effect of additional crosslinking.
Figure 7.
Reflection spectra of sensor based on acrylic acid (AA-AC-bis – 97.8-1.3-0.9 mol.%) at different concentrations of ethanol solutions (a) and the reflection line wavelengths for sensor based on acrylic acid (AA-AC-bis - 97.8-1.3-0.88 mol.%) (upper curve) and aminophenylboronic acid (AA-AMPh-bis – 98-1-1 mol%) (lower curve) (b).
Figure 8.
Dependences of the reflection line wavelength on the solution acidity for matrices of different compositions. (sensors: AA-AMPh(12 mol.%)-X-bis; X: ■-AC (5.8, bis-3 mol.%) ●-DMA (3.6, bis -3 mol.%, ▲-GA(3.6, bis-1, mol.% ), ♦-Lys (5.8, bis-1 mol.%))
The quantitation of glucose is among the most important analytical tasks. It has been estimated that about 40% of all blood tests are related to it. In addition, there are numerous other situations where glucose needs to be determined, for example in biotechnology, in the production and processing of various kinds of feed and food, in biochemistry in general, and other areas. The significance of glycemic control for the prevention of diabetes complications is well established [30]. The market for glucose sensors probably is the biggest single one in the diagnostic field, being about 30 billion $ per year today. Given this size, it is not surprising that any real improvement in glucose sensing (in whole blood and elsewhere) represents a major step forward. Holographic glucose sensors represent a comparatively new development [9-12, 18, 26]. The advantage of the holographic method over other optical techniques is the long-term stability of the sensor and the ease with which the wavelength may be tuned to suit the application.
Figure 9.
The spontaneous ester formation between phenylboronate and cis-1,2-diol or 1,3-diol compounds (a), arylboronate complexes formed with d-glucose (b) [29]
Figure 10.
Dependences of the reflection line wavelength on the glucose concentration for different sensors. The straight lines are approximations of experimental curves by proportional functions described by presented equations with determination coefficients R2. (sensors: AA with AMPh- GA-bis, mol.%:▲- 4-1-0.5, ■- 4-1-0.1, ● -12-0-1, ◙ -6-6-0.1mol.%; 0,01 M glycine, pH 7.4)
Sensors with aminophenylboronic acid were sensitive to glucose concentrations in the solution. The reflection (λmax) and the shift (λ0-λmax) were influenced on the additive to polymer net, the buffer solution and pH. The shift of λmax is changed from 10 to 200 nm when glucose concentration was increased (0-30 mM). By investigating the properties of sensors in detail, we optimized responses of sensors to glucose. Their concentration dependences are shown in Fig.10.
Figure 11.
The influence of ionic strength on the hydrogels shrinkage in solutions. (Sensors: AA with GA-AMPh-bis- 3.6-12-1; 30-12-1, mol.%)
One can see that the sensor sensitivity changes from 4.3 to 32 nm/(mmol.L-1). Copolymer of acrylamide containing 6 mol.% glucosamine, 6 mol.% boronic acid, 0.1 mol.% bis shows the most sensitivity in glycine solution, pH 7.4. The response of sensor to glucose in blood serum is lower but allows to distinguish changes in 1 mM glucose concentration. A possible reason for reducing the sensitivity of sensors to glucose in the blood serum is a contraction of the matrix caused by ionic strength. According to Fig. 11 at pH = 7.4 for all sensors including the GA and AMPh with increasing content of sodium ions to 0.14 M in the solution, there is a significant contraction of the hydrogel (20%). Therefore swelling of the hydrogel due to the presence of glucose occurs in the already highly compressed hydrogel
Holographic sensors give an interesting object in study of light scattering by an ensemble of nanoparticles, since one can change the environment of the particles almost preserving their mutual location. In these systems (see Fig. 4) we found that when the concentration of alkali changes in the titration, at the same time a sharp change in pH occurs, as well as a sharp change in the position of maximum reflection and a sharp and significant (almost by an order of magnitude) change in the diffraction efficiency of the holographic sensor. This indicates a significant change of the optical characteristics of the holographic layer [28, 33]. These characteristics include diffraction effectivity (DE), transmission, spectral form of the reflection line (in particular, its width) and wavelength distribution over the hologram surface. The line shape reflects homogeneity of the layer period into depth of the hologram. Its study allows investigating the transition processes in emulsion under change of solution. The transmittance and the line width together allow one to determine the effective number of layers and the weak inhomogeneity of the period. The processes in the sensitive hologram layer when changing solution parameters are complicated due to changing the molecular and ion structure in the solution within the hydrogel, to re-constructing the gel matrix, to interaction of the light-scattering grains with the solution components and matrix elements. Hologram based on silver nanoparticle layers is a typical nanoplasmonics object which scatters light in a complicated environment of ions of different kinds, of water molecules and of polymer matrix elements. The emulsion matrix interacts with the tested compounds by changing the density of crosslink in the polymer mesh. This may change as the charge distribution in the matrix and the composition of ions and other components in the solution. All of these elements (matrix elements, ions, molecules of the solution), interacting with each other and with silver nanograins, can alter the dynamic characteristics of electronic subsystems that match the light field, which leads to a change in optical characteristics. The research of these characteristics would help to understand the processes inside the emulsion and in the vicinity of nanograins.
If the period of layers is constant in depth and the modulation is weak (transmittance of a layer at the resonant wavelength λ is close to unity), the spectral width Δλ of the reflection line is inverse proportional to the thickness H of the sensitive layer, or to the number of periods N:
Δλ=0.866λ2/2n0H=0.866λ/N
where n0 is the mean index refraction of holographic layer. The accuracy of determination of wavelength depends on this value. This formula is valid only when the conditions described above. In all other cases require special methods of calculation [33].
The mode of sensor operation is very important. A good resolution is obtained when all the sensitive layer work effectively. If the falling radiation cannot penetrate sufficiently deep, the effective thickness of the hologram decreases. It reduces the resolution. Typically, the sensor sensitive layer contains silver nanograins, which have a high refractive index and a high absorption coefficient in the visible region of the spectrum. This leads to the elimination of radiation from the plane wave of light illuminating the hologram, due to absorption and scattering. This also reduces the number of effectively operating layers and, consequently, leads to the broadening of the reflection spectral line and to the deterioration of accuracy. The increase of the amplitude of modulation of the refractive index, which is introduced to increase the diffraction efficiency of the hologram, leads to the same effect. On the other hand, a strong decrease of the modulation amplitude narrows the line to the limit, but decreases the diffraction efficiency and, consequently, the measurement accuracy. Obviously, the parameters can be optimized. Therefore one needs a rather accurate method of determining the parameters of the hologram.
One of the important reasons to study optical properties of holographic sensors is to provide the proper work regime of the sensor. That means that the holographic sensor should work in the whole working range of concentrations as a thin photonic crystal (the reflectance is weak).
The hologram functioning depends seriously upon the light scattering properties. In its turn, these depend on both the type (metal or dielectric) and properties of the scattering center, and on its environment (mixture and ion concentration of the solution and of the hydrogel). The light scattering is the Raleigh one and can essentially limit the working range from the short wavelength side. Another important issue is to check the quality of the holographic layer, in particular, its homogeneity. To this purpose, we developed a colorimetric method of determination of the wavelength with the digital camera [34-36]. On the other hand, one can check the emulsion homogeneity by the distribution of the light scattering parameters.
The computer model of propagation in a layered medium for one-dimensional case was developed. The case of bleached holograms, where absorption is neglected and the refractive index is not depending from wavelength is included. At the same time is neglected and light scattering. Generalization to the dispersion of the refractive index is not an issue. The model allows determining the amplitude of modulation of the refractive index and effective thickness of the holographic layer by fitting the spectrum of the transmission hologram in the presence of the dip near the resonant frequency.
To measure the homogeneity of response of sensor properties over its surface have been applied the colorimetric method with the help of common camera [34-36]. Spatial inhomogeneity can emerge due either to inhomogeneities of the object under consideration, or to those of the sensor properties. The sensor is a thick layer hologram with width of few tens of micrometers. Its reflection spectrum has the spectral width 5-20 nm. Because of it, one suffices to use response from two color channels.
Hence, the problem is reduced to the following. Assume there is a set of emitters on a plane. We are interested in obtaining the spectra of each emitter preferably simultaneously. It is not easy especially if the sources are closely packed and produce almost continuous radiating surface. The situation is simpler if radiation from each point is spectrally narrow. Then, the distribution of the average radiation wavelength over the surface can be found by the colorimetric method. At each surface point one should determine with the required resolution the magnitudes of three components of a colour vector, i.e., obtain a colour image of the surface under study. Presently, the solution of this problem by using digital devices has no principal difficulties. The aim of our work is to solve the problem by means of conventional digital cameras. Each pixel of the colour image presents a particular colour vector in the RGB system. In order to find the distribution of the average wavelength from the image it is necessary to know how the particular digital camera represents radiation of different wavelengths.
The colorimetric method [34, 35] suggested for finding this distribution is as follows. Radiation passes to at least two detecting channels differing in spectral sensitivity. If in a certain spectral range (call it the working range) the ratio of spectral sensitivities of at least two channels is monotonous then one can determine the average wavelength of narrowband radiation from the signal ratio in the channels (see Fig. 12). At the selective sensitivity of the i-th channel Si(λ) its signal is Ji=∫dλ Si(λ)Ф(λ), where Φ(λ) is the source brightness. For the δ -shape spectral source with brightness Φ0, which emits at the wavelength λx, the signal in this channel is Ji=I0Si(λx). If the ratio of the spectral sensitivities for two chosen channels is a(l), then the sought-for wavelength is the solution of the equation α(λ)=S1(λ)/ S2(λ):
Figure 12.
Qualitative view of the spectral sensitivities S1(λ) and S2(λ) of working channels and their ratio α(λ): λ1 and λ2 are the limits of working range, λx is the wavelength of a monochromatic radiation source.
λx=α−1(J1/J2).
where α-1 is the function inverse to α(λ). If the sought-for wavelength is outside the working range, i.e., outside the range of monotonous ratio of sensitivities in two channels, then the unique wavelength determination necessitates an additional (third) channel.
Figure 13.
a). The spectral sensitivity of the human eye: signals of red (R) green (G), and blue (B) receptors [37].b). The spectrum of the mercury lamp (top) and signals of red (R), green (G), and blue (B) sensors of Sony F717 digital camera obtained from the photograph of the incandescent lamp spectrum taken by a colour digital camera (bottom).
The case of a finite spectral width is not as simple as that of a δ-like source. In our case the spectrum of reflection from a holographic layer may widen due to several reasons. First, due to a small number of efficiently reflecting layers, which can be related either to a small thickness of the holographic layer or to a short depth of radiation penetration into the layer because of the high reflection caused by high amplitude of the variable part of refractive index or by strong scattering of light. Second, the spectrum may widen due to the non uniform periodicity of layers in depth. We are interested in layer swelling, which is a reason for period variations and is related to the position of reflection maximum. In the latter case it is important to find the average period of layers, which is related to some average wavelength. Obviously, at moderate broadening this parameter can also be determined by means of the procedure described above using the signal relation in different spectral channels. However, in the general case the period obtained in this way from the position of maximum in the measured reflection spectrum differs from the average period. The difference depends both on a particular shape of reflection spectrum and on spectral sensitivities of the channels. The criterion for acceptable line broadening should be the permissible distinction of determined average period from its actual average value. If the sensitivity of sensors is almost constant within the line width of radiation illuminating a single pixel of the array, then radiation actually behaves as monochromatic one. If the spectral sensitivities of the sensor linearly vary within the width of the line that is symmetrical in shape, then the average period determined is the same as that in the case of a monochromatic source. If this condition is ruled out, then in the general case the determined wavelength is distinct from average one.
In the general case, the colorimetric measurements imply a projection of the surface under study to the detecting array through two (or, for expanding the range, a greater number) types of light filters, i.e., it is necessary to create a colorimetric device with a sufficient spatial resolution. A digital camera is just such a device.
In Fig.13a, the spectral sensitivities are shown for three types of human eye cones responsible for colour recognition [37]. A digital camera also distinguishes colours but the spectral sensitivity of its sensors is distinct. For example, we will show below that in the spectral range 540 – 575 nm a digital camera does not discriminate different colour hues at all. In Fig.13b, the signals of red (R), green (G), and blue (B) sensors of Sony F717 digital camera are shown that were obtained from a digital photograph of the incandescent lamp spectrum. The spectrum was detected from a spectrograph with a diffraction grating (~ 800 lines mm–1). This and all the following results were obtained at the sensitivity ISO 100 and switched-off automatic white balance. If the emission spectrum under study fits one of the two marked working ranges then the digital camera is appropriate for measurements. Note that we studied about ten various cameras and have found that their sensor characteristics are qualitatively similar. Figure 14 shows how a continuous spectrum (colour hue) is represented by digital cameras of various brands. Nevertheless, we did not study the characteristics of particular cameras as we wanted to understand the situation as a whole. Only the basic working Sony F717 digital camera was thoroughly studied. The spectrum of the incandescent lamp with an added calibrating spectrum of the mercury lamp was photographed. The shots used for the comparison were not overexposed, i.e., the maximal signal amplitude in channels was not above 150 – 200 digital units (the maximal admissible signal is 255 digital units). The colour hue H was determined in a standard way as the polar angle in the cylindrical coordinate system of a three-dimensional colour space. Its value was from 0 to 360. For convenient work in red, green, and blue colour ranges we chose the reference point for the colour hue in the blue range (H = 0 at R = 0, G = 0, B = 255). In this case, the break of the colour hue (0 – 360) fits the blue range and introduces no additional difficulties in data processing. The purely red colour (R = 255, G = 0, B = 0) corresponds to H = 120 and purely green colour (R = 0, G = 255, B = 0) corresponds to H = 240. A more thorough analysis of various digital cameras is interesting but is beyond the framework of the present paper. Anyway, some general information may be obtained from Fig. 13. The principal conclusion important for our work is that all the digital cameras used have a defect of colour sensitivity in the green range.
Figure 14.
The colour hue (H) versus wavelength for some digital camera types.
Some modern cameras provide the possibility for extracting unprocessed data in the RAW format. Preliminary experiments show that the situation with the colour sensitivity in this case is better. The processor of the digital camera does not distort data but further investigations are necessary for using the RAW format. At the first stage, we limited our study to simplest (mass) formats (JPEG, BMP) by the following reasons. Creation of holographic sensors was assumed for mass consumer and our aim was to develop not only a simple method for checking the quality of sensors but for reading data from them also. The method should be available for mass users, i.e., should rely on simplest digital cameras, in which the RAW format is not presented now. In addition, the processing of the image of the holographic sensor surface should be maximum simple.
A particular procedure for camera spectral calibration was developed because the responses of the three sensor types of the detecting array intricately depend not only on the radiation wavelength but on the exposure as well. The camera to be calibrated takes shots of a continuous spectrum superimposed on the mercury lamp spectrum with various exposures. Then, this spectrum is used for calibrating each image with respect to the wavelength. The images calibrated in this way are then processed together. The result is information on the relationship between the wavelength and sensor responses. The range 570 – 605 nm is considered in which the red and green sensors are sensitive. The signal in the blue channel in this range is not above the noise level. On the basis of all the obtained dependences the characteristic surface is plotted for the camera under study, which gives the sought-for wavelength as a function of the colour hue and the average value of I. Once the characteristic surface is plotted the camera can be used as a spectral device in the working range of wavelengths and sensor responses. Applicability of the method was verified on the yellow doublet of the mercury spectrum and on a continuous spectrum of the incandescent lamp (sees Fig. 15). Clearly visible color distortion of the short wavelength doublet line (too green hue, what can assess spectroscopist) in the picture are associated with the mention above defect of JPEG-format of digital camera.
Note that in the case of the mercury spectrum image and continuous spectrum of the incandescent lamp each pixel is illuminated by an almost monochromatic light source, because the fraction of the continuous spectrum per single pixel of the image is less than 1 nm. Having processed the image of spectrum (in Fig. 15a, the domain is shown fitting the working wavelength range) we obtain the map of the wavelength distribution over the image (Fig. 15b); only the image domains from the processing system working ranges are taken into account. Domains with too low values of I, in which the signal is close to noise, are neglected. Also neglected are the domains with high I in which, probably, noticeable redistribution of signals over different colour channels occurs and domains with almost a zero sensitivity of one of the two sensors. This explains the complicated contour of the wavelength distribution map over the image in the continuous spectrum range. It is interesting that due to different intensities of sources one can see in Fig. 15a the domain with superimposed continuous spectrum and mercury lines. On the wavelength distribution map there is no such superimposed domain, which proves that the recovered wavelengths are equal despite the different intensities. In Figs 15c and d the distributions of various characteristics are shown for horizontal cross sections of the image. It is known that a spectral device with a diffraction grating has a linear dispersion, i.e., the wavelength should linearly vary with the coordinate (Fig. 15d), whereas the colour hue changes obviously nonlinearly (Fig. 15c). The distribution columns (Figs 15e, f, g, and h, i, j) correspond to vertical cross sections of the image along the yellow doublet lines. In Figs 15e and h, the responses of red and green sensors are presented varying along the coordinate in a vertical cross section according to changing I. The colour hue H also varies despite the constant wavelength (Figs 15f, i). Nevertheless, in vertical cross sections of the wavelength distribution map coinciding with the mercury spectrum lines (579 nm and 577 nm) the recovered wavelength is constant to a high accuracy both in the domain of mercury lines and in continuous spectrum (Figs 15g and j).
Figure 15.
Illustration for an operating test of the method. Shot of spectrum fragment (a); the map of wavelength distribution over the image (b); the distribution of signals in red (R) and green (G) channels and colour hue (H) in a horizontal cross section of the shot (c); the horizontal cross section of the wavelength map (d); the distribution of signal in colour channels (e, h), colour hue (f, i), and calculated wavelengths (g, j) in a vertical cross section of the shot along the mercury doublet lines 579 nm (e, f, g) and 577 nm (h, i, j). The black color on the wavelength map marks the domains in which the signals are beyond the working range and, hence, are excluded from calculation.
Figure 16.
a)The map of wavelength distribution over image (a) and its horizontal (b) and vertical (c) cross sections for a transient process of holographic layer shrinking and b) for a stationary state of sensor AA-AMPh-bis – 87-12-1 mol.%.(JPEG-format) The lines on the maps show the cross-section directions.
Figure 17.
Isometric presentation of the wavelength distribution map (a) in the case of transient shrinkage of the holographic layer of sensor AA-AMPh-bis – 87-12-1 mol.% and for the hologram in a stationary state (b).
By the digital image of the mercury spectrum for the yellow doublet lines and for underlying continuous spectrum we determined the standard deviation of the recovered wavelength in the limits of a narrow window oriented along the central (with respect to the spectrum) part of the mercury line. The window width was 4 pixels, which was less than the line width. The window height was 350 pixels and covered almost all the image of the mercury line and the whole corresponding part of the continuous spectrum. For the mercury doublet lines the wavelengths of 577 nm (the standard deviation is 0.16) and 579 nm (the standard deviation is 0.19) were obtained.
The developed method was employed for studying holographic sensors. The results are shown in Figs 16, 17. The spectrum of radiation reflected from a holographic sensor is wider and the problem of possible inaccuracy in determining the wavelength requires particular investigations. One should keep in mind that in using holographic sensors it is important to know the shift of the wavelength under the action of solution surrounding the sensor rather than the absolute value of the wavelength itself. Data presented in Figs 16a and 17a refer to a transient process to the hologram initially reflecting in the red range. Data for this hologram in ending stationary state is presented in Figs.16b. and 17b. One can see that the spread of wavelengths is noticeably reduced as compared to the transient process, and is less than 2 nm over the whole sensor surface. The local spread also strongly reduced and was less than 1 nm. The map comprises approximately 500 000 points.
The hologram quality and uniformity of the processes occurring during swelling can be estimated from their noise characteristics. In Fig. 18, the standard deviation of the calculated wavelengths is shown versus the width of the averaging window. The standard deviation of wavelength from mean λ¯is:
Ak=∑im(λi−λ¯)2m
where λi is the calculated wavelength in the i-th pixel of the image and m is the number of points fitting the window, was averaged over N image points covering the whole studied domain of the sensor. The parameter S=1N∑kNAk we will term the noise value. Data presented in Fig. 18 correspond to variation of m from 4 to 2500 pixels. The standard deviation was averaged over the image domain of 500x500 points. With increasing m in the transient process the standard deviation varied from 0.5 to 1.8 nm. A steady increase in noise with the increasing window is related to a large-scale hologram inhomogeneity. In the steady state it was 0.16 – 0.32 nm at the same values of m. An increase in noise at the initial part of the dependence is explained by small-scale inhomogeneity, and the saturation at large m is related to the absence of large-scale inhomogeneity. The ratio of nonstationary noise to stationary level in this range of m increases from 3.4 to 5.6. These facts bear witness that, first, the hologram in the steady state is highly uniform and, second, variations of its swelling over the surface in the nonstationary state are noticeably inhomogeneous.
Figure 18.
The standard deviation of the calculated wavelength versus the number of points in the averaging window for the transient process (1) and stationary sensor state (2).
Further development of the colorimetric method with the use of RAW-format can significantly increase the working range of wavelengths (440-620 nm), which can be seen from Fig. 19.
Figure 19.
a) The photograph of the hologram in the steady state. b) In the upper right-hand column shows the horizontal and vertical cross-section of the distribution of responses. (RAW-format)
Thus, here is described the method for measuring the distribution of the average wavelength for narrow-band radiation over the source surface by means of a commercial digital camera. There are the following limitations in using the method (without RAW-format): the radiation spectrum should be narrow (the average wavelength is determined); measurements are performed in the spectral range in which at least two sensor types of detecting array are simultaneously sensitive (for the most of cameras studied these ranges are 470 – 540 nm and 570 – 600 nm). The accuracy of the determined wavelength is not worse than 1 nm. The method was tested on the yellow doublet of the mercury spectrum and on a continuous spectrum of the incandescent lamp covering the working interval 570 – 600 nm. By using this method the uniformity of holographic sensor swelling was studied both in a stationary state and in dynamics.
Figure 20.
a) The photograph of the hologram. b) The distribution of samples of 0.5% acetic acid on the sensors surface and wavelength of reflected light in cells (fiber-optic spectrometer).
The design of holographic sensors allows their use in multi-channel mode, when one sensor can simultaneously analyze multiple samples of the same type or define a few parameters of a sample. The holographic sensor is actually a thick hologram plane mirror about the size of a square centimeter. By placing such plate in a special cuvette, containing 24 cells of 2 mm diameter, each contains 50 μL of fluid to be analyzed; it can be used in a multi-channel mode for the simultaneous determination of all samples. The response of the sensor - the wavelength of reflected light - from the cell is easily determined by means of small-sized fiber-optic spectrometer (Fig. 20, 21) or in combination with the developed colorimetric method; it can greatly simplify and speed up the analysis (Fig. 19). As can be seen from Fig. 20, the wavelength of the reflected light at different points on the surface is almost the same (the standard deviation is 1.7 nm). This way you can see the spatial pattern of
kinetics of the holographic sensor, to conduct research of the spatial distribution of processes, with the help of special devices to conduct simultaneous analysis of different components or different samples. Fig. 21 presents the results of the determination of glucose in the blood serum of diabetic patients with glucose sensor (see Fig.) based on aminophenylboronic acid. Despite a significant decrease in the sensitivity of the sensor to the glucose concentration in blood plasma, determined by glucose clearly distinguished spectrometrically.
Figure 21.
a). The distribution of blood serum (*) [glucose], mM) samples with different glucose concentrations and 0.5% acetic acid on the sensors surface. b). Response (λnm) of glucose sensor (AA-GA- AMPh - bis: 87,5 - 6 – 6 - 0.5 mol.%) (fiber-optic spectrometer).
3. Conclusion
Thus, we have developed a colorimetric method of determination of the wavelength with the digital camera to study processes in inhomogeneous systems and to check the quality of the holographic layer. On this basis we revealed the multichannel simultaneous methods of analysis of spatially inhomogeneous objects and processes. We have found that the change in the ionic composition of solution is accompanied by the change in the distance between silver nanograin layers and in the diffraction efficiency of holograms. Based on this, we are formulated conditions for optimization of the operating mode of the holographic layer. Transition processes revealed variations in the reflection line shape, caused by the inhomogeneity of the sensitive layer, and non-monotonic changes in the emulsion thickness and diffraction efficiency. In this relation it was developed the computer model of propagation in a layered medium for one-dimensional case 33.
We have developed the method for manufacturing holographic sensors of different types and selected the composition of components of the hydrogel medium for the systems that can be used as bases for glucose sensors. The maximum mean holographic response in the mmol.L-1 region concentrations of glucose (1-20 mmol.L-1) per 1 mmol.L-1 of glucose in model solutions achieves ~40 nm/( mmol.L-1). It has been shown that holographic sensors can be used to determine the quality of water, in particular, for drinking, the acidity of media, ethanol concentration, ionic strength, metal ions and glucose in blood serum.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by grant of the Program of Fundamental Studies “Fundamental Sciences for Medicine” of the Presidium of RAS.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/44933.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/44933.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/44933",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/44933",totalDownloads:1703,totalViews:316,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 2nd 2012",dateReviewed:"September 19th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 29th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/44933",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/44933",book:{slug:"holography-basic-principles-and-contemporary-applications"},signatures:"Vladimir A. Postnikov, Aleksandr V. Kraiskii and Valerii I. Sergienko",authors:[{id:"157760",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:"A.",surname:"Postnikov",fullName:"Vladimir Postnikov",slug:"vladimir-postnikov",email:"vladpostnikov@mail.ru",position:null,institution:null},{id:"159819",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksander",middleName:null,surname:"Kraiskii",fullName:"Aleksander Kraiskii",slug:"aleksander-kraiskii",email:"kraiski@lebedev.ru",position:null,institution:null},{id:"159821",title:"Prof.",name:"Valeri",middleName:null,surname:"Sergienko",fullName:"Valeri Sergienko",slug:"valeri-sergienko",email:"ilc@ru.ru",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"Acknowledgements",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Millington R, Mayes A, Blyth J, and Lowe C. A Holographic sensor for Proteases. Anal. Chem. 1995; 67,4229-4233'},{id:"B2",body:'Mayes A, Blyth J, Kyrollo1inen-Reay M, Millington R. and Lowe C. A holographic alcohol sensor. Anal. Chem. 1999; 71, 3390-3396'},{id:"B3",body:'Holtz J, Asher S. Polymerized colloidal crystal hydrogel films as intelligent chemical sensing materials. Nature. 1997; 389, 829–32.'},{id:"B4",body:'Reese E, Baltusavich M, Keim J, Asher S. Development of an intelligent polymerized crystalline colloidal array colorimetric reagent. Anal Chem. 2001; 73, 5038–42.'},{id:"B5",body:'Marshall A, Young D, Kabilan S, Hussain A, Blyth J. and Lowe C. Holographic sensors for the determination of ionic strength. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2004; 527(1), 13-20'},{id:"B6",body:'González B, Christie G, Davidson C, Blyth J. and Lowe C. Divalent metal ion-sensitive holographic sensors. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2005; 528(2), 219-228'},{id:"B7",body:'Alexeev V, Sharma A, Goponenko A, Das S, Lednev I, Wilcox C, et al. High ionic strength glucose-sensing photonic crystal. Anal Chem 2003; 75, 2316–23.'},{id:"B8",body:'Asher S, Alexeev V, Goponenko A, Sharma A, Lednev I, Wilcox C, et al. Photonic crystal carbohydrate sensors: low ionic strength sugar sensing. J Am Chem Soc 2003; 125, 3322–9.'},{id:"B9",body:'Kabilan S, Marshall A, Sartain F, Lee M.-C, Hussain A, Yang X, Blyth J, Karangu N, James K, Zeng J, Smith D, Domschke A. and Lowe C. Holographic glucose sensors. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2005; 20(8), 1602-1610'},{id:"B10",body:'Yang X, Lee M.-C, Sartain F, Pan X, Lowe C.R. Designed Boronate Ligands for Glucose-Selective Holographic sensors. Chem. Eur. J. 2006; 12, 8491-8497'},{id:"B11",body:'Horgan A, Marshall A, Kew S, Dean K, Creasey C. and Kabilan S. Crosslinking of phenylboronic acid receptors as a means of glucose selective holographic detection. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2006; 21(9), 1838-1845'},{id:"B12",body:'Worsley G, Tourniaire G, Medlock K, Sartain F, Harmer H, Thatcher M, Horgan A, and Pritchard J. Continuous Blood Glucose Monitoring with a Thin-Film Optical Sensor. Clinical Chemistry. 2007; 53(10), 1820-26'},{id:"B13",body:'Yang X, Pan X, Blyth J, Lowe C.R. Towards the real-time monitoring of glucose in tear fluid: Holographic glucose sensors with reduced interference from lactate and pH. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2008, 23, 899–905'},{id:"B14",body:' Alexeev VL, Das S, Finegold DN, Asher SA. Photonic crystal glucose-sensing material for noninvasive monitoring of glucose in tear fluid. Clin Chem. 2004; 50, 2362–9.'},{id:"B15",body:'Bhatta D, Christie G, Madrigal-González B, Blyth J. and Lowe C.R. Holographic sensors for the detection of bacterial spores. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2007; 23(4), 520-527'},{id:"B16",body:' Bhatta D, Christie G, Blyth J, Lowe C.R.. Development of a holographic sensor for the detection of calcium dipicolinate-A sensitive biomarker for bacterial spores. Sensors and Actuators. 2008; B 134, 356–359'},{id:"B17",body:'Marshall AJ, Young DS, Blyth J, Kabilan S, and Lowe CR. Metabolite-Sensitive Holographic Biosensors. Anal. Chem. 2004; 76 (5), 1518-1523'},{id:"B18",body:'Lee M-C, Kabilan S, Hussain A, Yang X, Blyth J, and Lowe CR. Glucose-Sensitive Holographic sensors for Monitoring Bacterial Growth. Anal. Chem. 2004; 76 (19), 5748-5755'},{id:"B19",body:'Bell LL, Seshia AA, Davidson CA, Lowe CR. Integration of holographic sensors into microfluidics for the real time pH sensing of L. casei metabolism. Procedia Engineering. 2010; 5, 1352-1355'},{id:"B20",body:'Naydenova I, Jallapuram R, Toal V, Martin S. Characterisation of the humidity and temperature responses of a reflection hologram recorded in acrylamide-based photopolymer. Sensors and Actuators. 2008; B 139(1) , 35-38'},{id:"B21",body:'Cody D, Naydenova I, Mihaylova E. New non-toxic holographic photopolymer material. J. Opt. 14 (2012) 015601 (4pp)'},{id:"B22",body:'Sartain FK, Yang X, Lowe CR. Holographic lactate sensor. Anal Chem. 2006;78(16),5664-70 '},{id:"B23",body:'Postnikov VA, Kraiskii AV, Sultanov TT, Tikhonov VE. Hydrogel holographic sensors sensitive to an acid media. In Proceedings of XVIII Intenational scool-seminar “Spectroscopy of molecules and crystals” 20.09-28.09.2007, Beregove, Crimea, Ukraine, Abstracts p.261'},{id:"B24",body:'Postnikov VA, Kraiskii AV, Tikhonov VE, Sultanov TT, Khamidulin AV. Hydrogel holographic sensors for detection of components in biological fluids. In Proceedings of CAOL 2008: 4th International Conference on Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers ,2008, ), Alushta, Crimea South Coast, Ukraine, September 29 – October 4, art. no. 4671956, 369-371'},{id:"B25",body:'Postnikov VA, Kraiskii AV, Tikhonov VE, Sultanov TT, Khamidulin AV. Hydrogel holographic sensors for detection of components in biological fluids. In Proceedings of CAOL 2008: 4th International Conference on Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers ,2008, ), Alushta, Crimea South Coast, Ukraine, September 29 – October 4, art. no. 4671956, 369-371'},{id:"B26",body:'Postnikov VA, Kraiskii AV, Sultanov TT, Deniskin VV. Holographic sensors of glucose in model solution and serum. In Conference Proceedings - 5th International Conference on Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers, CAOL\' 2010, September 10 -14, 2010, Sevastopol, Crimea, Ukraine, art. no. 5634191, 257-258'},{id:"B27",body:'Postnikov VA, Kraiskii AV, Sultanov TT. Holographic sensors. In Conference Proceedings - 11th International Conference on Laser and Fiber-Optical Networks Modeling, LFNM 2011, Kharkov, Ukraine, September 5 – 8, 2011, art. no. 6145033, 369-371'},{id:"B28",body:'Kraiskii AV, Postnikov VA, Sultanov TT, Khamidulin AV. Holographic sensors diagnostics of solution components. Quantum Electronics. 2010; 40 (2), 178 -182'},{id:"B29",body:'Hansen J, Christensen J, Petersen J, Hoeg-Jensen T, Norrild J. Arylboronic acids: A diabetic eye on glucose sensing. Sensors and Actuators. 2012; B 161, 45– 79'},{id:"B30",body:'Steiner M-S, Duerkop A, Wolfbeis O. Optical methods for sensing glucose. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2011; 40, 4805–4839'},{id:"B31",body:'Christopher R. Cooper and Tony D. James. Synthesis and evaluation of D-glucosamine-selective fluorescent sensors. J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2000; 1 ,963–969'},{id:"B32",body:'Egawa Y, Seki T, Takahashi S, Anzai J-i. Electrochemical and optical sugar sensors based on phenylboronic acid and its derivatives. Materials Science and Engineering 2011; C 31, 1257–1264'},{id:"B33",body:'Kraiskii AV, Postnikov VA, Sultanov TT, Mironova TV, Kraiskii AA. On optical properties of holographic sensors based on silver emulsions. In Conference Proceedings - 11th International Conference on Laser and Fiber-Optical Networks Modeling, LFNM 2011, Kharkov, Ukraine, September 5 – 8, 2011 , art. no. 5634214, 191-192'},{id:"B34",body:'Kraiskii AV, Mironova TV, Sultanov TT, Postnikov VA, Sergienko VI, Tikhonov VE. Sposob izmereniya dliny volny…, Pat. RF No. 2390738, prior. 21.05.2008.'},{id:"B35",body:'Kraiskii AV, Mironova TV, Sultanov TT. Measurement of the surface wavelength distribution of narrow-band radiation by a colorimetric method. Quantum Electronics. 2010; 40 (7), 652 – 658 36. '},{id:"B36",body:'Kraiskii AV, Mironova TV, Sultanov TT, Postnikov VA. Measuring surface distribution of narrowband radiation wavelength by colorimetric method. In Conference Proceedings - 5th International Conference on Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers, CAOL\' 2010, September 10 -14, 2010, Sevastopol, Crimea, Ukraine, art. no. 5634214, 191-192'},{id:"B37",body:'Judd D.B., Wyszecki G. Color in Business, Science and Industry (New York: Wiley, 1975; Moscow: Mir, 1978).'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Vladimir A. Postnikov",address:"vladpostnikov@mail.ru",affiliation:'
Laboratory of Medical Nanotechnology, Scientific Research Institute of Physical-Chemical Medicine, Moscow, Russia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Aleksandr V. Kraiskii",address:null,affiliation:'
G.S. Landsberg Optical Department, P.N.Lebedev Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Valerii I. Sergienko",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Biophysics, Scientific Research Institute of Physical-Chemical Medicine, Moscow, Russia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"3327",title:"Holography",subtitle:"Basic Principles and Contemporary Applications",fullTitle:"Holography - Basic Principles and Contemporary Applications",slug:"holography-basic-principles-and-contemporary-applications",publishedDate:"May 29th 2013",bookSignature:"Emilia Mihaylova",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3327.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"151277",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia",middleName:null,surname:"Mihaylova",slug:"emilia-mihaylova",fullName:"Emilia Mihaylova"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"44935",title:"Understanding Diffraction in Volume Gratings and Holograms",slug:"understanding-diffraction-in-volume-gratings-and-holograms",totalDownloads:3537,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Brotherton-Ratcliffe David",authors:[{id:"159537",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Brotherton-Ratcliffe",fullName:"David Brotherton-Ratcliffe",slug:"david-brotherton-ratcliffe"}]},{id:"44915",title:"Volume Transmission Hologram Gratings — Basic Properties, Energy Channelizing, Effect of Ambient Temperature and Humidity",slug:"volume-transmission-hologram-gratings-basic-properties-energy-channelizing-effect-of-ambient-tempera",totalDownloads:1940,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"O.V. Andreeva, Yu.L. Korzinin and B.G. Manukhin",authors:[{id:"32297",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Andreeva",fullName:"Olga Andreeva",slug:"olga-andreeva"},{id:"165932",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri Leonidovich",middleName:null,surname:"Korzinin",fullName:"Yuri Leonidovich Korzinin",slug:"yuri-leonidovich-korzinin"},{id:"165933",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Boris Glebovich",middleName:null,surname:"Manuhin",fullName:"Boris Glebovich Manuhin",slug:"boris-glebovich-manuhin"}]},{id:"44945",title:"White Light Reconstructed Holograms",slug:"white-light-reconstructed-holograms",totalDownloads:2282,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Dagmar Senderakova",authors:[{id:"33078",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Senderakova",fullName:"Dagmar Senderakova",slug:"dagmar-senderakova"}]},{id:"44927",title:"Research on Holographic Sensors and Novel Photopolymers at the Centre for Industrial and Engineering Optics",slug:"research-on-holographic-sensors-and-novel-photopolymers-at-the-centre-for-industrial-and-engineering",totalDownloads:1967,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Emilia Mihaylova, Dervil Cody, Izabela Naydenova, Suzanne Martin\nand Vincent Toal",authors:[{id:"151277",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia",middleName:null,surname:"Mihaylova",fullName:"Emilia Mihaylova",slug:"emilia-mihaylova"}]},{id:"44933",title:"Holographic Sensors for Detection of Components in Water Solutions",slug:"holographic-sensors-for-detection-of-components-in-water-solutions",totalDownloads:1703,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Vladimir A. Postnikov, Aleksandr V. Kraiskii and Valerii I. Sergienko",authors:[{id:"157760",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:"A.",surname:"Postnikov",fullName:"Vladimir Postnikov",slug:"vladimir-postnikov"},{id:"159819",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksander",middleName:null,surname:"Kraiskii",fullName:"Aleksander Kraiskii",slug:"aleksander-kraiskii"},{id:"159821",title:"Prof.",name:"Valeri",middleName:null,surname:"Sergienko",fullName:"Valeri Sergienko",slug:"valeri-sergienko"}]},{id:"44948",title:"Photopolymer Holographic Optical Elements for Application in Solar Energy Concentrators",slug:"photopolymer-holographic-optical-elements-for-application-in-solar-energy-concentrators",totalDownloads:2051,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Izabela Naydenova, Hoda Akbari, Colin Dalton, Mohamed Yahya so\nMohamed Ilyas, Clinton Pang Tee Wei, Vincent Toal and Suzanne\nMartin",authors:[{id:"32332",title:"Prof.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Naydenova",fullName:"Izabela Naydenova",slug:"izabela-naydenova"}]},{id:"44938",title:"Optically Accelerated Formation of One- and Two-Dimensional Holographic Surface Relief Gratings on DR1/PMMA",slug:"optically-accelerated-formation-of-one-and-two-dimensional-holographic-surface-relief-gratings-on-dr",totalDownloads:1988,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Xiao Wu, Thi Thanh Ngan Nguyen, Isabelle Ledoux-Rak, Chi Thanh\nNguyen and Ngoc Diep Lai",authors:[{id:"16450",title:"Dr.",name:"Ngoc Diep",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",fullName:"Ngoc Diep Lai",slug:"ngoc-diep-lai"}]},{id:"44946",title:"Holographic Printing of White-Light Viewable Holograms and Stereograms",slug:"holographic-printing-of-white-light-viewable-holograms-and-stereograms",totalDownloads:3017,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Hoonjong Kang, Elena Stoykova, Jiyung Park, Sunghee Hong and\nYoungmin Kim",authors:[{id:"159418",title:"Prof.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Stoykova",fullName:"Elena Stoykova",slug:"elena-stoykova"},{id:"159421",title:"Dr.",name:"Hoonjong",middleName:null,surname:"Kang",fullName:"Hoonjong Kang",slug:"hoonjong-kang"},{id:"159422",title:"MSc.",name:"Jiyung",middleName:null,surname:"Park",fullName:"Jiyung Park",slug:"jiyung-park"},{id:"159423",title:"Dr.",name:"Sung Hee",middleName:null,surname:"Hong",fullName:"Sung Hee Hong",slug:"sung-hee-hong"},{id:"166139",title:"Dr.",name:"Youngmin",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Youngmin Kim",slug:"youngmin-kim"}]},{id:"44943",title:"Microscopic Interferometry by Reflection Holography with Photorefractive Sillenite Crystals",slug:"microscopic-interferometry-by-reflection-holography-with-photorefractive-sillenite-crystals",totalDownloads:1403,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Eduardo Acedo Barbosa, Danilo Mariano da Silva and Merilyn\nSantos Ferreira",authors:[{id:"16005",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo Acedo",middleName:null,surname:"Barbosa",fullName:"Eduardo Acedo Barbosa",slug:"eduardo-acedo-barbosa"},{id:"164017",title:"MSc.",name:"Danilo",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"Danilo Silva",slug:"danilo-silva"},{id:"164018",title:"Mrs.",name:"Merilyn",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",fullName:"Merilyn Ferreira",slug:"merilyn-ferreira"}]},{id:"44912",title:"Bifurcation Effects Generated with Holographic Rough Surfaces",slug:"bifurcation-effects-generated-with-holographic-rough-surfaces",totalDownloads:1256,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"G. Martínez Niconoff, G. Díaz González, P. Martínez Vara, J. Silva\nBarranco and J. Munoz-Lopez",authors:[{id:"29025",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez-Niconoff",fullName:"Gabriel Martinez-Niconoff",slug:"gabriel-martinez-niconoff"}]},{id:"44980",title:"Holography at the Nano Level With Visible Light Wavelengths",slug:"holography-at-the-nano-level-with-visible-light-wavelengths",totalDownloads:1445,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Cesar A. Sciammarella, Luciano Lamberti and Federico M.\nSciammarella",authors:[{id:"17956",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciano",middleName:null,surname:"Lamberti",fullName:"Luciano Lamberti",slug:"luciano-lamberti"},{id:"20677",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Sciammarella",fullName:"Federico Sciammarella",slug:"federico-sciammarella"},{id:"166241",title:"Prof.",name:"Cesar A.",middleName:null,surname:"Sciammarella",fullName:"Cesar A. Sciammarella",slug:"cesar-a.-sciammarella"}]},{id:"44911",title:"Digital Hologram Coding",slug:"digital-hologram-coding",totalDownloads:2347,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Young-Ho Seo, Hyun-Jun Choi and Dong-Wook Kim",authors:[{id:"158677",title:"Prof.",name:"Young-Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Seo",fullName:"Young-Ho Seo",slug:"young-ho-seo"},{id:"165568",title:"Prof.",name:"Dong-Wook",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Dong-Wook Kim",slug:"dong-wook-kim"},{id:"165569",title:"Prof.",name:"Hyun-Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",fullName:"Hyun-Jun Choi",slug:"hyun-jun-choi"}]},{id:"44913",title:"Applications of Holographic Microscopy in Life Sciences",slug:"applications-of-holographic-microscopy-in-life-sciences",totalDownloads:2313,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Iliyan Peruhov and Emilia Mihaylova",authors:[{id:"151277",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia",middleName:null,surname:"Mihaylova",fullName:"Emilia Mihaylova",slug:"emilia-mihaylova"}]},{id:"44917",title:"Cells and Holograms – Holograms and Digital Holographic Microscopy as a Tool to Study the Morphology of Living Cells",slug:"cells-and-holograms-holograms-and-digital-holographic-microscopy-as-a-tool-to-study-the-morphology-o",totalDownloads:2372,totalCrossrefCites:8,signatures:"Kersti Alm, Zahra El-Schich, Maria Falck Miniotis, Anette Gjörloff\nWingren, Birgit Janicke and Stina Oredsson",authors:[{id:"20513",title:"Dr.",name:"Anette",middleName:null,surname:"Gjörloff Wingren",fullName:"Anette Gjörloff Wingren",slug:"anette-gjorloff-wingren"}]},{id:"44919",title:"Phase and Polarization Contrast Methods by Use of Digital Holographic Microscopy: Applications to Different Types of Biological Samples",slug:"phase-and-polarization-contrast-methods-by-use-of-digital-holographic-microscopy-applications-to-dif",totalDownloads:2305,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Francisco Palacios, Oneida Font, Guillermo Palacios, Jorge Ricardo,\nMiriela Escobedo, Ligia Ferreira Gomes, Isis Vasconcelos, Mikiya\nMuramatsu, Diogo Soga, Aline Prado and Valin José",authors:[{id:"28728",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Palacios",fullName:"Francisco Palacios",slug:"francisco-palacios"},{id:"30351",title:"Prof.",name:"Oneida",middleName:null,surname:"Font",fullName:"Oneida Font",slug:"oneida-font"},{id:"30353",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Ricardo",fullName:"Jorge Ricardo",slug:"jorge-ricardo"},{id:"30431",title:"Dr.",name:"Diogo",middleName:null,surname:"Soga",fullName:"Diogo Soga",slug:"diogo-soga"},{id:"47600",title:"Prof.",name:"Mikiya",middleName:null,surname:"Muramatsu",fullName:"Mikiya Muramatsu",slug:"mikiya-muramatsu"},{id:"164203",title:"Dr.",name:"Ligia",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",fullName:"Ligia Ferreira",slug:"ligia-ferreira"},{id:"166857",title:"BSc.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Palacios",fullName:"Guillermo Palacios",slug:"guillermo-palacios"},{id:"166858",title:"MSc.",name:"Miriela",middleName:null,surname:"Escobedo",fullName:"Miriela Escobedo",slug:"miriela-escobedo"},{id:"166859",title:"MSc.",name:"Isis",middleName:null,surname:"Vasconcelos",fullName:"Isis Vasconcelos",slug:"isis-vasconcelos"},{id:"166861",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:"Luis",surname:"Valin Rivera",fullName:"José Valin Rivera",slug:"jose-valin-rivera"},{id:"167227",title:"MSc.",name:"Aline",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrogi",fullName:"Aline Ambrogi",slug:"aline-ambrogi"},{id:"167228",title:"Ms.",name:"Flavia",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",fullName:"Flavia Oliveira",slug:"flavia-oliveira"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"58",title:"Holography",subtitle:"Research and Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"holography-research-and-technologies",bookSignature:"Joseph Rosen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/58.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16544",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Rosen",slug:"joseph-rosen",fullName:"Joseph Rosen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"13843",title:"The Fourier Transform in Optics: Analogous Experiment and Digital Calculus",slug:"the-fourier-transform-in-optics-analogous-experiment-and-digital-calculus",signatures:"Petre Cătălin Logofătu, Victor Nascov and Dan Apostol",authors:[{id:"21292",title:"Dr.",name:"Petre Cătălin",middleName:null,surname:"Logofătu",fullName:"Petre Cătălin Logofătu",slug:"petre-catalin-logofatu"},{id:"23309",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Nascov",fullName:"Victor Nascov",slug:"victor-nascov"},{id:"23310",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",middleName:null,surname:"Apostol",fullName:"Dan Apostol",slug:"dan-apostol"}]},{id:"13844",title:"The Holographic Principle and Emergence Phenomenon",slug:"the-holographic-principle-and-emergence-phenomenon",signatures:"Marina Shaduri",authors:[{id:"16822",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Shaduri",fullName:"Marina Shaduri",slug:"marina-shaduri"}]},{id:"13845",title:"Polymer Holography in Acrylamide-Based Recording Material",slug:"polymer-holography-in-acrylamide-based-recording-material",signatures:"Milan Květoň, Pavel Fiala and Antonín Havránek",authors:[{id:"18183",title:"Dr.",name:"Milan",middleName:null,surname:"Květoň",fullName:"Milan Květoň",slug:"milan-kveton"},{id:"20601",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Fiala",fullName:"Pavel Fiala",slug:"pavel-fiala"},{id:"20602",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonin",middleName:null,surname:"Havranek",fullName:"Antonin Havranek",slug:"antonin-havranek"}]},{id:"13846",title:"Real-time, Multi-wavelength Holographic Recording in Photorefractive Volume Media: Theory and Applications",slug:"real-time-multi-wavelength-holographic-recording-in-photorefractive-volume-media-theory-and-applicat",signatures:"Eduardo Acedo Barbosa",authors:[{id:"16005",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo Acedo",middleName:null,surname:"Barbosa",fullName:"Eduardo Acedo Barbosa",slug:"eduardo-acedo-barbosa"}]},{id:"13847",title:"The Composite Structure of Hologram and Optical Waveguide",slug:"the-composite-structure-of-hologram-and-optical-waveguide",signatures:"Renxi Gao and Wenjun Liu",authors:[{id:"16230",title:"Dr.",name:"Renxi",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",fullName:"Renxi Gao",slug:"renxi-gao"}]},{id:"13848",title:"FINCH: Fresnel Incoherent Correlation Hologram",slug:"finch-fresnel-incoherent-correlation-hologram",signatures:"Joseph Rosen, Barak Katz and Gary Brooker",authors:[{id:"16544",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Rosen",fullName:"Joseph Rosen",slug:"joseph-rosen"}]},{id:"13849",title:"Programmable Point-source Digital In-line Holography Using Digital Micro-mirror Devices",slug:"programmable-point-source-digital-in-line-holography-using-digital-micro-mirror-devices",signatures:"Adekunle A. Adeyemi and Thomas E. Darcie",authors:[{id:"16454",title:"Dr.",name:"Adekunle",middleName:"Adesanya",surname:"Adeyemi",fullName:"Adekunle Adeyemi",slug:"adekunle-adeyemi"},{id:"22533",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas E.",middleName:null,surname:"Darcie",fullName:"Thomas E. Darcie",slug:"thomas-e.-darcie"}]},{id:"13850",title:"Pulsed Full-Color Digital Holography with a Raman Shifter",slug:"pulsed-full-color-digital-holography-with-a-raman-shifter",signatures:"Percival Almoro, Wilson Garcia and Caesar Saloma",authors:[{id:"16637",title:"Dr.",name:"Caesar",middleName:null,surname:"Saloma",fullName:"Caesar Saloma",slug:"caesar-saloma"},{id:"20189",title:"Dr.",name:"Percival",middleName:null,surname:"Almoro",fullName:"Percival Almoro",slug:"percival-almoro"},{id:"20190",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilson",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",fullName:"Wilson Garcia",slug:"wilson-garcia"}]},{id:"13851",title:"Optical Holography Reconstruction of Nano-objects",slug:"optical-holography-reconstruction-of-nano-objects",signatures:"Cesar A. Sciammarella, Luciano Lamberti and Federico M. Sciammarella",authors:[{id:"17956",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciano",middleName:null,surname:"Lamberti",fullName:"Luciano Lamberti",slug:"luciano-lamberti"},{id:"20676",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Sciammarella",fullName:"Cesar Sciammarella",slug:"cesar-sciammarella"},{id:"20677",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Sciammarella",fullName:"Federico Sciammarella",slug:"federico-sciammarella"}]},{id:"13852",title:"Quantitative Analysis of Biological Cells Using Digital Holographic Microscopy",slug:"quantitative-analysis-of-biological-cells-using-digital-holographic-microscopy",signatures:"Natan T. Shaked, Lisa L. Satterwhite, Matthew T. Rinehart and Adam Wax",authors:[{id:"19011",title:"Dr.",name:"Natan T.",middleName:null,surname:"Shaked",fullName:"Natan T. Shaked",slug:"natan-t.-shaked"},{id:"19016",title:"Prof.",name:"Adam",middleName:null,surname:"Wax",fullName:"Adam Wax",slug:"adam-wax"},{id:"24165",title:"Dr.",name:"Lisa L.",middleName:null,surname:"Satterwhite",fullName:"Lisa L. Satterwhite",slug:"lisa-l.-satterwhite"},{id:"24166",title:"PhD.",name:"Matthew T.",middleName:null,surname:"Rinehart",fullName:"Matthew T. Rinehart",slug:"matthew-t.-rinehart"}]},{id:"13853",title:"Digital Holography and Cell Studies",slug:"digital-holography-and-cell-studies",signatures:"Kersti Alm, Helena Cirenajwis, Lennart Gisselsson, Anette Gjörloff Wingren, Birgit Janicke, Anna Mölder, Stina Oredsson and Johan Persson",authors:[{id:"20506",title:"Dr.",name:"Kersti",middleName:null,surname:"Alm",fullName:"Kersti Alm",slug:"kersti-alm"},{id:"20511",title:"PhD.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Cirenajwis",fullName:"Helena Cirenajwis",slug:"helena-cirenajwis"},{id:"20512",title:"Dr.",name:"Lennart",middleName:null,surname:"Gisselsson",fullName:"Lennart Gisselsson",slug:"lennart-gisselsson"},{id:"20513",title:"Dr.",name:"Anette",middleName:null,surname:"Gjörloff Wingren",fullName:"Anette Gjörloff Wingren",slug:"anette-gjorloff-wingren"},{id:"20514",title:"Dr.",name:"Birgit",middleName:null,surname:"Janicke",fullName:"Birgit Janicke",slug:"birgit-janicke"},{id:"20515",title:"MSc",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Mölder",fullName:"Anna Mölder",slug:"anna-molder"},{id:"20516",title:"Prof.",name:"Stina",middleName:null,surname:"Oredsson",fullName:"Stina Oredsson",slug:"stina-oredsson"},{id:"20517",title:"MSc.",name:"Johan",middleName:null,surname:"Persson",fullName:"Johan Persson",slug:"johan-persson"}]},{id:"13854",title:"Fabrication of Two- and Three-Dimensional Photonic Crystals and Photonic Quasi-Crystals by Interference Technique",slug:"fabrication-of-two-and-three-dimensional-photonic-crystals-and-photonic-quasi-crystals-by-interferen",signatures:"Ngoc Diep Lai, Jian Hung Lin, Danh Bich Do,Wen Ping Liang, Yu Di Huang, Tsao Shih Zheng, Yi Ya Huang, Chia Chen Hsu",authors:[{id:"16450",title:"Dr.",name:"Ngoc Diep",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",fullName:"Ngoc Diep Lai",slug:"ngoc-diep-lai"}]},{id:"13855",title:"Achieving Wide Band Gaps and a Band Edge Laser Using Face-Centered Cubic Lattice by Holography",slug:"achieving-wide-band-gaps-and-a-band-edge-laser-using-face-centered-cubic-lattice-by-holography",signatures:"Tianrui Zhai and Dahe Liu",authors:[{id:"20338",title:"Prof.",name:"Dahe",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Dahe Liu",slug:"dahe-liu"}]},{id:"13856",title:"Accurate Axial Location for Particles in Digital In-Line Holography",slug:"accurate-axial-location-for-particles-in-digital-in-line-holography",signatures:"Zhi-Bin Li, Gang Zheng, Li-Xin Zhang, Gang Liu and Fei Xia",authors:[{id:"19380",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhi-Bin",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Zhi-Bin Li",slug:"zhi-bin-li"},{id:"20146",title:"Prof.",name:"Gang",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",fullName:"Gang Zheng",slug:"gang-zheng"},{id:"20158",title:"Prof.",name:"Li-Xin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Li-Xin Zhang",slug:"li-xin-zhang"},{id:"20159",title:"Dr.",name:"Gang",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Gang Liu",slug:"gang-liu"},{id:"20160",title:"Dr.",name:"Fei",middleName:null,surname:"Xia",fullName:"Fei Xia",slug:"fei-xia"}]},{id:"13857",title:"Hybrid Numerical-Experimental Holographic Interferometry for Investigation of Nonlinearities in MEMS Dynamics",slug:"hybrid-numerical-experimental-holographic-interferometry-for-investigation-of-nonlinearities-in-mems",signatures:"Minvydas Ragulskis, Arvydas Palevicius and Loreta Saunoriene",authors:[{id:"18915",title:"Dr.",name:"Minvydas",middleName:null,surname:"Ragulskis",fullName:"Minvydas Ragulskis",slug:"minvydas-ragulskis"},{id:"18917",title:"Prof.",name:"Arvydas",middleName:null,surname:"Palevicius",fullName:"Arvydas Palevicius",slug:"arvydas-palevicius"},{id:"18918",title:"Dr.",name:"Loreta",middleName:null,surname:"Saunoriene",fullName:"Loreta Saunoriene",slug:"loreta-saunoriene"}]},{id:"13858",title:"Vibration Measurement by Speckle Interferometry between High Spatial and High Temporal Resolution",slug:"vibration-measurement-by-speckle-interferometry-between-high-spatial-and-high-temporal-resolution",signatures:"Dan Nicolae Borza",authors:[{id:"16023",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan Nicolae",middleName:null,surname:"Borza",fullName:"Dan Nicolae Borza",slug:"dan-nicolae-borza"}]},{id:"13859",title:"Reconstruction of Digital Hologram by use of the Wavelet Transform",slug:"reconstruction-of-digital-hologram-by-use-of-the-wavelet-transform",signatures:"Jingang Zhong and Jiawen Weng",authors:[{id:"21320",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingang",middleName:null,surname:"Zhong",fullName:"Jingang Zhong",slug:"jingang-zhong"}]},{id:"13860",title:"Iterative Noise Reduction in Digital Holographic Microscopy",slug:"iterative-noise-reduction-in-digital-holographic-microscopy",signatures:"Victor Arrizón, Ulises Ruiz and Maria Luisa Cruz",authors:[{id:"21314",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Arrizon",fullName:"Victor Arrizon",slug:"victor-arrizon"},{id:"21315",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Luisa",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",fullName:"Maria Luisa Cruz",slug:"maria-luisa-cruz"},{id:"24121",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulises",middleName:null,surname:"Ruiz",fullName:"Ulises Ruiz",slug:"ulises-ruiz"}]},{id:"13861",title:"Image Quality Improvement of Digital Holography by Multiple Wavelengths or Multiple Holograms",slug:"image-quality-improvement-of-digital-holography-by-multiple-wavelengths-or-multiple-holograms",signatures:"Takanori Nomura",authors:[{id:"4583",title:"Prof.",name:"Takanori",middleName:null,surname:"Nomura",fullName:"Takanori Nomura",slug:"takanori-nomura"}]},{id:"13862",title:"Digital Holography and Phase Retrieval",slug:"digital-holography-and-phase-retrieval",signatures:"Hamootal Duadi, Ofer Margalit, Vicente Mico, José A. Rodrigo, Tatiana Alieva, Javier Garcia and Zeev Zalevsky",authors:[{id:"15852",title:"Dr.",name:"Zeev",middleName:null,surname:"Zalevsky",fullName:"Zeev Zalevsky",slug:"zeev-zalevsky"},{id:"16490",title:"BSc.",name:"Hamootal",middleName:null,surname:"Duadi",fullName:"Hamootal Duadi",slug:"hamootal-duadi"},{id:"16491",title:"Dr.",name:"Ofer",middleName:null,surname:"Margalit",fullName:"Ofer Margalit",slug:"ofer-margalit"},{id:"16492",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",middleName:null,surname:"Mico",fullName:"Vicente Mico",slug:"vicente-mico"},{id:"16493",title:"Prof.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",fullName:"Javier Garcia",slug:"javier-garcia"},{id:"19447",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose A.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",fullName:"Jose A. Rodrigo",slug:"jose-a.-rodrigo"},{id:"19448",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:null,surname:"Alieva",fullName:"Tatiana Alieva",slug:"tatiana-alieva"}]},{id:"13863",title:"In-line Hard X-ray Holography for Biomedical Imaging",slug:"in-line-hard-x-ray-holography-for-biomedical-imaging",signatures:"Andrzej Krol",authors:[{id:"18322",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrzej",middleName:null,surname:"Krol",fullName:"Andrzej Krol",slug:"andrzej-krol"}]},{id:"13864",title:"Fundamentals and Applications of Electron Holography",slug:"fundamentals-and-applications-of-electron-holography",signatures:"Akira Tonomura",authors:[{id:"16541",title:"Dr.",name:"Akira",middleName:null,surname:"Tonomura",fullName:"Akira Tonomura",slug:"akira-tonomura"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"68802",title:"Taxonomic Shifts in Philornis Larval Behaviour and Rapid Changes in Philornis downsi Dodge & Aitken (Diptera: Muscidae): An Invasive Avian Parasite on the Galápagos Islands",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88854",slug:"taxonomic-shifts-in-philornis-larval-behaviour-and-rapid-changes-in-philornis-downsi-dodge-aitken-di",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Three genera of flies within the order Diptera have larvae that parasitise avian hosts: Protocalliphora Hough (Calliphoridae), as well as Passeromyia Rodhain & Villeneuve (Muscidae) and Philornis Meinert (Muscidae). The adult flies in these genera are free-living and do not parasitise birds, but their larvae develop in the nests of altricial birds, feed on their avian hosts, and exhibit feeding behaviours from hematophagy to coprophagy [1, 2]. Most larval infestations have been documented in host nests of the order Passeriformes, but larvae have also been found in nests of Accipitriformes, Apodiformes, Strigiformes and other avian taxa (Protocalliphora: [3]; Passeromyia: [4]; Philornis: [5, 6]). The effect of these parasitic fly larvae on host survival can be severe to mild, depending on many factors including host population size, body size, nesting density and the presence of behavioural or immunological defence mechanisms [6, 7, 8].
\n
Protocalliphora is widely distributed throughout the Holarctic and contains 40+ species with obligate avian parasitic larvae [3]. Within Muscidae, only Passeromyia and Philornis larvae parasitise birds [4, 9, 10]. Both Passeromyia and Philornis are members of the subfamily Cyrtoneurininae, however their complete evolutionary relationships have yet to be resolved [11, 12]. Due to the similarities between Passeromyia and Philornis, many workers regarded the two genera as close relatives, including Skidmore [9], who stated that their similarities could not be based on convergent evolution alone. The five Passeromyia species include P. steini (Pont), P. heterochaeta (Villeneuve), P. indecora (Walker), P. longicornis (Macquart) and P. veitchi (Bezzi), and are distributed throughout Europe, Africa, Asia and Australasia [4, 13]. Passeromyia species differ in their larval habits. For example, P. steini larvae scavenge nests for organic matter and P. indecora larvae consume host resources as subcutaneous parasites. The 52 Philornis species are distributed primarily in Neotropical South America and southern North America [1, 2, 10]. Philornis species also show a wide range of feeding habits, including free-living coprophagous larvae, free-living semi-hematophagous larvae, and subcutaneous hematophagous larvae (Table 1). One species, P. downsi, is a recently discovered invasive species on the Galápagos Islands [14, 15]. Its semi-hematophagous larvae cause significant in-nest host mortality in their novel Galápagos land bird hosts [16]. Cladistics and molecular phylogenetic analyses suggest that the parasitic larval habits of Passeromyia and Philornis evolved independently [10, 12] despite the similarities between both genera including cocoon-wrapped puparia, life history, and clade.
Philornis species ordered according to taxonomy, from the most basal ‘aitkeni-group’ to the most recently evolved ‘angustifrons-group’ (groups from [33]). Larval feeding habits are shown where known and abbreviated as follows: free-living coprophagous larvae (FLC), free-living semi-hematophagous larvae (FLSH), subcutaneous hematophagous larvae (SubH). The following nine species are not included in the list as they are currently not assigned to a taxonomic group [33] given insufficient information: P. molesta, P. nielseni, P. blanchardi, P. cinnamomina, P. convexus, P. mima, P. obscurus, P. steini,P. umanani.
Some P. porteri larvae found in ear canals and nares of nestlings; some later instars found feeding externally on abdomen and wings [41, 43].
P. mimicola larvae found in the nasal cavity of owls, mainly subcutaneous on body [40].
Only known specimens of P. vespidicola collected from nests of the wasp Paracharitopus frontalis (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) [2, 29].
The Galápagos Islands have been listed as a World Heritage site in 1978. Given a suite of threats, including introduced species, the archipelago was added to the ‘List of the World Heritage in Danger’ in 2007 and then removed from this list in 2010 because of actions by the Government of Ecuador to reduce invasions [17, 18]. Biological invasion is considered the greatest threat to biodiversity in the Galápagos Islands [19]. Currently, 543 terrestrial species have been introduced, of which 55 are considered harmful or potentially harmful to native biodiversity [17].
\n
In this chapter, we consider changes in the development and behaviour of the accidentally introduced fly P. downsi Dodge and Aitken (Diptera: Muscidae), that is now considered the biggest threat to the survival of Galápagos land birds [20]. The first P. downsi larvae were collected from Galápagos land bird nests on Santa Cruz Island in 1997 [21]. From examination of museum specimens collected in 1899 (during the Stanford University Expedition led by Robert Snodgrass and Edmund Heller), in 1905–1906 and 1932 (during expeditions sponsored by the California Academy of Sciences), and in 1962 (by Robert Bowman) on Floreana Island, there is no current evidence to suggest P. downsi was present or abundant on the Galápagos Islands prior to 1964, though this is possible [22, 23]. By collating information from a range of researchers investigating Philornis in general and P. downsi in particular, we aim to improve our understanding of the ontogeny and behaviour of an invasive Philornis species within the larger context of Dipteran parasites of birds. We review Philornis systematics and taxonomy, discuss feeding habits across Philornis species, report on differences in the ontogeny of wild and captive P. downsi larvae, report on adult P. downsi behaviour, and describe changes in P. downsi behaviour since its discovery on the Galápagos Islands.
\n
\n
\n
2. Philornis systematics and taxonomy
\n
Macquart [24] provided the first description of Philornis larvae when he described Aricia pici; a subcutaneous larval parasite found on an adult Hispaniolan woodpecker (Melanerpes striatus; previously Picus striatus) Muller (Piciformes: Picidae). Meinert [25] erected the genus Philornis for the single species, P. molesta, based on larvae with distinctive posterior spiracles found parasitising nestlings. At this time, Philornis was suggested to be a synonym for Protocalliphora and assigned to the family Calliphoridae [26]. In 1921, Malloch [27] proposed the genus Neomusca based on adult specimens, whereas the genus Philornis was based on larval characters. Aldrich [28] revised this group and synonymized Neomusca with Philornis as independent genera, assigning both within the family Muscidae (Anthomyiidae at the time). This revision was supported by further work on Philornis species, as new and previously described species were transferred from other genera including Hylemyia, Mesembrina, Neomusca and Mydaea [9, 28, 29, 30, 31]. Philornis adults are distinguished from other muscid genera by the presence of hair on the anepimeron and the postalar wall [1, 32].
\n
Using morphological and ecological data, Philornis can be divided into three phylogenetic groups: the ‘aitkeni-group’, the ‘falsificus-group’ and the ‘angustifrons-group’ [33]. Male characters (given few female specimens) generally define the most basal lineage of Philornis, the ‘aitkeni-group’, including enlarged upper eye facets in holotypic males [29, 33]. The members of this group display adult character states that are considered primitive among muscids (i.e., enlarged upper eye facets and presence of cilia on the surface of the wing vein R4+5) [33]. This group includes P. aitkeni (Dodge), P. rufoscutellaris (Couri), and P. fasciventris (Wulp). The phylogeny of the aitkeni-group is not completely resolved because of missing information about life history and morphology, as female and larval specimens are not available for many species. The second group, the falsificus-group, is defined primarily by P. falsificus (Dodge and Aitken), whose larvae are free-living [9]. Common morphological characters include five scutellar marginal setae that also place P. fumicosta (Dodge), P. univittatus (Dodge), P. grandis (Couri) and P. sabroskyi (Albuquerque) within this group [33]; however, data on the ecology of these species are missing. More information on larval life history is necessary to confirm whether species other than P. falsificus belong in this lineage. Despite a similar life history to P. falsificus, P. downsi is not within the falsificus-group [1, 9, 33], but forms a sister-group to all species within the angustifrons-group for which larval habits have mostly been documented (Table 1). The angustifrons-group is the most recently evolved and largest of the three Philornis lineages and contains species with subcutaneous hematophagous larvae as well as P. downsi with semi-hematophagous larvae.
\n
Comparative taxonomic analyses of Philornis species have been hampered by a lack of specimens and information [9]. For several species of Philornis, their morphological descriptions are based solely on one sex, generally males. In others, the holotype is missing or destroyed, and so other traits and ecological information are missing. Philornis blanchardi (Garcia) has been originally identified and described in Argentina from a single female specimen, which has since been lost [34]. This specimen may belong to a previously described species as it has not been captured and identified since, however the original description is considered sufficiently unique that it may be a separate species [34]. The single male holotype used to describe P. umanani (Garcia) has also been lost and due to the lack of detail provided in the original description, this species is deemed unrecognisable and is now considered a nomen dubium [34]. Evidence of a Philornis species complex within specimens of P. seguyi (Garcia) and P. torquans (Nielsen) in Argentina throws further doubt on the original taxonomic characterisation of many Philornis species [35]. These issues highlight the need for more extensive molecular and morphological analysis of currently recognised Philornis species to confirm species classifications and their evolutionary relationships.
\n
\n
\n
3. Larval feeding habits across Philornis species
\n
\n
3.1 Philornis larval behaviour
\n
Philornis species differ in their larval feeding habits, which include coprophagous and hematophagous diets (Table 1). Larval habits have been documented for 30 out of 52 described species (Table 1). The most basal group in the Philornis phylogeny (aikteni) have free-living coprophagous larvae [33]. These larvae parasitise cavity nesting host species that do not remove waste, such as the rufous-tailed jacamar (Galbula ruficauda) Cuvier (Piciformes: Galbulidae) and appear to be specific to this type of nest [2, 5, 30, 36, 37]. Free-living saprophagous larvae in the nest are regarded as the ancestral trait, evolving into coprophagous larvae, semi-hematophagous larvae and then subcutaneous larvae [9, 33]. This transition is also supported in Passeromyia where species show a similar order of descent [4, 10, 33]. Two documented species, P. downsi (angustifrons-group) and P. falsificus (falsificus-group), have free-living and semi-hematophagous larvae, although other undescribed species within the falsificus-group may also have free-living larvae [1, 30, 33].
\n
Most Philornis species (83%) have larvae with subcutaneous hematophagous feeding habits, which is also the primary larval strategy in the angustrifrons-group. Within this group, only P. downsi has non-subcutaneous larvae. The semi-hematophagous P. downsi larvae may be similar to P. falsificus (falsificus-group), which is also suspected of having free-living semi-hematophagous larvae [33]—but not enough is known about the biology of the falsificus-group. While P. falsificus is considered a free-living ectoparasite [30], this assessment is limited by the observations to date of later instars and puparia [38, 39]. On the other hand, in two species with subcutaneous feeding habits in the angustifrons-group, a few Philornis larvae have been also observed in avian nares. Specifically, P. mimicola larvae have been found in the nares of ferruginous pygmy-owl nestlings (Glaucidium brasilianum) Gmelin (Strigiformes: Strigidae), but most larvae occurred subcutaneously [40]. Larvae of P. porteri (Dodge) have been found in the nares and ear canals of some nestlings [41, 42], and 3rd instar larvae observed to feed externally on the abdomen and wings of their hosts [41, 43]. In the semi-hematophagous P. downsi larvae, 1st instars regularly reside within the avian nares [44, 45, 46] and later instars move to the base of the nest where they emerge at dusk and dawn to feed externally on the blood and tissue of the developing birds [45, 46]. Lineages with free-living larvae have been far less studied than lineages with subcutaneous larvae (Table 1). Free-living larvae move freely within the host nest, detach from the host at various times and reside in the nest base during the day, making them less conspicuous to human observers [45, 46]. In contrast, subcutaneous larvae reside under the skin of the host and hence can be detected when nestlings are examined.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Philornis downsi larval development in the wild and in the laboratory
\n
\n
4.1 Philornis downsi larval instars
\n
Philornis downsi larval development is split into three instar development stages. 1st instar larvae generally reside in the naris and ear canals of developing nestlings, but some have also been found moving freely within the nesting material [21, 52, 53]. First instars are commonly collected from 2 to 3 day old nestlings [43]. Late 2nd and 3rd instar larvae are generally free-living, residing within the base of the nest and feeding externally on nestlings at night [14, 45, 46]. These later instar larvae feed on the blood and fluids of their host by penetrating the skin of the nestlings [2, 30]. Larval instar morphological descriptions are given by Fessl et al. [44]. The most distinct character between the instars is the posterior spiracles, which change in colour, shape and number of spiracular slits present throughout larval development [44].
\n
Figure 1(1A) shows the posterior spiracles of a 1st instar P. downsi larva, characterised by their light pigmentation and two oval slits present [44]. The spiracles of a 1st instar larva are separated by slightly more than their diameter. First instar larvae lack anterior spiracles (Figure 1(1B)). The posterior spiracles of a 2nd instar larva are similarly round with two oval slits; however, the distance between them is two to three times of their diameter (Figure 1(2D); [44]). Anterior spiracles are present during the 2nd instar, and semicircular in shape, lightly pigmented and visible in Figure 1(2E)). 3rd instar posterior spiracular plates are darkly pigmented and round in shape, distinct C-shaped spiracular slits radiate from median ecdysial scar (Figure 1(3G)). Pigmentation of the median ecdysial scar is light in early 3rd instar larvae and becoming darkly pigmented later in the stage. Semi-circular anterior spiracles are retained in 3rd instar larvae (Figure 1(3H)). Cephaloskeleton morphology differs between instars as outlined in Fessl et al. [44]. Recent studies report a decrease in P. downsi puparia size across 2004–2014 [54]. Common et al. (unpublished data), and hence body size is certainly not a useful method to classify instars. In general, it is recommended to use a suite of morphological characters, including anterior and posterior spiracular morphology, to determine the larval instar.
\n
Figure 1.
Three larval stages of Philornis downsi. (1) First instar: (A) posterior spiracles, (B) lateral view, (C) ventral view. (2) second instar: (D) posterior spiracles, (E) lateral view, (F) ventral view. (3) third instar: (G) posterior spiracles, (H) lateral view, (I) ventral view. Obtained by the authors from larvae collected on Floreana Island, Galápagos, Ecuador between 2010 and 2014. The photographs were taken using a visionary digital LK imaging system (dun, Inc) with a canon EOS 5DsR camera and capture one pro 11.3.1, phase one (Flinders University). Images were produced using Zerene stacker 1.04, Zerene systems LLC, software, and cropped and resized in Photoshop CS5.
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Larval development
\n
The developmental period of Philornis larvae is associated with the species’ larval feeding habit. For example, time to pupation in coprophagous species takes up to 29 days, but only 4–8 days in subcutaneous species [2, 55]. Larval development periods in free-living species such as P. downsi are difficult to determine in the wild as the host nest needs to be dismantled to observe the larvae. Early studies of abandoned or failed nests found 1st instar larvae in nests with 1–3 day old nestlings, 2nd instars in nests with 3–6 day old nestlings and 3rd instars in nests with 3–10 day old nestlings [44]. Larval collections following the cessation of activity at host nests suggest that the minimum time for pupation in P. downsi is 4–7 days [54].
\n
Compared with larval development times in the wild, larval development times under laboratory conditions are longer. First attempts to rear P. downsi larvae in the absence of a living host had a low success rate, with only three larvae out of 477 reaching the adult stage after a 36 day development time (mean 18 day larval development, 12 day pupation) [56]. As the diet for rearing larvae in captivity was refined, the success rate increased to 10% and larval development time decreased [57]. Development time in the laboratory ranged from 9 to 10 days from larva to pupa [57] with even faster development times occurring as the rearing conditions have improved [pers. comm. P. Lahuatte]. Egg hatch rates in captivity have been high (96%), with most mortality in 1st instar larvae (77%) [57]. Laboratory-based diets that have been developed in the absence of a bird host are primarily based on chicken blood, with more successful diets including hydrolysed protein and vitamin fortification [57]. The lack of keratin in the diet may be causing elevated 1st instar mortality, as 1st instars consume the keratin of the beak in which they reside [44], however the true cause is unknown.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Philornis downsi adult behaviour
\n
The behaviour of adult P. downsi is much less understood than that of the larvae. The adult fly is vegetarian, feeding on decaying fruits and flowers, including the invasive blackberry (Rubus niveus) Thunb (Rosales: Rosaceae) [9, 15, 31]. Philornis downsi is commonly attracted to a mix of blended papaya and sugar, which is used to trap adult flies (developed by P. Lincango and C. Causton; used by [58], Causton et al. in review). This mix is particularly attractive to adult flies due to the presence of yeast and fermentation products such as ethanol and acetic acid [59].
\n
A one-year study on Floreana Island found that male and female P. downsi display dimorphic flight patterns, with females more likely to be caught in high and low traps (2 m, most common at 6–7 m), and males more likely to be caught in traps of intermediate height (4–5 m) [58]. As the pattern of male and female abundance are quadratic opposites, this has tentatively been suggested to be an advantage for females to avoid male flies, as frequent mating in other Dipterans has been found to decrease female reproductive success and lifespan [60, 61]. This flight pattern may also explain why certain host species experience higher parasite intensities, such as the medium tree finch (Camarhynchus pauper) Ridgway (Passeriformes: Thraupidae) that has an average nest height of 6 m, thus making it more susceptible to being encountered by female P. downsi [58, 62, 63]. However, the factors that cause bird species to experience differing intensities of P. downsi are complicated and vary between years. Comparison of flight height in P. downsi on different islands is needed to test the generality of this pattern, which may be influenced by average tree height and/or other ecological variables.
\n
\n
5.1 Mating behaviour
\n
The mating behaviour of Philornis in general is not well understood, though there are some insights into P. downsi mating patterns. While mating has not been observed at or inside the nest, multiple P. downsi flies have been video recorded to enter host nests concurrently [45, 64]. Analysis of offspring genetic relatedness has provided estimates of the re-mating frequency of P. downsi [65]. Evidence for multiple mating by females has been frequently detected, and each larval infrapopulation (i.e., within nests) is sired by 1–5 males (average ~1.9 males per female) [65]. How P. downsi adults find each other to initiate mating is unknown. Pheromones for attraction and aggregation in muscid flies have been identified and studied [66, 67, 68]. Cuticular compounds show promise for determining if P. downsi produces pheromones, as females and mature males showed distinct cuticular profiles and females respond to chemicals produced by males [69, 70, 71]. Cuticular profiles could be developed as an attractant to capture flies in the field [20, 72].
\n
\n
\n
5.2 Oviposition behaviour
\n
Studies into oviposition in the genus Philornis have revealed that species spanning diverse larval feeding habits are oviparous [1, 9, 31, 73, 74]. This current view has previously been hotly debated, in part because the majority of species remain unstudied. Laboratory rearing and field observation have confirmed that P. downsi is oviparous [45, 56, 57, 75]. Philornis flies enter and oviposit in nests regardless of nesting phase or nestling age but have not been observed to enter nests abandoned by the parent birds during the incubation phase [45, 47]. From in-nest video recordings, P. downsi flies have been observed entering nests throughout the day, but generally during dusk between 1500 and 1800, with visiting rates peaking around 1700 [45, 64]. Visit length averaged 1.3–1.5 min and occurred most commonly when the adult host is away from the nest and completed once the adult host returned [45, 64]. Eggs have been generally deposited on nesting material and the base of the nest [45, 57], however on one occasion, eggs have been also laid directly by the naris of a nestling [45]. A genetic study of P. downsi larvae estimated that 1–6 adult females (average ~3 females) oviposit within a single nest, supporting previous observations of different sized larval groups within nests and suggesting repeated nest infestations throughout the nestling period [7, 65].
\n
\n
\n
5.3 Effects of host species on Philornis behaviour and microbiome
\n
Philornis downsi is one of the most generalist species within the genus, known to infest 38 host species across avian taxa [5, 6, 76]. However, this high host number may reflect the large number of studies focused on P. downsi due to its invasive status on the Galápagos Islands [15, 16].
\n
It is currently unclear how Philornis species in general or P. downsi in particular find their hosts. Preliminary studies into the role of semiochemicals and volatiles in host nests as an attractant for P. downsi have produced inconclusive results [70]. Long-term ornithological field studies have provided some hints that the intensity of host cues may be relevant for P. downsi search behaviour, or alternatively that the density of host nests influences P. downsi oviposition behaviour. Aggregated host nests may attract P. downsi females due to an increase in olfactory or visual cues. These aggregated nests also provide a greater opportunity for P. downsi females to infest multiple nests. Indeed, small tree finch nests (Camarhynchus parvulus) Gould (Passeriformes: Thraupidae) with close neighbours contained more P. downsi larvae compared to solitary, more isolated nests [16]. Nests in areas of lower nesting density (i.e., lowlands) have been more likely to contain the offspring of a single P. downsi female than nests in areas of higher nesting density (i.e., highlands) that are more likely to contain the offspring of many P. downsi females [65]. Video recordings of adult P. downsi have been made inside the nests of the small ground finch (Geospiza fuliginosa) Gould (Passeriformes: Thraupidae), medium ground finch (G. fortis) Gould (Passeriformes: Thraupidae), small tree finch (C. parvulus) and Galápagos flycatcher (Myiarchus magnirostris) Gould (Passeriformes: Tyrannidae) [45, 64] (Pike et al. in prep). However, despite a combination of video recorders inside or outside the nest across studies, the recordings did not reveal information about P. downsi search behaviour from its flight behaviour.
\n
A metagenomic study into P. downsi larval microbiome sampled from different host species found an effect of host diet on the gut bacterial community of P. downsi larvae [77]. Larvae retrieved from strictly insectivorous warbler finch (Certhidea olivacea) Gould (Passeriformes: Thraupidae) nests have a different microbiome structure compared with larvae parasitising hosts with broader dietary preferences (ground and tree finches, Geospiza and Camarhynchus sp., respectively) [77]. The gut microbiome also differed between P. downsi larvae (blood diet) and adults (plant diet), supporting the hypothesis that P. downsi microbiome changes during development and according to diet [77]. Further behavioural, biochemical and genetic studies are needed to understand P. downsi oviposition across host species, host locating behaviour and host specificity.
\n
\n
\n
\n
6. Changes in P. downsi behaviour since colonising the Galápagos Islands
\n
\n
6.1 Age of larval cohort in host nests
\n
There is evidence that the oviposition behaviour of female P. downsi has changed since its discovery on the Galápagos archipelago. Philornis downsi flies are now known to oviposit during any stage of the nesting cycle [45]. In the first decades following initial discovery of P. downsi in Darwin’s finch nests, changes in the proportions of instar classes among P. downsi have been observed, with evidence that oviposition occurred earlier and more synchronously in the nesting phase in the later years of the study [54]. Synchronisation in oviposition date may lead to an increase in larval competition for host resources, and as a consequence result in increased virulence for nestlings that must contend with a greater number of large, mature larvae at a younger age [16]. The fitness consequences of female oviposition behaviour are further supported by observations in other Philornis systems. Host nests that are infested later in the nesting cycle are more likely to have higher fledging success than nests parasitized early in the nesting cycle [50, 78].
\n
\n
\n
6.2 Larval feeding on adult birds
\n
Philornis larvae are generally exclusive parasites of developing nestlings, whether they be subcutaneous or free-living semi-hematophagous species. Infestation of host nests can happen quickly and is often observed within 24 h of the first nestling hatching [41, 43, 50, 79]. Many studies on Philornis species in their native range found no evidence of larvae present during incubation [47, 48, 80, 81]. There have been a few cases of larvae feeding on adults in subcutaneous species [82, 83, 84], however these reports are rare, with generally only a few larvae per adult. For this reason, larval feeding on adults is generally regarded as opportunistic [2]. More data are needed to examine the oviposition behaviour of Philornis species to determine whether larvae are present during the incubation phase.
\n
On the Galápagos Islands between 1998 and 2005, there have been no reported cases of P. downsi larvae present in host nests with eggs that would suggest that larvae also feed on incubating females. Two studies during this time period specifically stated that no P. downsi larvae have been found during host incubation (Table 2) [21, 85]. On Santa Cruz Island during 1998–2010, published studies report findings for 38 nests with eggs that have been inspected for the presence of P. downsi and found no larvae (Table 2) [21, 85]. In 2012, Cimadom and colleagues first observed P. downsi larvae in host nests during incubation where larvae have been found present in 17 of the 26 nests inspected [85]. Since this initial observation, the prevalence of P. downsi in host nests with eggs has increased to 80% in some species and years on Santa Cruz Island, with larvae and puparia found in 70 of 177 nests inspected with eggs [86]. Concurrently across this time period, brooding Darwin’s finch females have P. downsi antibodies that are associated with decreased P. downsi intensity, but not increased fledging success [87, 88]. This suggests that P. downsi larvae on the Galápagos Islands may have switched to feed on adult finches at some stage [87]. On Floreana Island, inspection of nests that failed during incubation during 2006 and 2016 found P. downsi larvae in 4 of 72 (5.6%) nests with host eggs (Table 2). In 2006, three medium ground finch (G. fortis) nests with eggs in the arid lowlands have P. downsi larvae and puparia, and in 2010 one highland small tree finch (C. parvulus) has P. downsi larvae during the egg stage. During a period of intense drought from 2003 until 2006 with less than 300 mm of rain per year in the lowlands, there were very few active host nests available for oviposition, which may be an explanation for a shift in P. downsi female oviposition and larval feeding on incubating females at the end of the drought during 2006. Notably, smaller larvae and eggs are not easily visible in nests and it is possible that P. downsi is present, but not detected during incubation in the early years of study.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Ref #
\n
Year (s) of study
\n
Island
\n
Host species
\n
Total no. of nests examined/no. inspected during egg phase
Larvae and puparia found in 18/72 ST nests and 52/105 WF nests that failed during egg phase; range in prevalence across species and years was 0–80% of nests
Evidence of Philornis downsi larvae present in nests during incubation and before nestling hatching in studies on the Galápagos Islands.
The islands are abbreviated as Santa Cruz (SC), Floreana (FL), Isabela (IS), Daphne Major (DMj). The ‘total number of nests examined’ refers to all active nests monitored over the course of the study and ‘number inspected during egg phase’ is the sample size for the sub-set of nests examined during host incubation (usually following abandonment or predation) where ‘na’ denotes that nests have been not sampled during the egg phase. The column ‘P. downsi larvae during the egg phase’ states ‘yes/no’ referring only to nest inspections that occurred during the egg phase. Host species are abbreviated as small tree finch (ST), large tree finch (Camarhynchus psittacula) (LT), small ground finch (SG), medium ground finch (MG), woodpecker finch (Cactospiza pallida) (WP), warbler finch (Certhidea olivacea) (WF), cactus finch (Geospiza scandens) (CF), Galápagos mockingbird (GM), smooth billed ani (Crotophaga ani) (SBA), yellow warbler (Dendroica petechia) (YW), dark billed cuckoo (Coccyzus melacoryphus) (DBC), vermillion flycatcher (Pyrocephalus rubinus) (VF), vegetarian finch (Platyspiza crassirostris) (VGF), and Galápagos flycatcher (Myiarchus magnirostris) (GF).
\n
In laboratory trials, P. downsi hatching success is found to be the same in nests with host eggs and nests with finch hatchlings (Lonchura striata domestica) Linnaeus (Passeriformes: Estrildidae) [89]. In these trials, there is even a fitness benefit for P. downsi that hatched during incubation and hence earlier during the host cycle, as they survived for longer [89]. Other than P. downsi, there is one report of an unidentified Philornis species parasitising adults in the pearly-eyed thrasher (Margarops fuscatus) Vieillot (Passeriformes: Mimidae) studied in Puerto Rico [49]. About 46% of incubating and brooding females and 13% of attending adult males sustained subcutaneous Philornis [49]. It has been suggested that this Philornis species may have invaded Puerto Rico, as the patterns of prevalence and host mortality mirror that of the P. downsi invasion in the Galápagos Islands [6, 48, 49]. Philornis consumption of attending adult hosts may be an oviposition tactic that is more prevalent under conditions of resource limitation. Resource limitation could be influenced by resource termination such as early host death, resource availability when there is a limited supply of host nests (e.g., during drought), and resource accessibility, for example when competition within and between fly cohorts changes [54].
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Conclusions
\n
As one of three avian nest parasitic genera in Diptera, the genus Philornis provides a useful system to explore shifts in larval feeding behaviour in native and invasive species. Philornis downsi has been accidentally introduced to the Galápagos Islands and first observed in the nests of Galápagos land birds in 1997. In this chapter, we explored similarities and differences between P. downsi larval development and behaviour with what is known from the other 52 Philornis species. More basal Philornis (aitkeni-group) species have free-living coprophagous larvae and more recently evolved Philornis (angustifrons-group) tend to have subcutaneous hematophagous larvae with the exception of P. downsi that has free-living semi-hematophagous larvae. Since its introduction to the Galápagos Islands, there have been documented changes in the behaviour of P. downsi. During the early years after initial discovery of P. downsi on the Galápagos Islands, oviposition behaviour was asynchronous across the nesting cycle and larvae appeared to have fed exclusively on developing nestlings until 2005. In later years, P. downsi oviposition behaviour was earlier in the nesting cycle and more synchronous, and since 2006, larvae have also been recorded to feed on incubating females. The first records of P. downsi larvae in host nests with eggs rather than hatchlings occurred at the end of a four-year drought on the Galápagos in 2006. Since 2012, up to 80% of host nests with eggs may contain P. downsi larvae on Santa Cruz Island. Larval feeding by P. downsi on adult birds has been observed in laboratory finches and in one Philornis system (species unknown) in Puerto Rico. In light of changes in P. downsi larval feeding behaviour, we provided a description and photos of the larval instars for use in field identification. We compiled the observations to date of Philornis behaviour and ontogeny within a broad taxonomic framework and summarised patterns of change in the oviposition behaviour of P. downsi in its (presumably) novel habitat on the Galápagos Islands. By examining P. downsi in relation to other Philornis species, we provided a broad phylogenetic context for the potential behavioural repertoire of an invasive species under conditions of intense natural selection in a novel environment.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
We thank the Galápagos National Park authority for research permits and the opportunity to work on the Galápagos, and the Charles Darwin Research Station for logistical support. We thank Charlotte Causton, Paola Lahuatte, Birgit Fessl, George Heimpel and Arno Cimadom for their useful comments on the manuscript. We thank Bradley Sinclair for advice on larval instar morphology. We thank Justin Holder, Grant Gully and Ben Parslow for their assistance with the photographs and guidance on using the Visionary System. This publication is contribution number 2277 of the Charles Darwin Foundation for the Galápagos Islands.
\n
\n',keywords:"Protocalliphora, Passeromyia, Philornis, nest larvae, hematophagous, subcutaneous, Darwin’s finches, Passeriformes",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68802.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68802.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68802",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68802",totalDownloads:110,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 22nd 2019",dateReviewed:"July 27th 2019",datePrePublished:"September 2nd 2019",datePublished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The parasitic larvae of Philornis downsi Dodge & Aitken (Diptera: Muscidae) were first discovered in Darwin’s finch nests on the Galápagos Islands in 1997. Larvae of P. downsi consume the blood and tissue of developing birds, causing high in-nest mortality in their Galápagos hosts. The fly has been spreading across the archipelago and is considered the biggest threat to the survival of Galápagos land birds. Here, we review (1) Philornis systematics and taxonomy, (2) discuss shifts in feeding habits across Philornis species comparing basal to more recently evolved groups, (3) report on differences in the ontogeny of wild and captive P. downsi larvae, (4) describe what is known about adult P. downsi behaviour, and (5) discuss changes in P. downsi behaviour since its discovery on the Galápagos Islands. From 1997 to 2010, P. downsi larvae have been rarely detected in Darwin’s finch nests with eggs. Since 2012, P. downsi larvae have regularly been found in the nests of incubating Darwin’s finches. Exploring P. downsi ontogeny and behaviour in the larger context of taxonomic relationships provides clues about the breadth of behavioural flexibility that may facilitate successful colonisation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68802",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68802",signatures:"Lauren K. Common, Rachael Y. Dudaniec, Diane Colombelli-Négrel and Sonia Kleindorfer",book:{id:"8191",title:"Life Cycle and Development of Diptera",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Life Cycle and Development of Diptera",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Sarwar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8191.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"272992",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarwar",slug:"muhammad-sarwar",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Philornis systematics and taxonomy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Larval feeding habits across Philornis species",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Philornis larval behaviour",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Philornis downsi larval development in the wild and in the laboratory",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1 Philornis downsi larval instars",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2 Larval development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Philornis downsi adult behaviour",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.1 Mating behaviour",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.2 Oviposition behaviour",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.3 Effects of host species on Philornis behaviour and microbiome",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Changes in P. downsi behaviour since colonising the Galápagos Islands",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.1 Age of larval cohort in host nests",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.2 Larval feeding on adult birds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Couri MS. Myiasis caused by obligatory parasites. 5a. Philornis Meinert (Muscidae). Myiasis in man and animals in the Neotropical region. In: Editora Pleiade. Brazil: Sao Paulo; 1999. pp. 44-70'},{id:"B2",body:'Teixeira DM. Myiasis caused by obligatory parasites. 5b. General observations on the biology of species of the genus Philornis Meinert, 1890 (Diptera, Muscidae). Myiasis in man and animals in the Neotropical Region. In: Editora Pleiade. Brazil: Sao Paulo; 1999. pp. 71-96'},{id:"B3",body:'Sabrosky CW, Bennett GF, Whitworth TL. Bird Blow Flies (Protocalliphora) in North America (Diptera: Calliphoridae) with Notes on Palearctic Species. Smithsonian Institution Press; 1989'},{id:"B4",body:'Pont AC. Revision of the genus Passeromyia Rodhain & Villeneuve (Diptera: Muscidae). In: Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology. 1974'},{id:"B5",body:'Bulgarella M, Heimpel GE. Host range and community structure of avian nest parasites in the genus Philornis (Diptera: Muscidae) on the island of Trinidad. Ecology and Evolution. 2015;5(17):3695-3703. DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1621'},{id:"B6",body:'McNew SM, Clayton DH. Alien invasion: Biology of Philornis flies highlighting Philornis downsi, an introduced parasite of Galápagos birds. Annual Review of Entomology. 2018;63:369-387. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043103'},{id:"B7",body:'Dudaniec RY, Kleindorfer S. Effects of the parasitic flies of the genus Philornis (Diptera: Muscidae) on birds. Emu-Austral Ornithology. 2006;106(1):13-20. DOI: 10.1071/MU04040'},{id:"B8",body:'Bulgarella M, Quiroga MA, Heimpel GE. Additive negative effects of Philornis nest parasitism on small and declining Neotropical bird populations. Bird Conservation International. 2018;29(3):1-22. DOI: 10.1017/S0959270918000291'},{id:"B9",body:'Skidmore P. The biology of the Muscidae of the world (Series Entomologica). 1st ed. 550 pp. Dordrecht: Dr W; 1985'},{id:"B10",body:'Couri MS, Carvalho CD. Systematic relations among Philornis Meinert, Passeromyia Rodhain & Villeneuve and allied genera (Diptera, Muscidae). Brazilian Journal of Biology. 2003;63(2):223-232. DOI: 10.1590/S1519-69842003000200007'},{id:"B11",body:'Kutty SN, Pont AC, Meier R, Pape T. Complete tribal sampling reveals basal split in Muscidae (Diptera), confirms saprophagy as ancestral feeding mode, and reveals an evolutionary correlation between instar numbers and carnivory. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 2014;78:349-364. DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2014.05.027'},{id:"B12",body:'Haseyama KL, Wiegmann BM, Almeida EA, de Carvalho CJ. Say goodbye to tribes in the new house fly classification: A new molecular phylogenetic analysis and an updated biogeographical narrative for the Muscidae (Diptera). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 2015;89:1-2. DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2015.04.006'},{id:"B13",body:'Edworthy AB, Langmore NE, Heinsohn R. Native fly parasites are the principal cause of nestling mortality in endangered Tasmanian pardalotes. Animal Conservation. 2010;22(1):96-103'},{id:"B14",body:'Fessl B, Couri MS, Tebbich S. Philornis downsi Dodge & Aitken, new to the Galápagos Islands (Diptera, Muscidae). Studia Dipterologica. 2001;8(1):317-322'},{id:"B15",body:'Fessl B, Heimpel GE, Causton CE. Invasion of an avian nest parasite, Philornis downsi, to the Galápagos Islands: Colonization history, adaptations to novel ecosystems, and conservation challenges. In: Disease Ecology. Cham: Springer; 2018. pp. 213-266. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-65909-1_9'},{id:"B16",body:'Kleindorfer S, Dudaniec RY. Host-parasite ecology, behavior and genetics: A review of the introduced fly parasite Philornis downsi and its Darwin’s finch hosts. BMC Zoology. 2016;1(1):1. DOI: 10.1186/s40850-016-0003-9'},{id:"B17",body:'Lethier H, Bueno P. Report on the Reactive Monitoring Mission to Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site (Ecuador). IUCN. 2018. Available from: https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/167914/ [Accessed: 2019-06-29]'},{id:"B18",body:'Toral-Granda MV, Causton CE, Jäger H, Trueman M, Izurieta JC, Araujo E, et al. Alien species pathways to the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador. PLoS One. 2017;12(9):e0184379. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184379'},{id:"B19",body:'Watkins G, Cruz F. Helmsley Charitable Trust’s Galapagos Strategic Plan 2012.'},{id:"B20",body:'Causton CE, Cunninghame F, Tapia W. Management of the avian parasite Philornis downsi in the Galápagos Islands: A collaborative and strategic action plan. Galápagos Report. 2012;2013:167-173'},{id:"B21",body:'Fessl B, Tebbich S. Philornis downsi—A recently discovered parasite on the Galápagos archipelago—A threat for Darwin\'s finches? Ibis. 2002;144(3):445-451. DOI: 10.1046/j.1474-919X.2002.00076.x'},{id:"B22",body:'Causton CE, Peck SB, Sinclair BJ, Roque-Albelo L, Hodgson CJ, Landry B. Alien insects: Threats and implications for conservation of Galápagos Islands. Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 2006;99(1):121-143. DOI: 10.1603/0013-8746(2006)099[0121:AITAIF]2.0.CO;2'},{id:"B23",body:'Kleindorfer S, Sulloway FJ. Naris deformation in Darwin’s finches: Experimental and historical evidence for a post-1960s arrival of the parasite Philornis downsi. Global Ecology and Conservation. 2016;7:122-131. DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2016.05.006'},{id:"B24",body:'Macquart J. Notice sur une nouvelle espèce d Aricie, diptère de la tribu des Anthomyzides. Annales de la Société Entomologique de France. 1854;3(1):657-660'},{id:"B25",body:'Meinert F. Philornis molesta, en paa Fugle snyltend Tachinarie. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra den Naturhistoriske Forening I Kjøbenhavn. 1890;1(5):304-317'},{id:"B26",body:'Becker T, Bezzi M, Kertész K, Stein P. Katalog der Paläarktischen Dipteran. Cyclorrapha Aschiza. Acyclorrapha Schizophora: Schizommetopa. Budapest: Hódmezövåsárhely, Wesselényi; 1907;3:1-597. Availabe from: https://archive.org/details/katalogderpala03beck/page/n5'},{id:"B27",body:'Malloch JR. Notes on some of van der Wulp’s species of north American Anthomyiidae (Diptera). Entomological News. 1921;32:40-45'},{id:"B28",body:'Aldrich JM. The genus Philornis-a bird-infesting group of Anthomyiidae. Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 1923;16(4):304-309. DOI: 10.1093/aesa/16.4.304'},{id:"B29",body:'Dodge HR. A new Philornis with coprophagous larva, and some related species (Diptera: Muscidae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 1963:239-247'},{id:"B30",body:'Dodge HR, Aitken TH. Philornis flies from Trinidad (Diptera: Muscidae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 1968;41(1):134-154'},{id:"B31",body:'Couri MS. Notes and descriptions of Philornis flies (Diptera, Muscidae, Cyrtoneurininae). Revista Brasileira de Entomologia. 1984;43(3):297-310'},{id:"B32",body:'Savage J, Vockeroth JR. Muscidae (house flies, stable flies). In: Brown BV, Borkent A, Cumming JM, Wood DM, Woodley NE, Zumbado MA, editors. Manual of Central American Diptera. Vol. 2. NRC Research Press; 2010. pp. 1281-1295'},{id:"B33",body:'Couri MS, De Carvalho CJB, Löwenberg-Neto P. Phylogeny of Philornis Meinert species (Diptera: Muscidae). Zootaxa. 2007;1530:19-26'},{id:"B34",body:'Couri MS, Antoniazzi LR, Beldomenico P, Quiroga M. Argentine Philornis Meinert species (Diptera: Muscidae) with synonymic notes. Zootaxa. 2009;2261(5262):77132'},{id:"B35",body:'Quiroga MA, Monje LD, Arrabal JP, Beldomenico PM. New molecular data on subcutaneous Philornis (Diptera: Muscidae) from southern South America suggests the existence of a species complex. Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad. 2016;87(4):1383-1386. DOI: 10.1016/j.rmb.2016.10.018'},{id:"B36",body:'Teixeira DM, Couri MS, Luigi G. Notes on the biology of Philornis rufoscutellaris Couri, 1983 (Diptera, Muscidae) and on its association with nestling birds. Revista Brasileira de Entomologia. 1990;34(2):271-275'},{id:"B37",body:'Couri MS, Murphy TG, Hoebeke R. Philornis fasciventris (Wulp) (Diptera: Muscidae): Description of the male, larva and puparium, with notes on biology and host association. Neotropical Entomology. 2007;36(6):889-893. DOI: 10.1590/S1519-566X2007000600009'},{id:"B38",body:'Leite GA, Matsui QY, Couri MS, Monteiro AR. New association between Philornis Meinert (Diptera: Muscidae) and Falconidae (Aves: Falconiformes). Neotropical Entomology. 2009;38(5):686-687. DOI: 10.1590/S1519-566X2009000500021'},{id:"B39",body:'Bulgarella M, Quiroga MA, Boulton RA, Ramírez IE, Moon RD, Causton CE, et al. Life cycle and host specificity of the parasitoid Conura annulifera (hymenoptera: Chalcididae), a potential biological control agent of Philornis downsi (Diptera: Muscidae) in the Galápagos Islands. Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 2017;110(3):317-328. DOI: 10.1093/aesa/saw102'},{id:"B40",body:'Proudfoot GA, Teel PD, Mohr RM. Ferruginous pygmy-owl (Glaucidium brasilianum) and eastern screech-owl (Megascopes asio): New hosts for Philornis mimicola (Diptera: Muscidae) and Ornithodoros concanensis (Acari: Argasidae). Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 2006;42(4):873-876. DOI: 10.7589/0090-3558-42.4.873'},{id:"B41",body:'Spalding MG, Mertins JW, Walsh PB, Morin KC, Dunmore DE, Forrester DJ. Burrowing fly larvae (Philornis porteri) associated with mortality of eastern bluebirds in Florida. Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 2002;38(4):776-783. DOI: 10.7589/0090-3558-38.4.776'},{id:"B42",body:'Le Gros A, Stracey CM, Robinson SK. Associations between northern mockingbirds and the parasite Philornis porteri in relation to urbanization. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 2011;123(4):788-796. DOI: 10.1676/10-049.1'},{id:"B43",body:'Kinsella JM, Winegarner CE. Notes on the life history of Neomusca porteri (Dodge), parasitic on nestlings of the great crested flycatcher in Florida. Journal of Medical Entomology. 1974;11(5):633'},{id:"B44",body:'Fessl B, Sinclair BJ, Kleindorfer S. The life-cycle of Philornis downsi (Diptera: Muscidae) parasitizing Darwin\'s finches and its impacts on nestling survival. Parasitology. 2006;133(6):739-747. DOI: 10.1017/S0031182006001089'},{id:"B45",body:'O’Connor JA, Robertson J, Kleindorfer S. Video analysis of host–parasite interactions in nests of Darwin’s finches. Oryx. 2010;44(4):588-594. DOI: 10.1017/S0030605310000086'},{id:"B46",body:'O’Connor JA, Robertson J, Kleindorfer S. Darwin\'s finch begging intensity does not honestly signal need in parasitised nests. Ethology. 2014;120(3):228-237. DOI: /10.1111/eth.12196'},{id:"B47",body:'Young BE. Effects of the parasitic botfly Philornis carinatus on nestling house wrens, Troglodytes aedon, in Costa Rica. Oecologia. 1993;93(2):256-262. DOI: 10.1007/BF00317679'},{id:"B48",body:'Arendt WJ. Philornis ectoparasitism of pearly-eyed thrashers. I. Impact on growth and development of nestlings. The Auk. 1985;102(2):270-280. DOI: 10.2307/4086769'},{id:"B49",body:'Arendt WJ. Philornis ectoparasitism of pearly-eyed thrashers. II. Effects on adults and reproduction. The Auk. 1985;102(2):281-292. DOI: 10.2307/4086770'},{id:"B50",body:'Rabuffetti FL, Reboreda JC. Early infestation by bot flies (Philornis seguyi) decreases chick survival and nesting success in chalk-browed mockingbirds (Mimus saturninus). The Auk. 2007;124(3):898-906. DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2007)124[898:EIBBFP]2.0.CO;2'},{id:"B51",body:'Quiroga MA, Reboreda JC. Lethal and sublethal effects of botfly (Philornis seguyi) parasitism on house wren nestlings. The Condor. 2012;114(1):197-202. DOI: /10.1525/cond.2012.110152'},{id:"B52",body:'Silvestri L, Antoniazzi LR, Couri MS, Monje LD, Beldomenico PM. First record of the avian ectoparasite Philornis downsi Dodge & Aitken, 1968 (Diptera: Muscidae) in Argentina. Systematic Parasitology. 2011;80(2):137. DOI: 10.1007/s11230-011-9314-y'},{id:"B53",body:'Cimadom A, Ulloa A, Meidl P, Zöttl M, Zöttl E, Fessl B, et al. Invasive parasites, habitat change and heavy rainfall reduce breeding success in Darwin\'s finches. PLoS One. 2014;9(9):e107518. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107518'},{id:"B54",body:'Kleindorfer S, Peters KJ, Custance G, Dudaniec RY, O’Connor JA. Changes in Philornis infestation behavior threaten Darwin’s finch survival. Current Zoology. 2014;60(4):542-550. DOI: 10.1093/czoolo/60.4.542'},{id:"B55",body:'Uhazy LS, Arendt WJ. Pathogenesis associated with philornid myiasis (Diptera: Muscidae) on nestling pearly-eyed thrashers (Aves: Mimidae) in the Luquillo Rain Forest, Puerto Rico. Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 1986;22(2):224-237. DOI: 10.7589/0090-3558-22.2.224'},{id:"B56",body:'Lincango P, Causton C. Crianza en cautiverio de Philornis downsi, en las Islas Galápagos. Charles Darwin Fourndation: Informe interno; 2008'},{id:"B57",body:'Lincango P, Causton C, Cedeño D, Castañeda J, Hillstrom A, Freund D. Interactions between the avian parasite, Philornis downsi (Diptera: Muscidae) and the Galápagos flycatcher, Myiarchus magnirostris Gould (Passeriformes: Tyrannidae). Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 2015;51(4):907-910. DOI: 10.7589/2015-01-025'},{id:"B58",body:'Kleindorfer S, Peters KJ, Hohl L, Sulloway FJ. Flight behaviour of an introduced parasite affects its Galápagos Island hosts: Philornis downsi and Darwin’s finches. Chapter 10 In: Weis JS, Sol D, editors. Biological Invasions and Animal Behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2016'},{id:"B59",body:'Cha DH, Mieles AE, Lahuatte PF, Cahuana A, Lincango MP, Causton CE, et al. Identification and optimization of microbial attractants for Philornis downsi, an invasive fly parasitic on Galápagos birds. Journal of Chemical Ecology. 2016;42(11):1101-1111. DOI: 10.1007/s10886-016-0780-1'},{id:"B60",body:'Bateman AJ. Intra-sexual selection in Drosophila. Heredity. 1948;2(3):349-368'},{id:"B61",body:'Fowler K, Partridge L. A cost of mating in female fruitflies. Nature. 1989;338(6218):760. DOI: 10.1038/338760a0'},{id:"B62",body:'O’Connor JA, Sulloway FJ, Robertson J, Kleindorfer S. Philornis downsi parasitism is the primary cause of nestling mortality in the critically endangered Darwin’s medium tree finch (Camarhynchus pauper). Biodiversity and Conservation. 2010;19(3):853-866. DOI: 10.1007/s10531-009-9740-1'},{id:"B63",body:'Kleindorfer S, O’Connor JA, Dudaniec RY, Myers SA, Robertson J, Sulloway FJ. Species collapse via hybridization in Darwin’s tree finches. The American Naturalist. 2014;183(3):325-341. DOI: 10.1086/674899'},{id:"B64",body:'Ramirez I. Philornis downsi interactions with its host in the introduced range and its parasitoids in its native range [thesis]. The University of Minnesota; 2018'},{id:"B65",body:'Dudaniec RY, Gardner MG, Kleindorfer S. Offspring genetic structure reveals mating and nest infestation behaviour of an invasive parasitic fly (Philornis downsi) of Galápagos birds. Biological Invasions. 2010;12(3):581-592. DOI: 10.1007/s10530-009-9464-x'},{id:"B66",body:'Carlson DA, Mayer MS, Silhacek DL, James JD, Beroza M, Bierl BA. Sex attractant pheromone of the house fly: Isolation, identification and synthesis. Science. 1971;174(4004):76-78. DOI: 10.1126/science.174.4004.76'},{id:"B67",body:'Chapman JW, Knapp JJ, Howse PE, Goulson D. An evaluation of (Z)-9-tricosene and food odours for attracting house flies, Musca domestica, to baited targets in deep-pit poultry units. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 1998;89(2):183-192. DOI: 10.1046/j.1570-7458.1998.00398.x'},{id:"B68",body:'Jiang Y, Lei CL, Niu CY, Fang YL, Xiao C, Zhang ZN. Semiochemicals from ovaries of gravid females attract ovipositing female houseflies, Musca domestica. Journal of Insect Physiology. 2002;48(10):945-950. DOI: 10.1016/S0022-1910(02)00162-2'},{id:"B69",body:'Collignon RM. Semiochemicals of Philornis downsi (Dipter: Muscidae), a Parasite of Passerine Birds of the Galápagos Islands. State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry; 2011'},{id:"B70",body:'Doherty KM. Chemical attractants of Philornis downsi (Diptera: Muscidae), an invasive parasite of birds in the Galápagos Islands [honors thesis]. SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry; 2012'},{id:"B71",body:'Collignon R, Boroczky K, Mieles AE, Causton CE, Lincango MP, Teale SA. Cuticular lipids and mate attraction in the avian parasite Philornis downsi (Diptera: Muscidae). In: International Society of Chemical Ecology; Poster; 8-12 July 2014. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign'},{id:"B72",body:'Lance DR, McInnis DO. Biological basis of the sterile insect technique. In: Sterile Insect Technique. Dordrecht: Springer; 2005. pp. 69-94. DOI: 10.1007/1-4020-4051-2_3'},{id:"B73",body:'Meier R, Kotrba M, Ferrar P. Ovoviviparity and viviparity in the Diptera. Biological Reviews. 1999;74(3):199-258'},{id:"B74",body:'Patitucci LD, Quiroga M, Couri MS, Saravia-Pietropaolo MJ. Oviposition in the bird parasitic fly Philornis torquans (Nielsen, 1913)(Diptera: Muscidae) and eggs’ adaptations to dry environments. Zoologischer Anzeiger. 2017;267:15-20. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcz.2017.01.004'},{id:"B75",body:'Lahuatte PF, Lincango MP, Heimpel GE, Causton CE. Rearing larvae of the avian nest parasite, Philornis downsi (Diptera: Muscidae), on chicken blood-based diets. Journal of Insect Science. 2016;16(1):84. DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/iew064'},{id:"B76",body:'Couri MS, Barbosa L, Marini MÂ, Duca C, Pujol-Luz JR. A new host for Philornis torquans (Diptera, Muscidae) from the Brazilian Cerrado. Papéis Avulsos de Zoologia. 2018;58:e20185857. DOI: 10.11606/1807-0205/2018.58.57'},{id:"B77",body:'Ben-Yosef M, Zaada DS, Dudaniec RY, Pasternak Z, Jurkevitch E, Smith RJ, et al. Host-specific associations affect the microbiome of Philornis downsi, an introduced parasite to the Galápagos Islands. Molecular Ecology. 2017;26(18):4644-4656. DOI: 10.1111/mec.14219'},{id:"B78",body:'Segura LN, Reboreda JC. Botfly parasitism effects on nestling growth and mortality of red-crested cardinals. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 2011;123(1):107-115. DOI: 10.1676/10-053.1'},{id:"B79",body:'Couri MS, Rabuffetti FL, Reboreda JC. New data on Philornis seguyi Garcia (1952)(Diptera, Muscidae). Brazilian Journal of Biology. 2005;65(4):631-637. DOI: 10.1590/S1519-69842005000400010'},{id:"B80",body:'Nores AI. Botfly ectoparasitism of the Brown Cacholote and the firewood-gatherer. The Wilson Bulletin. 1995;107(4):734-738'},{id:"B81",body:'De la Peña MR, Beldoménico PM, Antoniazzi L. Pichones de aves parasitados por larvas de Philornis sp. (Diptera: Muscidae) en un sector de la provincia biogeográfica del Espinal de Santa Fe, Argentina. Revista FAVE–Ciencias Veterinarias. 2003;2:141-146'},{id:"B82",body:'Oniki Y. Notes on fly (Muscidae) parasitism of nestlings of south American birds. Gerfaut. 1983;73:281-286'},{id:"B83",body:'Mendonça ED, Couri MS. New associations between Philornis Meinert (Diptera, Muscidae) and Thamnophilidae (Aves, Passeriformes). Revista Brasileira de Zoologia. 1999;16(4):1223-1225. DOI: 10.1590/S0101-81751999000400030'},{id:"B84",body:'Herrera JM, Bermúdez SE. Miasis ocasionada por Philornis spp.(Diptera: Muscidae) in Dendroica castanea (Aves: Parulidae) en Panamá. Revista mexicana de biodiversidad. 2012;83(3):854-855. DOI: 10.7550/rmb.25650'},{id:"B85",body:'Cimadom A, Causton C, Cha DH, Damiens D, Fessl B, Hood-Nowotny R, et al. Darwin’s finches treat their feathers with a natural repellent. Scientific Reports. 2016;6:34559. DOI: 10.1038/srep34559'},{id:"B86",body:'Cimadom A, Jäger H, Schulze CH, Hood-Nowotny R, Wappl C, Tebbich S. Weed management increases the detrimental effect of an invasive parasite on arboreal Darwin\'s finches. Biological Conservation. 2019;233:93-101. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2019.02.025'},{id:"B87",body:'Huber SK, Owen JP, Koop JA, King MO, Grant PR, Grant BR, et al. Ecoimmunity in Darwin\'s finches: Invasive parasites trigger acquired immunity in the Medium Ground Finch (Geospiza fortis). PLoS One. 2010;5(1):e8605. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008605'},{id:"B88",body:'Koop JA, Owen JP, Knutie SA, Aguilar MA, Clayton DH. Experimental demonstration of a parasite-induced immune response in wild birds: Darwin\'s finches and introduced nest flies. Ecology and Evolution. 2013;3(8):2514-2523. DOI: 10.1002/ece3.651'},{id:"B89",body:'Sage R, Boulton RA, Lahuatte PF, Causton CE, Cloutier R, Heimpel GE. Environmentally cued hatching in the bird-parasitic nest fly Philornis downsi. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 2018;166(9):752-760. DOI: 10.1111/eea.12721'},{id:"B90",body:'Dudaniec RY, Kleindorfer S, Fessl B. Effects of the introduced ectoparasite Philornis downsi on haemoglobin level and nestling survival in Darwin\'s small ground finch (Geospiza fuliginosa). Austral Ecology. 2006;31(1):88-94. DOI: 10.1111/j.1442-9993.2006.01553.x'},{id:"B91",body:'Fessl B, Kleindorfer S, Tebbich S. An experimental study on the effects of an introduced parasite in Darwin’s finches. Biological Conservation. 2006;127(1):55-61. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2005.07.013'},{id:"B92",body:'Dudaniec RY, Fessl B, Kleindorfer S. Interannual and interspecific variation in intensity of the parasitic fly, Philornis downsi, in Darwin’s finches. Biological Conservation. 2007;139(3-4):325-332. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2007.07.006'},{id:"B93",body:'Wiedenfeld DA, Fessl B, Kleindorfer S, Valarezo JC. Distribution of the introduced parasitic fly Philornis downsi (Diptera, Muscidae) in the Galápagos Islands. Pacific Conservation Biology. 2007;13(1):14-19. DOI: 10.1071/PC070014'},{id:"B94",body:'Kleindorfer S, Dudaniec RY. Love thy neighbour? Social nesting pattern, host mass and nest size affect ectoparasite intensity in Darwin’s tree finches. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 2009;63(5):731-739. DOI: 10.1007/s00265-008-0706-1'},{id:"B95",body:'O\'Connor JA, Dudaniec RY, Kleindorfer S. Parasite infestation and predation in Darwin\'s small ground finch: Contrasting two elevational habitats between islands. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 2010;26(3):285-292. DOI: 10.1017/S0266467409990678'},{id:"B96",body:'Koop JA, Huber SK, Laverty SM, Clayton DH. Experimental demonstration of the fitness consequences of an introduced parasite of Darwin\'s finches. PLoS One. 2011;6(5):e19706. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019706'},{id:"B97",body:'Koop JA, Le Bohec C, Clayton DH. Dry year does not reduce invasive parasitic fly prevalence or abundance in Darwin’s finch nests. Reports in Parasitology. 2013;3:11-17. DOI: 10.2147/RIP.S48435'},{id:"B98",body:'Knutie SA, Koop JA, French SS, Clayton DH. Experimental test of the effect of introduced hematophagous flies on corticosterone levels of breeding Darwin’s finches. General and Comparative Endocrinology. 2013;193:68-71. DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2013.07.009'},{id:"B99",body:'Knutie SA, McNew SM, Bartlow AW, Vargas DA, Clayton DH. Darwin’s finches combat introduced nest parasites with fumigated cotton. Current Biology. 2014;24(9):R355-R356. DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.03.058'},{id:"B100",body:'Knutie SA, Owen JP, McNew SM, Bartlow AW, Arriero E, Herman JM, et al. Galápagos mockingbirds tolerate introduced parasites that affect Darwin\'s finches. Ecology. 2016;97(4):940-950. DOI: 10.1890/15-0119'},{id:"B101",body:'Heimpel GE, Hillstrom A, Freund D, Knutie SA, Clayton DH. Invasive parasites and the fate of Darwin\'s finches in the Galápagos Islands: The case of the vegetarian finch (Platyspiza crassirostris). The Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 2017;129(2):345-349. DOI: 10.1676/16-050.1'},{id:"B102",body:'Knutie SA. Relationships among introduced parasites, host defenses, and gut microbiota of Galapagos birds. Ecosphere. 2018;9(5):e02286. DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2286'},{id:"B103",body:'McNew SM, Knutie SA, Goodman GB, Theodosopoulos A, Saulsberry A, Yépez RJ, et al. Annual environmental variation influences host tolerance to parasites. Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 2019;286(1897):20190049. DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.0049'},{id:"B104",body:'Peters KJ, Evans C, Aguirre JD, Kleindorfer S. Genetic admixture predicts parasite intensity: Evidence for increased hybrid performance in Darwin\'s tree finches. Royal Society Open Science. 2019;6(4):181616. DOI: 10.1098/rsos.18161'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Lauren K. Common",address:null,affiliation:'
College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Australia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Rachael Y. Dudaniec",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Australia
College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Australia
Konrad Lorenz Research Center and Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Vienna, Austria
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8191",title:"Life Cycle and Development of Diptera",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Life Cycle and Development of Diptera",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Sarwar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8191.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"272992",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarwar",slug:"muhammad-sarwar",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"92173",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",middleName:null,surname:"Bananej",email:"arbananej@yahoo.com",fullName:"Alireza Bananej",slug:"alireza-bananej",position:null,biography:"Dr. Alireza Bananej received his B.Sc degree in applied physics in 1989. Then he joined Laser Research Center of NSTRI and worked in the field of optical coating technology. In 1996 he received his M.Sc degree from Amirkabir University of Technology in applied physics. In 2000 he joined the physics department, nonlinear photonics lab of Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT) in China and worked in the field of low power and controllable all optical switching. He received his Ph.D degree from HIT in 2004 and returned to Laser Research Center of NSTRI. Since 2004 he has been studying fiber laser, high power and fast optical coating and application of photonic crystals.",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92173/images/system/92173.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"1",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[{type:"book",slug:"photonic-crystals",title:"Photonic Crystals",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4559.jpg",abstract:"As a reason of information explosion, electronic communication networks are not sufficient for high bit rate data transmission. This problem has been solved by optical networks which caused the birth of a new area of technology, photonics. In photonic circuits photons play the dominant role and they transfer the optical data. With the growth of the photonics technology, a new area started to grow as photonic crystals which now play an important role in designing and manufacturing compact photonic devices. Photonic crystals are structures with alternative dielectric constant in one, two or three dimensions which are called one, two or three dimensional photonic crystals. By using the properties of photonic band gap, many interesting phenomena such as slow light generation, dispersion engineering in a compact and low size device can be achieved.",editors:[{id:"92173",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",surname:"Bananej",slug:"alireza-bananej",fullName:"Alireza Bananej"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Dynamic All Optical Slow Light Tunability by Using Nonlinear One Dimensional Coupled Cavity Waveguides",slug:"dynamic-all-optical-slow-light-tunability-by-using-nonlinear-one-dimensional-coupled-cavity-waveguid",abstract:null,signatures:"Alireza Bananej, S. Morteza Zahedi, S. M. Hamidi, Amir Hassanpour and S. Amiri",authors:[{id:"92173",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",surname:"Bananej",fullName:"Alireza Bananej",slug:"alireza-bananej",email:"arbananej@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Photonic Crystals",slug:"photonic-crystals-innovative-systems-lasers-and-waveguides",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"90212",title:"Dr.",name:"Shih-Wei",surname:"Chen",slug:"shih-wei-chen",fullName:"Shih-Wei Chen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Shih-Wei Chen was born on November 2, 1981 in Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.. He received his BS degree in Electrical Engineering in 2004 and his MS degree in Optoelectronic Sciences in 2006, both from the National Taiwan Ocean University (NTOU) in Taiwan . In 2010, he joined the Semiconductor Laser Technology Laboratory leaded by Prof. Hao-Chung Kuo, Prof. Tien-Chang Lu, and Prof. Shing-Chung Wang and received his PH.D. degree in Electro-Optical Engineering of National Chiao-Tung University(NCTU). His research interests are in the area of Resonant Cavity Light Emitting Diode (RCLED) and Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser (VCSEL) which can be application to short-range fiber optical communication such as Gigabit Ethernet and Fiber Channel. Current, he is a researcher in Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) for crystalline silicon solar cell devices.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Industrial Technology Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"90601",title:"Mrs.",name:"Andreea",surname:"Mangra (Petcu)",slug:"andreea-mangra-(petcu)",fullName:"Andreea Mangra (Petcu)",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"96449",title:"Dr.",name:"Binbin",surname:"Weng",slug:"binbin-weng",fullName:"Binbin Weng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Oklahoma",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"99944",title:"Prof.",name:"Tien-Chang",surname:"Lu",slug:"tien-chang-lu",fullName:"Tien-Chang Lu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Chiao Tung University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"99945",title:"Prof.",name:"Hao-Chung",surname:"Kuo",slug:"hao-chung-kuo",fullName:"Hao-Chung Kuo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Chiao Tung University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"99946",title:"Prof.",name:"Shing-Chung",surname:"Wang",slug:"shing-chung-wang",fullName:"Shing-Chung Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Chiao Tung University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"99952",title:"Ms.",name:"Ting-Chun",surname:"Liu",slug:"ting-chun-liu",fullName:"Ting-Chun Liu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Chiao Tung University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"100300",title:"Mr.",name:"Peng-Hsiang",surname:"Weng",slug:"peng-hsiang-weng",fullName:"Peng-Hsiang Weng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Chiao Tung University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"111124",title:"Prof.",name:"Yongqiang",surname:"Ning",slug:"yongqiang-ning",fullName:"Yongqiang Ning",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"128609",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhisheng",surname:"Shi",slug:"zhisheng-shi",fullName:"Zhisheng Shi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"vitaminK2",title:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing",intro:'
Edited by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, ISBN 978-953-51-3020-8, Print ISBN 978-953-51-3019-2, 336 pages, \nPublisher: IntechOpen \nChapters published March 22, 2017 under CC BY 3.0 license \nDOI: 10.5772/61430 \nEdited Volume
',metaTitle:"Vitamin K2 Vital for Health and Wellbeing",metaDescription:null,metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/vitaminK2",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6495/images/1947_n.jpg",biography:"Daniel Eberli MD. Ph.D. is a scientific physician working in the translational field of urologic tissue engineering. He has a medical degree from the Medical School in Zurich, Switzerland, and a Ph.D. in Molecular Medicine from Wake Forest University, Winston Salem, NC. He currently has a faculty position at the Department of Urology at the University Hospital Zurich, where he devotes half of his time to patient care. He is a lecturer at the Medical School of Zurich and the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. Together with his research team, he is working on novel biomaterials for bladder reconstruction, improving autonomic innervation, cellular treatment of incontinence and tracking of stem cells.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University Hospital of Zurich",country:{name:"Switzerland"}}},{id:"122240",title:"Prof.",name:"Frede",middleName:null,surname:"Blaabjerg",slug:"frede-blaabjerg",fullName:"Frede Blaabjerg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aalborg University",country:{name:"Denmark"}}},{id:"50823",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamid Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Karimi",slug:"hamid-reza-karimi",fullName:"Hamid Reza Karimi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Milan",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"22128",title:"Dr.",name:"Harald",middleName:null,surname:"Haas",slug:"harald-haas",fullName:"Harald Haas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Edinburgh",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"80399",title:"Dr.",name:"Huosheng",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"huosheng-hu",fullName:"Huosheng Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Essex",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"107729",title:"Prof.",name:"Joachim",middleName:null,surname:"Maier",slug:"joachim-maier",fullName:"Joachim Maier",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"51995",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan A.",middleName:"A.",surname:"Blanco",slug:"juan-a.-blanco",fullName:"Juan A. Blanco",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51995/images/1076_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Blanco is an Assistant Professor at the Public University of Navarre. His work is focused on the development and evaluation of ecological models to simulate the influences of management, climate and other ecological factors on tree growth. He is currently collaborating with research teams from Canada, Taiwan, USA, Spain, Cuba, and China in using ecological models to explore the effects of climate change, atmospheric pollution and alternative forest practices in natural and planted forest in boreal, temperate and tropical forests. His research has been applied in mining to optimize reclamation plans, in forestry to assess the potential for carbon sequestration and by government agencies to define local guidelines for long-term sustainable forest management. Among other topics related to forest ecology, Dr. Blanco has studied the influence of climate variations on tree growth and estimated the possible ecological consequences of climate change in forest ecosystems. He has also co-authored the first book dedicated exclusively to the use of hybrid ecological models in forest management, entitled “Forecasting Forest Futures” (Earthscan, London), edited three books on Climate Change effects, mitigation and adaptation (InTech, Rijeka), and three more on Forest Ecosystems, Biodiversity and Tropical Forests (InTech, Rijeka).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Publica De Navarra",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5311},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:4814},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1465},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:9355},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:837},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:14773}],offset:12,limit:12,total:14778},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"5"},books:[{type:"book",id:"7901",title:"Cocoa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bd93f97ceb11fd901da97e54a700270d",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7901.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8795",title:"Reptiles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"839705a75a74ec1ee60f481628d59046",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8795.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8105",title:"Ocean Epipelagic Fish",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"afda9c695b64a42d94ce14a71ba29be3",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8105.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8058",title:"Flora and Fauna of Mexico",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c8bfa21c387827e30636c3051eb04b30",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8058.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8493",title:"Meat and Nutrition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2650311fc3de37679f550fa97c5ae607",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8493.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7763",title:"Symmetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"43717cfff404e41e2959f31e1c3c173f",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7763.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8158",title:"Vegetarianism and Veganism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7974912539901a8ea2e7c4b5c1b34069",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8108",title:"Citrus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"323198bd2227ad627206f0e347ae9121",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8108.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8065",title:"Solanum lycopersicum",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"57d11760537a5fceaa0ac6ce54c15191",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8065.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8549",title:"Marsupials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"187f837a89f89055c73478da63fb8e41",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8549.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7032",title:"Sea Urchins",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cf1501a535fa08bdb36c3806d8b9cf82",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7032.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8469",title:"Alternative Crops",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"36fc7c49de6d8d540620f986d3e68ced",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8469.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:35},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:33},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:28},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:75},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:39},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:143},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Intelligent System",value:535,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Osteology",value:1414,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Polymer Chemistry",value:1415,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:106},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7614",title:"Fourier Transforms",subtitle:"Century of Digitalization and Increasing Expectations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff3501657ae983a3b42fef1f7058ac91",slug:"fourier-transforms-century-of-digitalization-and-increasing-expectations",bookSignature:"Goran S. Nikoli? and Dragana Z. Markovi?-Nikoli?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7614.jpg",editors:[{id:"23261",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"S.",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"goran-nikolic",fullName:"Goran Nikolic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7610",title:"Renewable and Sustainable Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2de26c3d329c54f093dc3f05417500a",slug:"renewable-and-sustainable-composites",bookSignature:"António B. Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8416",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c3add7639dcd1cb442cb4313ea64e3a",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8416.jpg",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8463",title:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23f39beea4d557b0ae424e2eaf82bf5e",slug:"pediatric-surgery-flowcharts-and-clinical-algorithms",bookSignature:"Sameh Shehata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8463.jpg",editors:[{id:"37518",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"sameh-shehata",fullName:"Sameh Shehata"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4385},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7614",title:"Fourier Transforms",subtitle:"Century of Digitalization and Increasing Expectations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff3501657ae983a3b42fef1f7058ac91",slug:"fourier-transforms-century-of-digitalization-and-increasing-expectations",bookSignature:"Goran S. Nikoli? and Dragana Z. Markovi?-Nikoli?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7614.jpg",editors:[{id:"23261",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"S.",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"goran-nikolic",fullName:"Goran Nikolic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7610",title:"Renewable and Sustainable Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2de26c3d329c54f093dc3f05417500a",slug:"renewable-and-sustainable-composites",bookSignature:"António B. Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8463",title:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23f39beea4d557b0ae424e2eaf82bf5e",slug:"pediatric-surgery-flowcharts-and-clinical-algorithms",bookSignature:"Sameh Shehata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8463.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37518",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"sameh-shehata",fullName:"Sameh Shehata"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7187",title:"Osteosarcoma",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Mechanisms, and Translational Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89096359b754beb806eca4c6d8aacaba",slug:"osteosarcoma-diagnosis-mechanisms-and-translational-developments",bookSignature:"Matthew Gregory Cable and Robert Lawrence Randall",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7187.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"265693",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthew Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Cable",slug:"matthew-gregory-cable",fullName:"Matthew Gregory Cable"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8256",title:"Distillation",subtitle:"Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c76af109f83e14d915e5cb3949ae8b80",slug:"distillation-modelling-simulation-and-optimization",bookSignature:"Vilmar Steffen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8256.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"189035",title:"Dr.",name:"Vilmar",middleName:null,surname:"Steffen",slug:"vilmar-steffen",fullName:"Vilmar Steffen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7240",title:"Growing and Handling of Bacterial Cultures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a76c3ef7718c0b72d0128817cdcbe6e3",slug:"growing-and-handling-of-bacterial-cultures",bookSignature:"Madhusmita Mishra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7240.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204267",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhusmita",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"madhusmita-mishra",fullName:"Madhusmita Mishra"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1405",title:"Waste Management",slug:"engineering-environmental-engineering-waste-management",parent:{title:"Environmental Engineering",slug:"engineering-environmental-engineering"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:21,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"engineering-environmental-engineering-waste-management",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5718",title:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation",subtitle:"Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7862b773bc74f187c6a6b5abee7f278d",slug:"coal-fly-ash-beneficiation-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash",bookSignature:"Segun A. Akinyemi and Mugera W. Gitari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5718.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147114",title:"Dr.",name:"Segun",middleName:null,surname:"Akinyemi",slug:"segun-akinyemi",fullName:"Segun Akinyemi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"56022",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69741",title:"Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash: Exploring the Solution Chemistry and Product Water Quality",slug:"treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash-exploring-the-solution-chemistry-and-product-water",totalDownloads:498,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"coal-fly-ash-beneficiation-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash",title:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation",fullTitle:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation - Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash"},signatures:"Wilson Mugera Gitari, Leslie F. Petrik and Segun A. Akinyemi",authors:[{id:"147114",title:"Dr.",name:"Segun",middleName:null,surname:"Akinyemi",slug:"segun-akinyemi",fullName:"Segun Akinyemi"},{id:"172220",title:"Prof.",name:"Leslie",middleName:null,surname:"Petrik",slug:"leslie-petrik",fullName:"Leslie Petrik"},{id:"185380",title:"Prof.",name:"Mugera",middleName:null,surname:"Gitari",slug:"mugera-gitari",fullName:"Mugera Gitari"}]},{id:"55807",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69425",title:"Evaluation of Ultrasound-assisted Modified Fly Ash for Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage",slug:"evaluation-of-ultrasound-assisted-modified-fly-ash-for-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage",totalDownloads:474,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"coal-fly-ash-beneficiation-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash",title:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation",fullTitle:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation - Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash"},signatures:"Deniz Sanliyuksel Yucel and Burcu Ileri",authors:[{id:"200560",title:"Dr.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Sanliyuksel Yucel",slug:"deniz-sanliyuksel-yucel",fullName:"Deniz Sanliyuksel Yucel"},{id:"200826",title:"Dr.",name:"Burcu",middleName:null,surname:"Ileri",slug:"burcu-ileri",fullName:"Burcu Ileri"}]},{id:"55928",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69527",title:"Phytoreclamation of Abandoned Acid Mine Drainage Site After Treatment with Fly Ash",slug:"phytoreclamation-of-abandoned-acid-mine-drainage-site-after-treatment-with-fly-ash",totalDownloads:514,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"coal-fly-ash-beneficiation-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash",title:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation",fullTitle:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation - Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash"},signatures:"Madhumita Roy, Roopali Roychowdhury, Pritam Mukherjee, Atanu\nRoy, Bulti Nayak and Satarupa Roy",authors:[{id:"195433",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhumita",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"madhumita-roy",fullName:"Madhumita Roy"},{id:"196021",title:"MSc.",name:"Roopali",middleName:null,surname:"Roychowdhury",slug:"roopali-roychowdhury",fullName:"Roopali Roychowdhury"},{id:"204902",title:"Mr.",name:"Pritam",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"pritam-mukherjee",fullName:"Pritam Mukherjee"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68289",title:"The Integration of Six Sigma and Lean Manufacturing",slug:"the-integration-of-six-sigma-and-lean-manufacturing",totalDownloads:166,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask",fullTitle:"Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask"},signatures:"Marcio B. Santos",authors:null},{id:"55912",title:"Challenges in Recovery of Valuable and Hazardous Elements from Bulk Fly Ash and Options for Increasing Fly Ash Utilization",slug:"challenges-in-recovery-of-valuable-and-hazardous-elements-from-bulk-fly-ash-and-options-for-increasi",totalDownloads:699,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"coal-fly-ash-beneficiation-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash",title:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation",fullTitle:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation - Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash"},signatures:"Ajit Behera and Soumya Sanjeeb Mohapatra",authors:[{id:"199852",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajit",middleName:null,surname:"Behera",slug:"ajit-behera",fullName:"Ajit Behera"},{id:"200867",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Mohapatra",slug:"soumya-mohapatra",fullName:"Soumya Mohapatra"}]},{id:"66217",title:"Value Stream Mapping: A Method That Makes the Waste in the Process Visible",slug:"value-stream-mapping-a-method-that-makes-the-waste-in-the-process-visible",totalDownloads:323,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask",fullTitle:"Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask"},signatures:"Nuri Ozgur Dogan and Burcu Simsek Yagli",authors:null},{id:"55928",title:"Phytoreclamation of Abandoned Acid Mine Drainage Site After Treatment with Fly Ash",slug:"phytoreclamation-of-abandoned-acid-mine-drainage-site-after-treatment-with-fly-ash",totalDownloads:514,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"coal-fly-ash-beneficiation-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash",title:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation",fullTitle:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation - Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash"},signatures:"Madhumita Roy, Roopali Roychowdhury, Pritam Mukherjee, Atanu\nRoy, Bulti Nayak and Satarupa Roy",authors:[{id:"195433",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhumita",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"madhumita-roy",fullName:"Madhumita Roy"},{id:"196021",title:"MSc.",name:"Roopali",middleName:null,surname:"Roychowdhury",slug:"roopali-roychowdhury",fullName:"Roopali Roychowdhury"},{id:"204902",title:"Mr.",name:"Pritam",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"pritam-mukherjee",fullName:"Pritam Mukherjee"}]},{id:"55807",title:"Evaluation of Ultrasound-assisted Modified Fly Ash for Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage",slug:"evaluation-of-ultrasound-assisted-modified-fly-ash-for-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage",totalDownloads:474,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"coal-fly-ash-beneficiation-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash",title:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation",fullTitle:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation - Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash"},signatures:"Deniz Sanliyuksel Yucel and Burcu Ileri",authors:[{id:"200560",title:"Dr.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Sanliyuksel Yucel",slug:"deniz-sanliyuksel-yucel",fullName:"Deniz Sanliyuksel Yucel"},{id:"200826",title:"Dr.",name:"Burcu",middleName:null,surname:"Ileri",slug:"burcu-ileri",fullName:"Burcu Ileri"}]},{id:"56022",title:"Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash: Exploring the Solution Chemistry and Product Water Quality",slug:"treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash-exploring-the-solution-chemistry-and-product-water",totalDownloads:498,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"coal-fly-ash-beneficiation-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash",title:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation",fullTitle:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation - Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash"},signatures:"Wilson Mugera Gitari, Leslie F. Petrik and Segun A. Akinyemi",authors:[{id:"147114",title:"Dr.",name:"Segun",middleName:null,surname:"Akinyemi",slug:"segun-akinyemi",fullName:"Segun Akinyemi"},{id:"172220",title:"Prof.",name:"Leslie",middleName:null,surname:"Petrik",slug:"leslie-petrik",fullName:"Leslie Petrik"},{id:"185380",title:"Prof.",name:"Mugera",middleName:null,surname:"Gitari",slug:"mugera-gitari",fullName:"Mugera Gitari"}]},{id:"56608",title:"Thickener Water Neutralization by Mid‐Bottom and Fly Ash of Thermal Power Plants and CO2: Organic Humate Mud of AMD Treatment for Remediation of Agricultural Fields",slug:"thickener-water-neutralization-by-mid-bottom-and-fly-ash-of-thermal-power-plants-and-co2-organic-hum",totalDownloads:425,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"coal-fly-ash-beneficiation-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash",title:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation",fullTitle:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation - Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash"},signatures:"Yıldırım İsmail Tosun",authors:[{id:"200229",title:"Dr.",name:"Yıldırım",middleName:"İsmail",surname:"Tosun",slug:"yildirim-tosun",fullName:"Yıldırım Tosun"}]},{id:"57818",title:"Chemical Stabilization of Coal Fly Ash for Simultaneous Suppressing of As, B, and Se Leaching",slug:"chemical-stabilization-of-coal-fly-ash-for-simultaneous-suppressing-of-as-b-and-se-leaching",totalDownloads:476,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"coal-fly-ash-beneficiation-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash",title:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation",fullTitle:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation - Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash"},signatures:"Sri Hartuti, Shinji Kambara, Akihiro Takeyama, Farrah Fadhillah\nHanum and Erda Rahmilaila Desfitri",authors:[{id:"219583",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Hartuti",slug:"sri-hartuti",fullName:"Sri Hartuti"},{id:"219715",title:"Prof.",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Kambara",slug:"shinji-kambara",fullName:"Shinji Kambara"},{id:"221447",title:"Dr.",name:"Akihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Takeyama",slug:"akihiro-takeyama",fullName:"Akihiro Takeyama"},{id:"221448",title:"MSc.",name:"Farrah",middleName:null,surname:"Fadhillah Hanum",slug:"farrah-fadhillah-hanum",fullName:"Farrah Fadhillah Hanum"},{id:"221449",title:"BSc.",name:"Erda",middleName:null,surname:"Rahmilaila Desfitri",slug:"erda-rahmilaila-desfitri",fullName:"Erda Rahmilaila Desfitri"}]},{id:"67554",title:"Lean Six Sigma and Performance Metrics",slug:"lean-six-sigma-and-performance-metrics",totalDownloads:165,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask",fullTitle:"Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask"},signatures:"Kaouthar Lamine",authors:null},{id:"56885",title:"Introductory Chapter: Coal Fly Ash and Its Application for Remediation of Acid Mine Drainage",slug:"introductory-chapter-coal-fly-ash-and-its-application-for-remediation-of-acid-mine-drainage",totalDownloads:445,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"coal-fly-ash-beneficiation-treatment-of-acid-mine-drainage-with-coal-fly-ash",title:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation",fullTitle:"Coal Fly Ash Beneficiation - Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage with Coal Fly Ash"},signatures:"Mugera Wilson Gitari and Segun Ajayi Akinyemi",authors:[{id:"147114",title:"Dr.",name:"Segun",middleName:null,surname:"Akinyemi",slug:"segun-akinyemi",fullName:"Segun Akinyemi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"engineering-environmental-engineering-waste-management",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"67571",title:"Services Six Sigma: Knowing the Debates and Failure Modes to Drive Better",slug:"services-six-sigma-knowing-the-debates-and-failure-modes-to-drive-better",totalDownloads:109,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86870",book:{title:"Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask"},signatures:"Sajit Jacob and Krishnamurthy Kothandaraman"},{id:"68289",title:"The Integration of Six Sigma and Lean Manufacturing",slug:"the-integration-of-six-sigma-and-lean-manufacturing",totalDownloads:168,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87304",book:{title:"Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask"},signatures:"Marcio B. Santos"},{id:"65874",title:"Some Aspects of Visual Detection of Dumps",slug:"some-aspects-of-visual-detection-of-dumps",totalDownloads:122,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81726",book:{title:"Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask"},signatures:"Andrey Alexandrovich Richter"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6837",title:"Lithium-ion Batteries - Thin Film for Energy Materials and Devices",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ea7789260b319b9a4b472257f57bfeb5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mitsunobu Sato, Dr. Li Lu and Dr. Hiroki Nagai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6837.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"179615",title:"Prof.",name:"Mitsunobu",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"mitsunobu-sato",fullName:"Mitsunobu Sato"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9423",title:"Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Process Industry Automation, Heat and Power Generation and Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"10ac8fb0bdbf61044395963028653d21",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Konstantinos G. Kyprianidis and Prof. Erik Dahlquist",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9423.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"35868",title:"Prof.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:"G.",surname:"Kyprianidis",slug:"konstantinos-kyprianidis",fullName:"Konstantinos Kyprianidis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9428",title:"New Trends in the Use of Artificial Intelligence for the Industry 4.0",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9e089eec484ce8e9eb32198c2d8b34ea",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Luis Romeral Martinez, Dr. Roque A. Osornio-Rios and Dr. Miguel Delgado Prieto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9428.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"86501",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Romeral Martinez",slug:"luis-romeral-martinez",fullName:"Luis Romeral Martinez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10107",title:"Artificial Intelligence in Oncology Drug Discovery & Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"043c178c3668865ab7d35dcb2ceea794",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. John Cassidy and Dr. Belle Taylor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10107.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"244455",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Cassidy",slug:"john-cassidy",fullName:"John Cassidy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8903",title:"Carbon Based Material for Environmental Protection and Remediation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"19da699b370f320eca63ef2ba02f745d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli and Dr. Marco Frediani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8903.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10132",title:"Applied Computational Near-surface Geophysics - From Integral and Derivative Formulas to MATLAB Codes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"38cdbbb671df620b36ee96af1d9a3a90",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Afshin Aghayan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10132.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311030",title:"Dr.",name:"Afshin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghayan",slug:"afshin-aghayan",fullName:"Afshin Aghayan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10110",title:"Advances and Technologies in Building Construction and Structural Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"df2ad14bc5588577e8bf0b7ebcdafd9d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ali Kaboli and Dr. Sara Shirowzhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10110.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"309192",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kaboli",slug:"ali-kaboli",fullName:"Ali Kaboli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10175",title:"Ethics in Emerging Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c92da249676e35e2f7476182aa94e84",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ali Hessami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10175.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-hessami",fullName:"Ali Hessami"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:16},humansInSpaceProgram:{},teamHumansInSpaceProgram:{},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/holography-basic-principles-and-contemporary-applications/holographic-sensors-for-detection-of-components-in-water-solutions",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"holography-basic-principles-and-contemporary-applications",chapter:"holographic-sensors-for-detection-of-components-in-water-solutions"},fullPath:"/books/holography-basic-principles-and-contemporary-applications/holographic-sensors-for-detection-of-components-in-water-solutions",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()