Worldwide peanut production.
\r\n\tPrevalence of reading disability among school-age children depends upon the criteria used for definition; however, the prevalence of written expression disorders in estimated to be between 5 and 12 percent, the prevalence of written expression disorders is estimated to be between 7 and 15 percent, while the prevalence of dyscalculia is estimated to be between 3 and 6 percent.
\r\n\r\n\tRisk factors for learning disorders are family history, socio-economic conditions, prematurity, presence of other developmental, mental and health conditions (e.g. behavioral disorders, autism, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders), prenatal exposition to neurotoxic agents, genetic disorders, particular medical conditions, history of traumatic brain injury or other neurological conditions.
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As a clinician, he has worked in different neurological departments in Italian hospitals, Alzheimer’s clinics, neuropsychiatric clinics, and neurological rehabilitative departments as the Neurological Department and Stroke Unit of Belcolle Hospital in Viterbo, Italy.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"103586",title:null,name:"Sandro",middleName:null,surname:"Misciagna",slug:"sandro-misciagna",fullName:"Sandro Misciagna",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103586/images/system/103586.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sandro Misciagna was born in Italy in 1969. He received a degree in medicine in 1995 and another in neurology in 1999 from The Catholic University, Rome. From 1993 to 1995, he was involved in research of cerebellar functions. From 1994 to 2003, he attended the Neuropsychological department involved in research in cognitive and behavioural disorders. 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The domesticated peanut is an amphidiploid or allotetraploid, meaning that it has two sets of chromosomes from two different species, thought to be
Peanuts grow best in light, sandy loam soil. They require 120 to 150 days of warm weather, and an annual rainfall of 380 to 650 mm or the equivalent in irrigation water [6]. It is an annual herbaceous plant growing 30 to 50 cm tall. The leaves are opposite, pinnate with four leaflets (two opposite pairs; no terminal leaflet), each leaflet 1 to 7 cm long and 1 to 3 cm wide. The orange-veined, yellow-petaled, pea-like flower (2 to 4 cm across) of
Harvesting occurs in two stages [6]. In modern, mechanized systems, a machine called a digger is used to cut off the main or tap root of the peanut plant by cutting through the soil just below the level of the peanut pods. The machine lifts the plant from the ground, shakes and inverts the plant, leaving it upside down on the ground to keep the peanut pods out of the soil. This allows the peanuts to dry slowly to a bit less than a third of their original moisture level over a period of three to four days depending on weather conditions [6]. Prior to mechanization, peanuts were pulled and inverted by hand [6]. The second stage consists of the use of a combine to remove peanuts from the vine.
World peanut production totals approximately 34 million metric tons per year (Table 1). China leads in production of peanuts, having a share of about 46% of overall world production, followed by India (17%), and the United States (6 %) [7]. The United States is one of the world’s leading exporters, with average annual exports of between 200,000 and 250,000 metric tons. Argentina and China are other significant exporters [7].
Peanut production requires the use of a wide range of agrichemical products to control weed and diseases and optimize crop growth and development [8-10]. Peanut has several unique features that contribute to challenging weed management [10]. Peanut cultivars grown in the United States require a fairly long growing season (140 to 160 days), depending on cultivar and geographical region [10,11]. Consequently, soil-applied herbicides may not provide season-long control and mid-to-late season weed emergence can occur. Peanut also has a prostrate growth habit, a relatively shallow canopy, and is slow to shade inter-rows allowing weeds to be more competitive [10,12]. Additionally, peanut fruit develop underground on pegs originating from branches that grow along the soil surface. This prostrate growth habit and pattern of fruit development restricts cultivation to an early season control option [10,13]. With conventional row spacing (91 to 102 cm), complete ground cover may not be attained until 8 to 10 weeks after planting. In some areas of the United States peanut growing region, complete canopy closure may never occur.
Pigweed (
\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t|
1 | \n\t\t\tChina | \n\t\t\t15.64 | \n\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\tIndia | \n\t\t\t5.85 | \n\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\tUnited States | \n\t\t\t1.89 | \n\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\tNigeria | \n\t\t\t1.55 | \n\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\tSenegal | \n\t\t\t1.29 | \n\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\tIndonesia | \n\t\t\t1.25 | \n\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\tBurma | \n\t\t\t1.14 | \n\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\tArgentina | \n\t\t\t1.05 | \n\t\t
9 | \n\t\t\tSudan | \n\t\t\t0.85 | \n\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\tChad | \n\t\t\t0.47 | \n\t\t
11 | \n\t\t\tGhana | \n\t\t\t0.44 | \n\t\t
12 | \n\t\t\tVietnam | \n\t\t\t0.44 | \n\t\t
13 | \n\t\t\tCongo Kinshasa | \n\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t
14 | \n\t\t\tBurkino Faso | \n\t\t\t0.35 | \n\t\t
15 | \n\t\t\tMali | \n\t\t\t0.28 | \n\t\t
16 | \n\t\t\tMalawi | \n\t\t\t0.27 | \n\t\t
17 | \n\t\t\tGuinea | \n\t\t\t0.26 | \n\t\t
18 | \n\t\t\tCameroon | \n\t\t\t0.24 | \n\t\t
19 | \n\t\t\tBrazil | \n\t\t\t0.23 | \n\t\t
20 | \n\t\t\tEgypt | \n\t\t\t0.19 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Total | \n\t\t\t34.05 | \n\t\t
Worldwide peanut production.
Source: USDA Foreign Agricultural Service; Table 13 Peanut Area, Yield, and Production (Created 8/10/2012)
The dinitroaniline herbicides are registered for use in over forty crops [19]. These herbicides provide excellent control of annual grasses [10,18,20] and are the only soil-applied herbicides registered for use in peanut that will provide full-season control of Texas millet [10,21,22]. Peanut tolerance to the dinitroaniline herbicides has been questioned previously [23,24,25]. Greenhouse studies showed that ethalfluralin inhibited seedling growth more than pendimethalin at equivalent rates applied preplant incorporated; however, injury by these herbicides following preemergence applications were similar [26]. In runner peanuts, which are more prone to peg injury compared to Spanish peanut [27], proper herbicide incorporation was needed to prevent injury [28]. Merkle [27] stated that sporadic injury to runner peanut from trifluralin was due to the failure to properly incorporate the herbicide. No differences were observed in a study examining peanut growth, yield, and grade effects with ethalfluralin, pendimethalin, or trifluralin in two different studies [24,29]. In Florida, ethalfluralin did not cause peanut injury at any rate or application timing [23]. Dinitroaniline injury on peanut includes swollen hypocotyl, abnormal lateral root growth, and stunted plants [18,28].
Metolachlor is commonly used in peanut for control of small-seeded broadleaf weeds, some annual grasses, and yellow nutsedge [30].
Several postemergence herbicides are used to control weed escapes. Imazethapyr and imazapic are imidazolinone herbicides registered for use in peanut. Imazethapyr may be applied PPI, PRE, ground cracking (GC), or POST for effective weed control [10]. Imazethapyr applied PPI or PRE controls many troublesome weeds such as coffee senna (
Imazethapyr applied POST provides broad spectrum and most consistent control when applied within 10 days of weed emergence [37,40,41]. Imazethapyr and imazapic are the only POST herbicides to effectively control both yellow and purple nutsedge [29,42]. Control is most effective when imazethapyr is applied to the soil or to yellow nutsedge that is no more than 12 cm tall [10,42,43].
Imazapic is similar to imazethapyr and controls all the weeds controlled by imazethapyr [10,44-46]. In addition, imazapic provides control and suppression of Florida beggarweed [
Peanut is susceptible to numerous fungal diseases caused by foliar and soilborne pathogens. Chlorothalonil has been the most widely used fungicide in the United States peanut production areas for control of early leaf spot caused by
Depending on the fungicide, the calendar spray regime in the southeastern United States may result in seven applications [50,52] while in the southwest United States peanut growing region a maximum of five fungicide applications may be applied during the growing season [53,56]. Chlorothalonil is used to fill the remaining treatment slots in an azoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin, tebuconazole program to minimize the risk of fungal pathogens developing resistance to triazole or strobilurin fungicides [57].
Prothioconazole is a sterol biosynthesis inhibitor fungicide in the new triazolinthione class of fungicides [58] that has shown activity against the leaf spot pathogens,
Management strategies to protect peanut from various weeds, insects, and fungi require multiple applications of herbicides, insecticides, or fungicides. Timing of application of herbicides and fungicides may coincide during the growing season, and co-application of these pesticides is desirable if herbicide or fungicide performance and peanut tolerance are not compromised [61]. Potential interactions related to physiological effects on plants and other organisms, application variables such as adjuvant, water quality, commercial formulation, and environmental stress can affect pesticide compatibility [61].
Considerable research has been conducted over the past several years to define interactions among pesticides including interactions of herbicides in mixture with other herbicides and fungicides [62-65]. Peanut fungicides are applied beginning approximately 30 to 60 days after planting and can be applied until a few weeks prior to digging. Efficacy of clethodim and sethoxydim can be reduced by co-application with copper-containing fungicides or azoxystrobin, chlorothalonil, and pyraclostrobin [8,66,67]. Fluazinam and tebuconazole did not reduce grass control compared with graminicides applied alone [8,9,66]. Efficacy of herbicides that control dicotyledonous weeds and sedges are not generally affected by fungicides [66]. Weed species and size, and plant stress can affect the magnitude of interactions between herbicides and fungicides [66].
Additional research was conducted to define potential interactions of various postemergence herbicides and fungicides when used in combination on peanut for control of various broadleaf weeds and annual grasses. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to determine interactions of postemergence grass (clethodim and sethoxydim) and broadleaf herbicides (lactofen, imazethapyr, imazapic, aciflurofen, and 2,4-DB) with commonly used peanut fungicides (boscalid, fluazinam, pyraclostrobin, tebuconazole, or prothioconazole plus tebuconazole) for annual grass and broadleaf weed control in peanut as well as the response to foliar and soilborne disease development.
Field studies were conducted in two different peanut growing regions of Texas from 2007 through 2010 to determine weed efficacy and peanut response to applications of herbicides and fungicides applied alone and in combination. Field studies at south Texas were conducted at the Texas A&M AgriLife Research site near Yoakum and on the Texas Southern High Plains at Lamesa or Halfway. Soils at the Yoakum site were a Tremona loamy fine sand (thermic Aquic Arenic Paleustalfs) with less than 1% organic matter and pH 7.0 to 7.2. The location near Lamesa was at the Agricultural Complex for Research and Extension Center (AG-CARES) on a Amarillo fine sandy loam (fine-loamy, mixed, superactive, thermic Aridic Paleustalf) with 0.4% organic matter and pH 7.8. The Halfway location was located west of Plainview at the Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center on a Acuff clay loam (fine-loamy, mixed, thermic Aridic Paleustolls) with less than 1.0% organic matter and pH 7.9.
The experimental design was a randomized complete block with a factorial arrangement of two grass or five broadleaf herbicides by three fungicides with three replications. All studies included a non-treated control. Each plot consisted of two rows spaced 97 or 101 cm apart and 7.6 m long.
Weed efficacy studies were divided into two groups: 1) a grass herbicide study and 2) a broadleaf weed study. The grass herbicide study included clethodim at 0.14 kg ai/ha or sethoxydim at 0.21 kg ai/ha while the broadleaf weed study included aciflurofen at 0.42 kg ai/ha, imazapic at 0.07 kg ai/ha, imazethapyr at 0.07 kg ai/ha, lactofen at 0.22 kg ai/ha, or 2,4-DB at 0.42 kg ai/ha. Fungicides evaluated included pyraclostrobin at 0.27 kg ai/ha, tebuconazole at 0.23 kg ai/ha, and the premix of prothioconazole at 0.084 kg ai/ha plus tebuconazole at 0.168 kg ai/ha.
Herbicides and fungicides were applied alone and in combination to determine efficacy against various weeds. A crop oil concentrate (Agri-Dex, a blend of 83% paraffin-based petroleum oil and 17% surfactant) at 2.3 L/ha was added to each treatment except in 2007 at Yoakum where a non-ionic surfactant (X-77, 90% nonionic surfactant) at 0.25% v/v was added. Herbicide and fungicides at Yoakum were applied with a CO2-pressurized backpack sprayer equipped with TeeJet 11002 DG flat fan spray tips (Spraying Systems Company, P.O. Box 7900, North Avenue, Wheaton, IL 60188) that delivered a spray volume of 190 L/ha at 180 kPa while on the Texas High Plains locations, fungicides and herbicides were applied with a CO2 pressurized backpack sprayer using TeeJet 110015 TT flat fan nozzles calibrated to deliver a spray volume of 94 L/ha at 207 kPa. At Yoakum, the peanut variety Tamrun OL02 [68] was planted in each year at a seeding rate of 112 kg/ha. At the Texas High Plains locations, Flavor Runner 458 [69] was planted at the rate of 100 kg/ha.
Texas millet and southern crabgrass were present at Yoakum in 2007 and 2009 while broadleaf signalgrass was present in 2008. Texas millet was present at Lamesa in 2007. Palmer amaranth was present at Yoakum in 2007, 2008, and 2009, Lamesa in 2007, and Halfway in 2008 and 2009. Smellmelon (
Studies also were conducted under weed-free conditions at the Lamesa and Halfway in 2008 and 2009. Plots were maintained weed-free with ethalfluralin (Sonalan HFP®, Dow AgroSciences, 9330 Zionsville Road, Indianapolis, IN 46268) at 0.84 kg/ha applied preplant incorporated. At Lamesa, Flavor Runner 458 was planted in 2008 while Tamrun OL02 was planted in 2009; at Halfway, the Spanish market type, OLin [70] was planted both years of the study. Seeding rate for the runner market cultivars (Flavor Runner 458, Tamrun OL02) was 90 kg/ha while OLin was planted at 100 kg/ha. Peanut phytotoxicity ratings were recorded throughout the growing season and peanut yield was obtained by digging each plot separately, air-drying in the field for 4 to 7 days, and harvesting pods from each plot with a combine. Weights were recorded after soil and trash were removed from plot samples were adjusted to 10% moisture.
Weed control and peanut phytotoxicity, expressed as chlorosis and necrosis of leaf tissue, was visually estimated on a scale of 0 to 100 (0 indicating no weed kill or leaf chlorosis or necrosis and 100 indicating complete weed or peanut kill), relative to the non-treated control. Weed control was recorded approximately four weeks after POST herbicide applications while peanut phytotoxicity was recorded 5 to 14 days after herbicide application.
Weed control and peanut injury data were transformed to the arcsine square root prior to analysis of variance, but are expressed in their original form for clarity because the transformation did not alter interpretation. Visual estimates of weed control and peanut injury, and yield were subjected to analysis of variance to test effects of POST herbicide and fungicide. Means were compared with the appropriate Fisher’s Protected LSD test at the 5% probability level. The non-treated was not included in weed efficacy or peanut injury analysis but was included in peanut yield analysis.
Studies were conducted in two different peanut growing regions of Texas to determine disease control and peanut response to applications of herbicides and fungicides applied alone and in combination. Field studies at south Texas were conducted at the Texas A&M AgriLife Research site near Yoakum while the central Texas studies were conducted at the Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center near Stephenville. Soils at the Yoakum site were described previously. This site has been in continuous peanut for over forty years so there was a high concentration of soil-borne and foliar disease inoculum. The soil at the Stephenville site was a Windthorst loamy sand (fine mixed thermic Udic Paleustalfs) with less than 1% organic matter and pH 7.6.
Studies in south Texas were conducted from 2008 to 2010 on early leaf spot and southern blight. These studies included the fungicides pyraclostrobin at 0.27 kg ai/ha, tebuconazole at 0.23 kg ai/ha, and the premix of prothioconazole at 0.084 kg ai/ha plus tebuconazole at 0.168 kg ai/ha and the herbicides aciflurofen at 0.42 kg ai/ha, clethodim at 0.14 kg ai/ha, imazapic at 0.07 kg ai/ha, imazethapyr at 0.07 kg ai/ha, lactofen at 0.22 kg ai/ha, sethoxydim at 0.21 kg ai/ha, or 2,4-DB at 0.42 kg ai/ha. Fungicides and herbicides were applied alone and in combination to determine efficacy against foliar and soilborne diseases. No adjuvant was included in these studies in 2008 or 2009; however, in 2010 a crop oil concentrate (Agri-Dex, a blend of 83% paraffin-based petroleum oil and 17% surfactant) at 2.3 L/ha was added to each treatment.
Fungicides and herbicides alone and in combination were applied with a CO2-pressurized backpack sprayer equipped with three D2-23 hollow-cone spray nozzles per row in 140 L of water/ha at a pressure of 504 kPa. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with a factorial arrangement of seven herbicides by three fungicides. All studies included a non-treated control. Each plot consisted of four rows spaced 97 cm apart and 6.3 m long. The variety Tamrun OL02 [68] was planted in 2008 and 2009 while Florida 07 [71] was planted in 2010 at the rate of 112 kg/ha. Planting dates were June 16, 2008, July 1, 2009, and May 24, 2010.
Studies conducted in central Texas focused on early leaf spot and Sclerotinia blight caused by
Typical peanut injury resulted in rapid damage to plant tissue after application and manifested as small necrotic lesions. The visible injury on leaflets with 2,4-DB was common and consisted of typical 2,4-DB damage which consisted of elongated leaflets with a slightly faded appearance [10]. This symptomology was not visible on new growth and remained visible on lower leaves throughout the growing season. Peanut phytotoxicity ratings were recorded 7 days after treatment at Yoakum. Peanut injury was estimated visually on a scale of 0 to 100 (0 indicating no leaf chlorosis or necrosis and 100 indicating complete peanut kill), relative to the non-treated control. Severity of leaf spot was rated in the center two rows using the Florida leaf spot scoring system where 1 = no leaf spot, and 10 = plants completely defoliated and dead because of leaf spot [49,59]. Values of 1 through 4 on the scale reflect increasing incidence of leaflets with spots, and occurrence of spots in lower versus upper canopy of the plots; whereas values 4 through 10 reflect increasing levels of defoliation [51]. The leaf spot rating was recorded immediately prior to peanut digging.
Loci of southern stem rot or Sclerotinia blight (where applicable) were counted immediately after peanut plants were inverted. A locus represented 31 cm or less of linear row with one or more plants infected with
All test areas were maintained weed-free with a preemergence tank-mix application of pendimethalin at 1.06 kg ai/ha plus
Peanut yields were obtained by digging each plot separately, air-drying in the field for 4 to 7 days, and harvesting pods from each plot with a combine. Weights were recorded after soil and trash were removed from plot samples were adjusted to 10% moisture. Leaf spot ratings and incidence of soilborne disease development were used for comparison of tank-mix combinations. Data were analyzed using PROC GLM with SAS (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC) and a model statement appropriate for a factorial design. Treatments means were separated by Fisher’s protected least significant difference test at P≤0.05.
There was no herbicide by fungicide by year interaction for Texas millet, southern crabgrass, or broadleaf signalgrass control; therefore, that data are combined over clethodim and sethoxydim herbicides.
No differences in broadleaf signalgrass, Texas millet, or southern crabgrass control were noted between clethodim or sethoxydim when applied alone or in combination with any of the fungicides (Table 2). Grichar [73] reported that clethodim and sethoxydim controlled 3 to 10 cm tall Texas millet and southern crabgrass at least 85%. Clethodim applied to 15 to 25 cm tall Texas millet or southern crabgrass provided no better than 89% Texas millet control while southern crabgrass control varied from 51 to 95% [73]. Sethoxydim applied to the same height Texas millet or southern crabgrass controlled Texas millet 79 to 87% and southern crabgrass control was no better than 76% [73].
\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | ||||
Clethodim | \n\t\t\t0.14 | \n\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t\t98 | \n\t\t
Sethoxydim | \n\t\t\t0.21 | \n\t\t\t95 | \n\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t\t98 | \n\t\t
LSD (0.05) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | NSd\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNS | \n\t\t\tNS | \n\t\t
Annual grass control with clethodim and sethoxydim.a,b
a Herbicides and rates included clethodim at 0.14 kg ai/ha and sethoxydim at 0.21 kg ai/ha. Fungicides and rates included pyraclostrobin at 0.27 kg ai/ha, tebuconazole at 0.23 kg ai/ha, and the premix of prothioconazole at 0.084 kg ai/ha + tebuconazole at 0.168 kg ai/ha. Data were combined over fungicides due to a lack of interaction.
b Texas millet present in south Texas in 2007 and 2009 and at Lamesa in 2007. Southern crabgrass present in south Texas in 2007 and 2009. Broadleaf signalgrass present in south Texas in 2008.
c Texas millet,
d NS, not significant at the 5% level of probability.
Lancaster et al. [8,9] reported large crabgrass control was reduced with clethodim when applied with pyraclostrobin, chlorothalonil, and azoxystrobin; however, fluazinam, propiconazole plus trifloxystrobin, and tebuconazole did not reduce large crabgrass control by clethodim. Similarly, Jordan et al. [66] reported that azoxystrobin and chlorothalonil, but not tebuconazole, reduced annual grass control by clethodim. Also Lancaster et al. [8,9] reported that large crabgrass control was reduced when sethoxydim was applied with azoxystrobin or pyraclostrobin, but not fluazinam, propiconazole plus trifloxystrobin, or tebuconazole.
At Yoakum in 2007 and 2008 and Halfway in 2008 there was an herbicide by fungicide interaction; therefore, those data are presented as a 2-way interaction of broadleaf herbicide by fungicide (Table 3). However, only herbicide effects were significant at Lamesa in 2007 and Halfway and Yoakum in 2009 (Table 4).
In 2007 at Yoakum, lactofen, aciflurofen, and imazapic alone controlled Palmer amaranth at least 91% while 2,4-DB and imazethapyr alone provided 83% and 68% control, respectively (Table 3). Lactofen plus tebuconazole and aciflurofen plus either the premix of prothioconazole plus tebuconazole or tebuconazole reduced Palmer amaranth control over each respective herbicide applied alone. In 2008 at Yoakum, all herbicides alone controlled Palmer amaranth at least 92%. Reduced control from each respective herbicide alone was noted with acifluorfen plus either pyraclostrobin or tebuconazole and imazethapyr or 2,4-DB plus pyraclostrobin. At the Halfway location, lactofen and aciflurofen alone provided poor control (≤ 25%) of Palmer amaranth while imazethapyr, imazapic, and 2,4-DB controlled Palmer amaranth at least 77% (Table 3). Only the combination of 2,4-DB plus the premix of prothioconazole plus tebuconazole reduced control when compared to 2,4-DB alone.
At Lamesa, all herbicides controlled Palmer amaranth less than 60% while at Yoakum there was no difference in Palmer amaranth control following all herbicide treatments (Table 4). At the Halfway location, lactofen, imazapic, and imazethapyr controlled Palmer amaranth at least 98% while 2,4-DB and aciflurofen controlled this weed 75% and 54%, respectively.
Grichar [74] reported that imazapic at 0.04 to 0.07 kg/ha controlled Palmer amaranth at least 95% when applied to weeds that were less than 15 cm tall while imazethapyr provided at least 90% control in 2 of 3 years. In other research, Jordan et al. [66] reported that smooth pigweed (
There was an herbicide by fungicide interaction for horse purslane in 2009. Lactofen and 2,4-DB alone and in combination with fungicides provided almost complete control of horse purslane (Table 3). Aciflurofen alone controlled 97% horse purslane while antagonism was noted with acifluorfen plus the premix of prothioconazole plus tebuconazole combinations. All imazethapyr plus fungicide combinations reduced horse purslane control compared to imazethapyr alone. Imazapic alone or in combination failed to control horse purslane.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | ||||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | ||||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | ||||
Herbicide | \n\t\t\tFungicide | \n\t\t\t% | \n\t\t|||
Lactofen | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t93 | \n\t\t\t92 | \n\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t
Lactofen | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t
Lactofen | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t78 | \n\t\t\t93 | \n\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t
Lactofen | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t70 | \n\t\t\t93 | \n\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t
Acifluorfen | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t91 | \n\t\t\t97 | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t97 | \n\t\t
Acifluorfen | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t73 | \n\t\t\t80 | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t80 | \n\t\t
Acifluorfen | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t57 | \n\t\t\t97 | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t58 | \n\t\t
Acifluorfen | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t68 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t77 | \n\t\t\t80 | \n\t\t
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t88 | \n\t\t\t86 | \n\t\t\t75 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Prothioconazole | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 98 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t82 | \n\t\t\t98 | \n\t\t\t82 | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t87 | \n\t\t\t93 | \n\t\t\t80 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t
Imazapic | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t94 | \n\t\t\t97 | \n\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t
Imazapic | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t94 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t\t94 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Imazapic | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t86 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t\t94 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t
Imazapic | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t97 | \n\t\t\t93 | \n\t\t\t94 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
2,4-DB | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t83 | \n\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t\t88 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t
2,4-DB | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t67 | \n\t\t\t87 | \n\t\t\t87 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t
2,4-DB | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t98 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t
2,4-DB | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t97 | \n\t\t\t83 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t
LSD (0.05) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 20 | \n\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t32 | \n\t\t
Palmer amaranth and horse purslane control with herbicide-fungicide combinations.a,b
a Agri-Dex at 2.3 L/ha was added to each treatment except in 2007 at Yoakum where X-77 at 0.25% v/v was added.
b Herbicides and rates included aciflurofen at 0.42 kg ai/ha, imazapic at 0.07 kg ai/ha, imazethapyr at 0.07 kg ai/ha, lactofen at 0.22 kg ai/ha, or 2,4-DB at 0.42 kg ai/ha. Fungicides and rates included pyraclostrobin at 0.27 kg ai/ha, tebuconazole at 0.23 kg ai/ha, and the premix of prothioconazole at 0.084 kg ai/ha + tebuconazole at 0.168 kg ai/ha.
c Palmer amaranth,
d Present only in 2009.
Horse purslane can be a stronger competitor with peanut early in the growing season than common purslane due to a more upright growth than that of common purslane [75]. Grichar [75] reported that aciflurofen and lactofen alone or combinations of these herbicides with 2,4-DB controlled horse purslane at least 70% when evaluated 21 days after treatment (DAT), but no greater than 75% control was observed when rated up to 115 DAT. In later work, Grichar [76] reported that in one year, lactofen applied to horse purslane less than 15 cm tall controlled this weed 93% while in another year, lactofen applied to horse purslane less than 15 cm tall or 20 to 30 cm tall provided at least 93% control while acifluorfen applied to horse purslane less than 15 cm tall controlled this weed 77%.
Only herbicides were significant for smellmelon control (Table 4). No difference in smellmelon control was noted with any herbicides in 2007, while in 2008 imazethapyr produced the worst control. In 2009, lactofen controlled less smellmelon than imazapic. Grichar [76] reported that imazapic provided the most consistent control of smellmelon while acifluorfen, imazethapyr, imazapic, and lactofen controlled at least 80% smellmelon in some years but in other years control was less than 70%. Imazapic at 0.04 to 0.07 kg/ha controlled smellmelon greater than 90% in corn (
No peanut phytotoxicity was noted with any graminicide by fungicide combinations at Yoakum or Halfway (data not shown); however, at Lamesa there was a treatment by year interaction.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t|||||
Lactofen | \n\t\t\t49 | \n\t\t\t94 | \n\t\t\t98 | \n\t\t\t93 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t\t89 | \n\t\t
Aciflurofen | \n\t\t\t38 | \n\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t\t54 | \n\t\t\t88 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t88 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t\t88 | \n\t\t\t91 | \n\t\t\t95 | \n\t\t
Imazapic | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t\t98 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t\t98 | \n\t\t\t98 | \n\t\t
2,4-DB | \n\t\t\t59 | \n\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t\t75 | \n\t\t\t93 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t
LSD (0.05) | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\tNSd\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\tNS | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t
Weed control with various postemergence herbicides.a,b
a Data are pooled over herbicides due to a lack of interaction. Herbicides and rates included aciflurofen at 0.42 kg ai/ha, imazapic at 0.07 kg ai/ha, imazethapyr at 0.07 kg ai/ha, lactofen at 0.22 kg ai/ha, or 2,4-DB at 0.42 kg ai/ha. Fungicides and rates included pyraclostrobin at 0.27 kg ai/ha, tebuconazole at 0.23 kg ai/ha, and the premix of prothioconazole at 0.084 kg ai/ha + tebuconazole at 0.168 kg ai/ha.
b Palmer amaranth present at Lamesa in 2007, Yoakum in 2009, and Halfway in 2009.
c Palmer amaranth,
d NS, not significant at the 5% level of probability.
In 2007 (with Texas millet pressure) and in 2009 (weed-free), peanut phytotoxicity (up to 12%) was evident with clethodim and sethoxydim combinations with either pyraclostrobin, tebuconazole, and the premix of prothioconazole + tebuconazole up to two weeks after application (Table 5). In 2007, clethodim, sethoxydim, or tebuconazole alone or clethodim or sethoxydim in combination with tebuconazole caused no phytotoxicity. All other combinations resulted in at least 3% phytotoxicity. Either graminicide in combination with prothioconazole plus tebuconazole or prothioconazole plus tebuconazole alone caused the greatest phytotoxicity. In 2009, similar results were noted; however, pyraclostrobin alone or in combination with either graminicide caused the greatest injury (Table 5). Subsequent new growth did not exhibit adverse effects of any tank-mix combination and was 2% or less, four weeks after application (data not shown).
\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Clethodim | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Clethodim | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t
Clethodim | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Clethodim | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t
Sethoxydim | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Sethoxydim | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t
Sethoxydim | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Sethoxydim | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
LSD (0.05) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 3 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t
Peanut phytotoxicity with graminicide plus fungicide combinations at Lamesa in 2007 and 2009.a
a Herbicides and rates included clethodim at 0.14 kg ai/ha and sethoxydim at 0.21 kg ai/ha. Fungicides and rates included pyraclostrobin at 0.27 kg ai/ha, tebuconazole at 0.23 kg ai/ha, and the premix of prothioconazole at 0.084 kg ai/ha + tebuconazole at 0.168 kg ai/ha.
Phytotoxicity observations were not recorded in the weed efficacy studies with the exception of Yoakum in 2008; however, phytotoxicity ratings were recorded in the weed-free studies conducted at Lemasa in 2008 and 2009 and Halfway in 2009. In these studies, there was a significant herbicide by fungicide interaction; therefore, data are presented separately by location. Phytotoxicity varied across locations and treatments but in most instances was greater with the use of aciflurofen or lactofen.
In 2008 at Yoakum, lactofen alone and in combination with prothioconazole plus tebuconazole or tebuconazole alone caused at least 10% peanut phytotoxicity while aciflurofen alone or in combination with any of the fungicides caused 4 to 7% phytotoxicity. At Lamesa, combinations with aciflurofen, lactofen, and 2,4-DB caused the greatest injury (Table 6). Imazethapyr or imazapic alone or in combination with pyraclostrobin resulted in no injury. Imazethapyr plus tebuconazole caused no injury while imazapic plus tebuconazole resulted in 10% injury.
In 2009 at Lamesa, imazapic, imazethapyr, and 2,4-DB alone resulted in no injury; however, imazapic plus either pyraclostrobin or prothioconazole plus tebuconazole, imazapic plus pyraclostrobin, and 2,4-DB plus any fungicide resulted in 5 to 15% phytotoxicity (Table 6). Slight peanut phytotoxicity was also noted with the fungicides pyraclostrobin and tebuconazole. At Halfway, peanut injury with aciflurofen or lactofen was greater than at Lamesa with the exception of lactofen plus pyraclostrobin which caused 9 to 10% injury at both locations (Table 6).
Under weed-free conditions, when using either the grass or broadleaf herbicides with fungicides, no negative response with respect to peanut yield was noted when compared with the non-treated control for either runner or Spanish market types (data not shown). Most studies conducted on herbicide-fungicide interactions on peanut have focused on either weed efficacy or disease control and few have reported on effect on peanut yield. No studies could be found that reported any peanut yield reductions with clethodim or sethoxydim under weed-free conditions. Although lactofen at 0.22 kg/ha caused peanut leaf bronzing and spotting [74], lactofen produced a similar yield when compared to the untreated, weed-free control [79]. Richburg et al. [80] reported no yield differences with runner, Spanish, or Virginia peanut cultivars with imazethapyr at 0.07 kg/ha in Georgia or Texas. No reduction in peanut grade or yield following imazapic treatments have been observed in several studies [76,81,82]. Grichar et al. [83] reported that single and multiple applications of 2,4-DB at 0.45 kg/ha did not affect runner-type yield.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||||
- | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Lactofen | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t23 | \n\t\t
Lactofen | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t
Lactofen | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t
Lactofen | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t
Acifluorfen | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t
Acifluorfen | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t
Acifluorfen | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t23 | \n\t\t
Acifluorfen | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Imazapic | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Imazapic | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Imazapic | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t
Imazapic | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t
2,4-DB | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t
2,4-DB | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t
2,4-DB | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t
2,4-DB | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tPyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tProthioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tTebuconazole | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
LSD (0.05) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 3 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t
Peanut phytotoxicity with herbicide-fungicide combinations when rated 12 to 15 days after treatment.a,b
a Agri-Dex at 2.3 L/ha was added to each treatment.
b Herbicides and rates included aciflurofen at 0.42 kg ai/ha, imazapic at 0.07 kg ai/ha, imazethapyr at 0.07 kg ai/ha, lactofen at 0.22 kg ai/ha, or 2,4-DB at 0.42 kg ai/ha. Fungicides and rates included pyraclostrobin at 0.27 kg ai/ha, tebuconazole at 0.23 kg ai/ha, and the premix of prothioconazole at 0.084 kg ai/ha + tebuconazole at 0.168 kg ai/ha.
c Rating index: 0=no leaf chlorosis or necrosis, 100=plants completely dead.
Rainfall in south Texas was below average in 2008 and the early to mid-part of the 2009 peanut growing season (May through August); however, rainfall amounts were above average for the latter portion of the 2009 season (September through November). Rainfall amounts for 2010 were above average for May, July, August, and September (Table 7). In central Texas, rainfall amounts in 2008 were below average for all months (May through November) with the exception of July which was slightly above average while in 2009 rainfall was below average for all months with the exception of July and October (Table 7).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t|||||
\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||||||
May | \n\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t16.3 | \n\t\t\t118.4 | \n\t\t\t112.2 | \n\t\t\t76.5 | \n\t\t\t65.5 | \n\t\t\t117.6 | \n\t\t
June | \n\t\t\t65.3 | \n\t\t\t3.8 | \n\t\t\t95.0 | \n\t\t\t109.2 | \n\t\t\t30.5 | \n\t\t\t8.6 | \n\t\t\t100.0 | \n\t\t
July | \n\t\t\t54.9 | \n\t\t\t5.3 | \n\t\t\t200.7 | \n\t\t\t65.8 | \n\t\t\t47.2 | \n\t\t\t79.0 | \n\t\t\t34.7 | \n\t\t
August | \n\t\t\t57.9 | \n\t\t\t42.7 | \n\t\t\t89.4 | \n\t\t\t78.7 | \n\t\t\t50.3 | \n\t\t\t2.0 | \n\t\t\t58.3 | \n\t\t
September | \n\t\t\t2.5 | \n\t\t\t114.0 | \n\t\t\t223.3 | \n\t\t\t102.6 | \n\t\t\t55.9 | \n\t\t\t10.6 | \n\t\t\t70.5 | \n\t\t
October | \n\t\t\t14.2 | \n\t\t\t352.6 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t94.5 | \n\t\t\t32.5 | \n\t\t\t127.3 | \n\t\t\t72.3 | \n\t\t
November | \n\t\t\t25.9 | \n\t\t\t111.3 | \n\t\t\t71.1 | \n\t\t\t75.4 | \n\t\t\t40.4 | \n\t\t\t25.9 | \n\t\t\t54.5 | \n\t\t
Total | \n\t\t\t222.0 | \n\t\t\t646.0 | \n\t\t\t797.9 | \n\t\t\t638.4 | \n\t\t\t333.3 | \n\t\t\t318.9 | \n\t\t\t507.9 | \n\t\t
Rainfall amounts in south Texas and central Texas from 2008 through 2010
There was an herbicide by fungicide interaction for early leaf spot control in 2008 and 2009. In 2010, the main plots of herbicide and fungicide were significant for early leaf spot control; therefore, that data were averaged over herbicides and fungicides only. Foliar disease development was moderate in 2008 due to extreme drought and hot conditions that persisted throughout the 2008 and the early portion of the 2009 growing seasons. Typically, early leaf spot epidemics are favored by temperatures of approximately 16 to 250 C and long periods of high relative humidity are required for infections to occur [84]. All herbicides alone, with the exception of sethoxydim and lactofen, were not different from the non-treated control with respect to early leaf spot development in 2008 (Table 8). All fungicides alone or in combination with any of the herbicides produced leaf spot levels that were less than the non-treated control. When individual fungicides were compared with the respective fungicide plus herbicide treatments some differences were noted. Pyraclostrobin alone resulted in less early leaf spot than pyraclostrobin plus either imazapic, lactofen, or sethoxydim. No differences were noted between tebuconazole alone or in combination with any herbicide. Prothioconazole plus tebuconazole alone resulted in less early leaf spot than prothioconazole plus tebuconazole in combination with acifluorfen (Table 8).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||
- | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t6.8 | \n\t\t\t9.4 | \n\t\t\t37 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1860 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tClethodim | \n\t\t\t6.3 | \n\t\t\t9.3 | \n\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1680 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tSethoxydim | \n\t\t\t5.7 | \n\t\t\t9.3 | \n\t\t\t89 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1510 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tLactofen | \n\t\t\t5.5 | \n\t\t\t9.6 | \n\t\t\t45 | \n\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t1860 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tAciflurofen | \n\t\t\t6.9 | \n\t\t\t9.4 | \n\t\t\t61 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t2320 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tImazethapyr | \n\t\t\t6.0 | \n\t\t\t9.3 | \n\t\t\t69 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1500 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tImazapic | \n\t\t\t6.3 | \n\t\t\t9.2 | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1810 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\t2,4-DB | \n\t\t\t7.0 | \n\t\t\t9.2 | \n\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t1550 | \n\t\t
Pyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t2.5 | \n\t\t\t5.6 | \n\t\t\t29 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t2670 | \n\t\t
Pyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\tClethodim | \n\t\t\t3.0 | \n\t\t\t5.7 | \n\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t2470 | \n\t\t
Pyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\tSethoxydim | \n\t\t\t3.5 | \n\t\t\t5.8 | \n\t\t\t27 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t1630 | \n\t\t
Pyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\tLactofen | \n\t\t\t3.5 | \n\t\t\t5.8 | \n\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t2440 | \n\t\t
Pyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\tAcifluorfen | \n\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t5.9 | \n\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t1830 | \n\t\t
Pyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\tImazethapyr | \n\t\t\t3.0 | \n\t\t\t5.6 | \n\t\t\t29 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t1550 | \n\t\t
Pyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\tImazapic | \n\t\t\t3.8 | \n\t\t\t6.6 | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t2060 | \n\t\t
Pyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t2,4-DB | \n\t\t\t3.0 | \n\t\t\t5.7 | \n\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t1560 | \n\t\t
Tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t3.7 | \n\t\t\t7.0 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1780 | \n\t\t
Tebuconazole | \n\t\t\tClethodim | \n\t\t\t4.0 | \n\t\t\t7.8 | \n\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1870 | \n\t\t
Tebuconazole | \n\t\t\tSethoxydim | \n\t\t\t4.0 | \n\t\t\t7.2 | \n\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1970 | \n\t\t
Tebuconazole | \n\t\t\tLactofen | \n\t\t\t4.5 | \n\t\t\t6.3 | \n\t\t\t19 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t1890 | \n\t\t
Tebuconazole | \n\t\t\tAcifluorfen | \n\t\t\t4.0 | \n\t\t\t8.4 | \n\t\t\t27 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t1720 | \n\t\t
Tebuconazole | \n\t\t\tImazethapyr | \n\t\t\t4.0 | \n\t\t\t7.2 | \n\t\t\t35 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1970 | \n\t\t
Tebuconazole | \n\t\t\tImazapic | \n\t\t\t3.3 | \n\t\t\t7.7 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1450 | \n\t\t
Tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t2,4-DB | \n\t\t\t4.0 | \n\t\t\t7.1 | \n\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t2670 | \n\t\t
Prothioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t3.0 | \n\t\t\t6.8 | \n\t\t\t37 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t2080 | \n\t\t
Prothioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\tClethodim | \n\t\t\t3.7 | \n\t\t\t6.7 | \n\t\t\t55 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t1890 | \n\t\t
Prothioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\tSethoxydim | \n\t\t\t3.8 | \n\t\t\t6.7 | \n\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t2380 | \n\t\t
Prothioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\tLactofen | \n\t\t\t3.3 | \n\t\t\t6.5 | \n\t\t\t31 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t2470 | \n\t\t
Prothioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\tAcifluorfen | \n\t\t\t4.2 | \n\t\t\t7.3 | \n\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t2020 | \n\t\t
Prothioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\tImazethapyr | \n\t\t\t3.0 | \n\t\t\t6.8 | \n\t\t\t39 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1500 | \n\t\t
Prothioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\tImazapic | \n\t\t\t3.5 | \n\t\t\t6.9 | \n\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t2080 | \n\t\t
Prothioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t2,4-DB | \n\t\t\t3.5 | \n\t\t\t7.0 | \n\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t1510 | \n\t\t
LSD (0.05) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1.0 | \n\t\t\t0.6 | \n\t\t\t31 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t780 | \n\t\t
Disease control and peanut response to fungicide-herbicide combinations in south Texas.a
a Fungicides and rates: pyraclostrobin at 0.27 kg ai/ha, tebuconazole at 0.23 kg ai/ha, and the premix of prothioconazole at 0.084 kg ai/ha + tebuconazole at 0.168 kg ai/ha. Herbicides and rates included clethodim at 0.14 kg ai/ha, sethoxydim at 0.21 kg ai/ha, aciflurofen at 0.42 kg ai/ha, imazapic at 0.07 kg ai/ha, imazethapyr at 0.07 kg ai/ha, lactofen at 0.22 kg ai/ha, or 2,4-DB at 0.42 kg ai/ha.
b Florida leaf spot scoring system where 1 = no leaf spot, and 10 = plants completely defoliated and dead because of leaf spot. Values of 1 through 4 on the scale reflect increasing incidence of leaflets with spots, and occurrence of spots in lower versus upper canopy of the plots. Values 4 through 10 reflect increasing levels of defoliation.
c Loci of southern stem rot were counted immediately after peanut plants were inverted. A locus represented 31 cm or less of linear row with one or more plants infected with
d Peanut phytotoxicity ratings (leaf chlorosis and necrosis) ratings were taken 7 days after treatment. Peanut injury was visually estimated on a scale of 0 to 100 (0 indicating no leaf chlorosis or necrosis and 100 indicating complete peanut kill), relative to the non-treated control.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
Herbicide | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
No herbicide | \n\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t6.5 | \n\t\t\t3635 | \n\t\t
Aciflurofen | \n\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t7.6 | \n\t\t\t3047 | \n\t\t
Clethodim | \n\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t6.6 | \n\t\t\t3302 | \n\t\t
Imazapic | \n\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t6.8 | \n\t\t\t3581 | \n\t\t
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t7.4 | \n\t\t\t3387 | \n\t\t
Lactofen | \n\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t7.3 | \n\t\t\t3048 | \n\t\t
Sethoxydim | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t6.8 | \n\t\t\t3240 | \n\t\t
2,4-DB | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t6.8 | \n\t\t\t3461 | \n\t\t
LSD (0.05) | \n\t\t\tNS c\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\tNS | \n\t\t
Fungicide | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
No fungicide | \n\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t8.8 | \n\t\t\t2834 | \n\t\t
Pyraclostrobin | \n\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t6.1 | \n\t\t\t3490 | \n\t\t
Tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t6.5 | \n\t\t\t3401 | \n\t\t
Prothioconazole + tebuconazole | \n\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t6.5 | \n\t\t\t3627 | \n\t\t
LSD (0.05) | \n\t\t\tNSd\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t419 | \n\t\t
Disease control and peanut response to herbicides and fungicides in south Texas.a
a Fungicides and rates: pyraclostrobin at 0.27 kg ai/ha, tebuconazole at 0.23 kg ai/ha, and the premix of prothioconazole at 0.084 kg ai/ha plus tebuconazole at 0.168 kg ai/ha. Herbicides and rates included clethodim at 0.14 kg ai/ha, sethoxydim at 0.21 kg ai/ha, aciflurofen at 0.42 kg ai/ha, imazapic at 0.07 kg ai/ha, imazethapyr at 0.07 kg ai/ha, lactofen at 0.22 kg ai/ha, or 2,4-DB at 0.42 kg ai/ha.
b Loci of southern stem rot were counted immediately after peanut plants were inverted. A locus represented 31 cm or less of linear row with one or more plants infected with
c Florida leaf spot scoring system where 1 = no leaf spot, and 10 = plants completely defoliated and dead because of leaf spot. Values of 1 through 4 on the scale reflect increasing incidence of leaflets with spots, and occurrence of spots in lower versus upper canopy of the plots. Values 4 through 10 reflect increasing levels of defoliation.
d Abbreviation: NS, not significant at the 5% level of significance.
Although early-season rainfall was below normal in 2009, September rainfall was above normal leading to conditions for late-season development of high levels of foliar diseases. No differences were noted between the non-treated control and any herbicide with respect to early leaf spot control (Table 8). All fungicides alone or in combination with herbicides resulted in less early leaf spot than the non-treated control. When fungicides were compared alone or in combination, pyraclostrobin alone resulted in less early leaf spot than the combination of pyraclostrobin plus imazapic while tebuconazole alone resulted in less leaf spot than tebuconazole plus either imazapic or aciflurofen. No differences were noted between prothioconazole plus tebuconazole alone or in combination with any herbicides.
Weather conditions in 2010 were conducive for development of early leaf spot (Table 7). When herbicides were compared, aciflurofen, imazethapyr, and lactofen resulted in greater early leaf spot than where no herbicide was used (Table 9). All fungicides resulted in less early leaf spot than where no fungicide was used.
Early leaf spot data was collected only in 2008 and neither fungicide nor herbicide effects were significant. Due to dry conditions, early leaf spot pressure was moderate and there were no differences with any factors (Table 10). Management of early and late leaf spot of peanut is essential for peanut production in most areas of the world [59]. In the southeastern United States, control of these diseases is heavily reliant upon multiple fungicide applications [59,84] while far fewer applications are necessary in the southwestern United States [53,56,85].
Control of southern blight was not significant for any factor in 2008; however, in 2010 there was a fungicide by herbicide interaction. Since peanut were not dug in 2009, no southern blight ratings were taken. In 2008, no differences were noted with respect to development of southern blight (Table 8). In 2010, under low to moderate pressure, sethoxydim alone produced the highest levels of southern blight with over 85% disease incidence (Table 9). No differences were noted between fungicides alone or the combinations of a fungicide with a herbicide.
Sclerotinia blight control was significant for both fungicides in both years; whereas herbicides did not impact disease control. Sclerotinia blight pressure was moderate to heavy in each year (Table 10). In 2008, fluazinam provided the best control of Sclerotinia blight compared with the non-treated control while both boscalid and fluazinam reduced Sclerotinia blight compared to the non-treated control in 2009. Fluazinam has provided good to excellent disease control depending on the rate applied [86-88]. Smith et al. [89] reported in field studies that the application of boscalid or fluazinam that preceded the largest incremental increase in disease incidence provided the best control of disease or increased yield. They advised that disease advisories or intensive scouting should be used to determine when epidemics initiate so that a fungicide can be applied prior to infection.
\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t|
None | \n\t\t\t5.4 | \n\t\t\t31.9 | \n\t\t\t39.3 | \n\t\t
Boscalid | \n\t\t\t5.1 | \n\t\t\t24.3 | \n\t\t\t18.5 | \n\t\t
Fluazinam | \n\t\t\t5.6 | \n\t\t\t16.6 | \n\t\t\t12.7 | \n\t\t
LSD (0.05) | \n\t\t\tNSd\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t13.9 | \n\t\t\t8.0 | \n\t\t
Foliar disease and Sclerotinia blight control with fungicides in central Texas.a
a Fungicides and rates: boscalid at 0.49 kg ai/ha and fluazinam at 0.88 kg ai/ha. Herbicides and rates included clethodim at 0.14 kg ai/ha, sethoxydim at 0.21 kg ai/ha, aciflurofen at 0.42 kg ai/ha, imazapic at 0.07 kg ai/ha, imazethapyr at 0.07 kg ai/ha, lactofen at 0.22 kg ai/ha, or 2,4-DB at 0.42 kg ai/ha. Data combined over fungicides due to a lack of interaction.
b Leaf spot assessed using the Florida 1-10 scale where 1=no disease and 10=completely dead. Leaf spot present only in 2008.
c Loci of Sclerotinia blight were counted just prior to peanut plants being inverted. A locus represents 31 cm or less of linear row with one or more plants exhibiting disease symptoms or signs of
d NS, not significant at the 5% level of probability.
In south Texas, peanut phytotoxicity ratings were recorded in 2009 and 2010 and an herbicide by fungicide interaction was observed in each year. In 2009, lactofen alone or in combination with any fungicide resulted in the greatest amount of foliar chlorosis or necrosis (Table 8). The addition of a fungicide to lactofen reduced phytotoxicity 10 to 64% compared with lactofen alone. Lactofen is classified as a diphenyl ether (cell membrane disruptor), which interferes with protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase and causes accumulation of protoporphyrin IX [90]. Protoporphyrinogen IX is a potent photosensitizer that generates high levels of singlet oxygen in the presence of molecular oxygen and light, leading to light-induced oxidative breakdown of cell constituents [90]. Aciflurofen, also a diphenyl ether herbicide, caused injury similar to lactofen; however, this injury was not as great as that observed with lactofen (Table 8). Peanut and soybean (
In 2010, aciflurofen and lactofen exhibited similar phytotoxicity symptoms as exhibited in 2009; however, more phytotoxicity overall was noted with other fungicide-herbicide combinations than was seen in 2009. This increase in phytotoxicity was probably due to the addition of Agridex to all treatments in 2010, which was not added in 2008 or 2009. Phytotoxicity was noted with pyraclostrobin, which is never seen (authors personal observations). Pyraclostrobin and prothioconazole plus tebuconazole combinations with herbicides were more phytotoxic than tebuconazole combinations with herbicides. With tebuconazole, other than aciflurofen or lactofen, only the combination of tebuconazole plus 2,4-DB resulted in observed phytotoxcity. However, with pyraclostrobin or prothioconazole plus tebuconazole, phytotoxicity resulted from combinations with either clethodim, sethoxydim, imazethapyr, or imazapic in addition to aciflurofen or lactofen (Table 8).
\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t|
- | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t2720 | \n\t\t\t1985 | \n\t\t
Clethodim | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t2713 | \n\t\t\t2099 | \n\t\t
Clethodim | \n\t\t\tFluazinam | \n\t\t\t3408 | \n\t\t\t3337 | \n\t\t
Clethodim | \n\t\t\tBoscalid | \n\t\t\t2973 | \n\t\t\t3060 | \n\t\t
Sethoxydim | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t2930 | \n\t\t\t2351 | \n\t\t
Sethoxydim | \n\t\t\tFluazinam | \n\t\t\t2778 | \n\t\t\t2930 | \n\t\t
Sethoxydim | \n\t\t\tBoscalid | \n\t\t\t2865 | \n\t\t\t4240 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tFluazinam | \n\t\t\t3060 | \n\t\t\t2865 | \n\t\t
- | \n\t\t\tBoscalid | \n\t\t\t3971 | \n\t\t\t4402 | \n\t\t
LSD (0.05) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | NS b\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t855 | \n\t\t
Peanut yield as influenced by fungicide and herbicide alone and in combinations in central Texas.a
a Fungicides and rates: boscalid at 0.49 kg ai/ha and fluazinam at 0.88 kg ai/ha. Herbicides and rates included clethodim at 0.14 kg ai/ha and sethoxydim at 0.21 kg ai/ha.
b NS, Not significant at the 5% level.
In south Texas, there was a fungicide by herbicide interaction for peanut yield in 2008; therefore, data are presented as an interaction while in 2010 only fungicide treatment was significant. In 2008, no treatments affected peanut yield when compared with the non-treated control (Table 8). Only pyraclostrobin alone or tebuconazole plus 2,4-DB resulted in an increase in yield over the non-treated control. The lack of response to fungicides is probably related to the hot, dry conditions during the growing season and relatively low disease pressure. In 2010, all fungicides improved peanut yield over the non-treated control (Table 9).
In central Texas, there was no difference with any factor in 2008; however, a significant fungicide by herbicide interaction was observed in 2009. In 2008, there were no differences with any factor for yield while in 2009 there was a fungicide by herbicide interaction; however, yields were extremely variable (Table 11). Damicone and Jackson [92] reported that yield reductions of over 50% can occur following severe outbreaks of Sclerotinia blight. All boscalid or fluazinam treatments improved peanut yield over the non-treated control . Boscalid alone or in combination with sethoxydim produced greater yield than fluazinam alone or fluazinam in combination with sethoxydim. This agrees with the results of Smith et al. [89] who reported that in both field and greenhouse studies, boscalid performed marginally better than fluazinam.
Adding fungicides to either clethodim or sethoxydim did not have an effect on annual grass efficacy. No phytotoxicity was noted on peanut and yield was not affected with any graminicide -fungicide combinations. Lancaster et al. [8] reported that pyraclostrobin and tebuconazole did not reduce the amount of 14C-labled clethodim or sethoxydim absorbed in large crabgrass. Although tebuconazole did not reduce efficacy of either graminicide in the field, pyraclostrobin reduced efficacy of clethodim and sethoxydim in some instances. They concluded that reduced absorption was not the mechanism for reduced large crabgrass control but may be the result of a biological response or a chemical interaction. Pyraclostrobin is a strobilurin fungicide which inhibits fungal respiration and acts systemically within the plant [93]. Therefore, the formulated product is not likely to remain on leaf surfaces and interfere with herbicide absorption [8,9]. With Palmer amaranth, antagonism was noted 33% of the time with aciflurofen plus either pyraclostrobin or tebuconazole and 2,4-DB plus pyraclostrobin. Horse purslane also exhibited reduced control with herbicide-fungicides while smellmelon showed no effects of these combinations. Peanut leaf phytotoxicity was most evident with combinations that included aciflurofen or lactofen but this is to be expected since these two herbicides can cause bronzing and leaf spotting when applied alone.
Control of early leaf spot was reduced with pyraclostrobin plus imazapic combinations compared with pyraclostrobin alone in two of three years while pyraclostrobin plus either sethoxydim or lactofen, tebuconazole plus either clethodim or aciflurofen or the premix of prothioconazole plus tebuconazole in combination with aciflurofen reduced leaf spot control over the respective fungicide in one of three years. Fungicide-herbicide combinations did not affect southern blight or Sclerotinia blight disease development over the respective fungicide alone. Peanut phytotoxicity was greatest with aciflurofen or lactofen combinations. Under early leaf spot and southern blight or Sclerotinia blight disease pressure, no negative response was noted for peanut yield with any fungicide-herbicide combinations over the respective fungicide alone.
Many variables can affect interactions of herbicides with fungicides. Adjuvant selection, herbicide and fungicide rate, commercial formulation, active ingredient, spray volume, water quality, and environmental conditions can affect interactions [61]. Applying a higher rate of the herbicide that may be adversely affected can compensate for interactions [94-96]. Applying ammonium sulfate with bentazon reduced the negative effect of adding bentazon to clethodim or sethoxydim [97,98,99]. Differential response to clethodim has been noted when applied with different formulations of chlorothalonil [66]. Applying graminicides in higher spray volumes can hasten the negative influence of herbicides and fungicides on weed control by graminicides [66,100,101]. Environmental conditions that affect plant response to herbicides or fungicides can influence the magnitude of interactions. Negative effects of interactions associated with the efficacy of systemic herbicides, especially graminicides, are increased when grasses are stressed and the physiological processes that reduce absorption and translocation occur [63,102-105].
The National Peanut Board through the Texas Peanut Producers Board provided funds for this research. Kevin Brewer, Dwayne Drozd, Lyndell Gilbert, Bill Klesel, and Ira Yates provided technical assistance.
In this 21st century, feeding the teeming millions is the greatest challenge before us. The green revolution of 1960s although could alleviate the growing demands for food to a great extent but at the cost of food quality and environmental health. Long term applications of chemical fertilizers in crop production systems have been resulting in unpredictable reduction in yields and increase in the cost of cultivation. However, with the shrinking land, the burgeoning competition for water, land and other resources from non-agriculture sector might aggravate agricultural production in the near future. Hence, intensive farming through enhanced cropping intensity has been the way out for mitigating the population driven demands for food, feed, fodder and fibre without much scope for recycling of the agricultural wastes in majority of cases. For raising of multiple crops in a year the farmers burn farm residues
Near about half of the habitable land on this planet is under agriculture [2]. Of the 1,600 million hectares of cultivated land [3], 50.8 per cent is occupied by cereals [4]. About 52.5 per cent calories for humans are available from cereals at global scale [4] with major contributions from corn (1,116.34 million tons), wheat (764.49 Mt), rice (495.78 Mt), barley (156.41 Mt), sorghum (57.97 Mt), oat (22.83 Mt) and rye (12.17 Mt) [5]. Cereals are special not because of their uses as staple food but due to production of ethanol and cattle feed in many advanced nations. However, in many underdeveloped and developing countries this precious wealth has not yet been fully utilized [6]. It is high time to use this precious waste from crop field in judicious manner not only to recycle the carbon and sequester it back into the soil but also to harness clean and green energy out of it through appropriate measures.
Farm residues can be broadly divided into crop residues, and wastes from livestock and aquaculture depending on the activities carried out. Field crop residues are plant parts left over in the field without much attention unless otherwise is immediately followed by a succeeding crop. Crop residues can be put under agricultural and agri-industrial categories. Agricultural residues remaining after threshing and separation of the economic plant part(s) can be of (a) processed residues such as husks and hay and (b) field crop residues such as stalks and stubbles. Husk and hay are often left over in the crop field due to engagement of crop combined harvesters and axial flow threshers. Sometimes, the distance between crop field and farm house plays a decisive role in stacking of hay and husk in the crop field after threshing. That apart, farm mechanization in many developed countries has also shifted from animal driven to fossil fuel based farm power and thus excluding the need for gathering feedstock in the haystack. Furthermore, the risk of fire in haystack due to storage of dried crop residues can also not be eliminated completely. Hence, many farmers are not interested in transporting such bulky by-products from crop field to farmhouse. In mono cropped areas, natural weathering and decomposition by soil organisms usually degrade the field crop residues but the residue management challenge is mostly under sequential cropping.
Agri-industrial residues in the other hand are derived from industries such as peels of potato, orange, and cassava; bagasse and molasses of sugarcane; oilcakes of groundnut, mustard, sunflower, sesame, soybean and coconut; and husks and bran of rice [7]. Huge quantities of organic wastes are produced by food and vegetable oil processing industries every year- but if left untreated and unutilized, may cause environmental pollution as well as human and animal health issues. A representative chemical analysis report of few agri biomass are depicted under Table 1 for comparative studies.
Agro-industrial wastes | Chemical composition (%) | References | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cellulose | Hemi- cellulose | Lignin | Ash (%) | Total solids (%) | Moisture (%) | ||
Sugarcane bagasse | 30.2 | 56.7 | 13.4 | 1.9 | 91.66 | 4.8 | [8, 9] |
Rice straw | 39.2 | 23.5 | 36.1 | 12.4 | 98.62 | 6.58 | [8] |
Corn stalks | 61.2 | 19.3 | 6.9 | 10.8 | 97.78 | 6.40 | [8] |
Sawdust | 45.1 | 28.1 | 24.2 | 1.2 | 98.54 | 1.12 | [8, 10] |
Sugar beet waste | 26.3 | 18.5 | 2.5 | 4.8 | 87.5 | 12.4 | [8] |
Barley straw | 33.8 | 21.9 | 13.8 | 11 | _ | _ | [9] |
Cotton stalks | 58.5 | 14.4 | 21.5 | 9.98 | _ | 7.45 | [9] |
Oat straw | 39.4 | 27.1 | 17.5 | 8 | _ | _ | [10] |
Soya stalks | 34.5 | 24.8 | 19.8 | 10.39 | _ | 11.84 | [11] |
Sunflower stalks | 42.1 | 29.7 | 13.4 | 11.17 | _ | _ | [11] |
Wheat straw | 32.9 | 24.0 | 8.9 | 6.7 | 95.6 | 7.0 | [9, 10] |
Chemical composition of agri-industrial wastes [7].
Agricultural burning is the intentional setting of fire in the open field for preparation of the land for the next crop or killing the weeds and insect pests. Natural causes such as lightening and planned anthropogenic fire account for only 10–20 per cent of the total open burning across the globe [12]. Burning of agricultural residues is different from fire in forests, grasslands or any vegetation.
Slash and burn cultivation has been a traditional system in agriculture to clean up vegetation on virgin land and cultivate crops for a few years before shifting to a new area. Tradition, timing, ease, weather and location factors encourage the farmers to burn residues in many regions. Burning is the cheapest and quickest way of eliminating unwanted thrash from the crop fields. Addition of plant nutrients and killing of pathogens, insects and weed species also influence decision to burn residues
Burning of crop residues
Large scale burning of paddy stubbles in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh in India in the month of late October and November every year is estimated to be 35 Mt. This practice is spreading to other parts of the country like wildfire due to the advent of precision farm-equipments that allow resowing with the minimum soil disturbance. The crop field is made ready for the succeeding zero till wheat crop by burning of straw and stubbles leftover in the field from the crop harvested by combined harvester. India generates around 500 Mt. of residues from rice, wheat, sugarcane, maize, millet and other crops every year [14] of which 142 Mt. are leftover after fuel, fodder and industrial uses [15] and 92 Mt. are burnt every year across the country. Table 2 compares the agricultural wastes generated in India and its adjacent countries which reveal that the volume of waste is far more than the total waste generated by other countries.
Country | Agricultural waste generated (million tons/year) |
---|---|
Myanmar | 19 |
Indonesia | 55 |
Bangladesh | 72 |
India | 500 |
Near about 70 per cent of crop residues in India are cereals of which 34 per cent come from rice, and 22 per cent from wheat crops [14]. Estimation indicated burning of about 80 per cent of the total 20 Mt. of rice stubble in Punjab alone [14]. Whereas another estimate indicated 9.8 and 1.23 Mt. of rice residue-burning in Punjab and Haryana, respectively [18]. Burning of rice is more compared to wheat in the North West India as rice contains more silica (12–16 per cent vs. 3–5 per cent) which is not easily digestible. About 75 per cent of wheat straw is collected and stored as fodder. Rice stem contains lower silica than leaves and hence rice is to be cut as close to ground if used for feeding animals [19]. Management of rice straw is difficult compared to wheat due to shorter window for sowing of wheat and low temperature which compels the farmers to resort to burning during October–November every year [20]. Several major cities of North India—including New Delhi, Lucknow, and Kanpur—faced elevated levels of aerosol pollution [21]. The extent of aerosol pollution in India, Pakistan and Nepal region, mostly from crop residue burning, can be observed from the captured image of the NASA’s Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on Aqua satellite on 7 November 2017 (Figure 1).
NASA Earth Observatory image of the aerosol pollution in India, Pakistan and Nepal on 7 November 2017 [
Agriculture comes under the state list of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India and hence, the State Governments have to take austerity measures against residue burning. Burning of crop residues is a crime in India according to the Air Pollution Act, 1981 and Section 188 of the Indian Penal Code [14]. Courts in India have banned open burning of crop residues and made provisions of penal actions by collecting fines from the errant farmers. In 2018, the national green tribunal (NGT) of India imposed penalty of Rs.2,00,000 on the Delhi government for not filing an action plan for incentives and infrastructural assistance against stubble burning [22]. Subsequently, the NGT asked the Delhi government to deposit 250 million rupees (INR) with the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) as performance guarantee [23]. Consequent up on Public Interest Litigation in M. C. Mehta vs. Union of India (order IA No.158129 and 158129 of 2019 in writ petition (C) No.13029 of 1985) [24] an ordinance dissolving the Environment Pollution (Control and Prevention) Authority has been passed by the Indian government to set up a new Commission with over 20 members to regulate pollution in Delhi-NCR region [25]. In this ordinance, the Ministry of Law and Justice has made provisions for imprisonment up to five years or with fine up to rupees one crore or both for abrogation of the rule/provisions or order/directions of the Commission [25]. The Hon’ble Supreme Court of India has also realized the need for incentives to small and marginal farmers those abiding to the rules by paying a sum of Rs.100 per quintal of crop residues [24].
In the United States, agricultural burning policy has been formulated to monitor open burning of agricultural wastes and weeds for fire, weed and pest control adjacent to the crop field so as to allow regulated burning in small scale to maintain agricultural production but without impairing public health and air quality parameters. The agricultural burning managers are authorized to monitor burning at state, local and tribal level and no burning should be carried out without approval from the competent authority [26].
Cereals generate huge agriculture as well as agri-industrial wastes across the globe. If not managed judiciously then in long run, that may lead to the environmental pollution and global warming. Open burning of agricultural wastes is detrimental to both environment and human health. Poisonous gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), methane (CH4) and particulate matters (PM2.5 and PM10) are released into the atmosphere (Figure 2). An estimate reveals burning of crop residues release 149.24 Mt. of CO2, 9 Mt. of CO, 0.25 Mt. of SOx, 1.28 Mt. of PM and 0.07 Mt. of black carbon [14]. The situation is austere in India due to intensive rice-wheat cropping system [27]. One ton of stubble burning leads to the loss of 5.5 kg nitrogen, 2.3 kg phosphorous, 25 kg potassium and 1 kg sulfur besides organic carbon [14]. As per an estimation, stubble burning releases substantial quantity of heat that elevates the surface temperature from 33.8 to 42.2°C killing soil fertility maintaining biota [14]. The population of microorganisms, earthworms and beetles get reduced drastically in the upper layer of soil affecting the rate of soil formation. The population of beneficial insects reduces drastically and the enemy inset population increases to a great extent.
Open burning of rice straw before land preparation for second rice crop in Bargarh district of Odisha.
Stubble burning increases the particulate matters in the air creating pulmonary diseases (COPD), bronchitis, lung capacity loss, emphysema, cancer, etc. [27] in humans and animals besides irritation in eyes, nose and throat [14]. The Ministry of Earth Sciences’ monitoring agency SAFAR in Delhi has estimated the share of stubble burning in PM2.5 pollution as high as 36 per cent [28]. In Punjab (India) alone an estimated 760 million rupees (INR) is spent annually to alleviate stubble burning related diseases [27]. The Energy and Resources Institute (2019) reported 5 million deaths in South Asia in 2012 due to air pollution which was around 22 per cent of the total deaths in the region [27].
The crop stubbles and agricultural wastes, if managed properly, could generate profits to the farmers and protect the environment from the severe pollution as well. Some of the available alternative management practices include soil incorporation, compost and biochar making, thermal power generation, pulp and paper manufacturing, cement brick making, mushroom production, or biofuel production (Figure 3) [27]. However, most of the farmers in North India are not yet fully aware of many such alternatives that lead to
The management of agricultural wastes.
Since long back,
Incorporation of maize crop residues in clayey Andosol in Ethiopia at 6 Mg per hectare for consecutive three years indicated 22–52 per cent reduction in penetration resistance in top 5–10 cm soil, 39–57 per cent lower evaporative flux and elevated (22 per cent) macro and meso porosity [30]. After 17–18 cycles of residue incorporation in rice-wheat system, the mean weight diameter (MWD) of water stable aggregates, bulk density (BD), and water holding capacity (WHC) of soil increased [31].
Crop residues on the soil surface protect the soil from erosion, act as mulch that keep the soil cool and improves soil tilth [32]. In the USA, near about 40 per cent cropland are under no till farming with minimal investment and more than 10 M ha has been sown under cover crops with basic objectives to incorporate residues
Rapid reduction in the soil organic carbon (SOC) across the globe due to intensive monocropping without biomass incorporation has been the greatest challenge before us in this 21st century. With the changing climate and advent of chemical farming, the role of soil in maintaining the ecosystem services has brought forth so many issues and if left unattended may end in peril. About 29 and 60 per cent increase in carbon stocks in silt-loam and clayey soil in top 20 cm soil whereas the effect was seen in the upper horizon only in sandy soil has been reported [34].
Residue incorporation needs energy and time. Extra N at the time of incorporation is needed for preventing temporary immobilization of nutrients (mostly N) and correcting high C:N ratio of substrates [35]. The rate of immobilization lasts for four to six weeks under favorable soil type, moisture and temperature conditions and management factors. Starter N dose of 15 to 20 kg ha−1 could very well increase the yield of succeeding wheat or rice crop without any adverse effect on the next crop. Wheat yield depression of 0.54 to 0.08 t ha−1 has been reported with soil application of 60 and 180 kg N ha−1, respectively [36]. However, release of greenhouse gases such as CO2 and CH4 that leads to global warming can also not be set aside. Incorporation of cereal straw (having wide C:N ratio) with green manure (having narrow C:N ratio) facilitates decomposition before rice transplanting. Wheat yield reduction in initial 2 to 3 years of rice straw incorporation a month before wheat planting were although reported but in subsequent years, straw incorporation had no significant adverse effect on wheat yield. Rather, wheat yield increased by 0.6 t ha−1 over 2.91 t ha−1 with straw removal [36]. In contrast, yield advantage in wheat sown after 3 weeks of rice straw incorporation was reported in clay loam soil but not in sandy loam soil. After incorporation of rice straw, about 10–20 per cent of it is assimilated by the rice crop itself, 10–20 per cent is lost to the atmosphere through various pathways and 60 to 80 per cent is immobilized in soil [36]. Nutrient up to 40 kg ha−1 could be harnessed through incorporation of 10 t of rice straw 4 to 5 weeks before transplanting of rice in the main field [36]. Residue incorporation increases soil N and available P and K [36]. Long-term comparative studies on wheat crop residue incorporation versus inorganic fertilizer application in India showed significantly higher yield in rice and wheat through inorganic nutrition but in subsequent years, the yield under residue incorporation plus inorganic fertilizer was at par with sole inorganic one. In the fourth year, the combined mode of nutrition out-yielded the inorganic one [36].
Composting is the method of aerobic or anaerobic decomposition of organic solid wastes. It is not new; rather, it has been the oldest practice of recycling the plant nutrients in the soil. Small scale backyard composting is a usual practice in many developing and underdeveloped countries. Up till now, composting had not gained the status of agriculture industry. But with the gaining popularity of organic farming or eco-farming, its demand has increased these days. Its bulkiness, low nutrient content and high labour requirement are the major challenges in undertaking such organic waste composting projects. However, on-site composting without transportation of crop residues could be the befitting answer for maintaining soil fertility and sustaining crop production in long run. Compost improves bio-physiochemical properties of the soil while the need for synthetic fertilizers and plant protection measures could be eliminated completely. Its application improves nutrient uptake and cycling, soil microbial activity and biodiversity, and deficit moisture stress conditions as it regulates soil pH, improves soil texture, structure and aggregates, increases water holding capacity, cation ion exchange capacity and soil biodiversity [37]. It reduces soil erosion, protects crop against soil borne diseases, increase carbon sequestration and reduce compaction [37]. Composting releases heat during thermophyllic stage that kills most of the pathogens, insect larvae and eggs, and weed seeds [37].
On decomposition, biomass turns into a humus like substance called compost. The rate of compositing depends on the type of substrate and microbes, ambient air temperature, moisture level, aeration, presence or absence of toxic chemicals and heavy metals and surface area of the residue. Aerobic decomposition releases CO2 and H2O while anaerobic composting releases CH4.
The total carbon and nitrogen (C:N) ratio of the substrate is important for deciding the rate of decomposition of organic matter. Higher the ratio then longer is the duration for degradation. The desired C:N ratio for decomposition is 24:1 [38]. This 24 part of carbon is divided into 16 parts for energy and 8 parts for microbial body as most microbes have a body with C:N of 8:1 [38]. When C:N ratio exceeds 24 then microbes explore other available sources with moderate ratio. Immediately after addition of biomass, the microbial population increases resulting in immobilization i.e. transformation of N from available form to non available form. When these microbes die and decompose, the N mineralizes and becomes available for crop removal. Cereals have higher C:N ratio than legumes and hence, legumes decompose faster [38]. The Table 3 depicts C:N ratio of different agricultural crops.
Name of crops | C:N ratio |
---|---|
Wheat straw | 80:1 |
Rye straw | 82:1 |
Oat straw | 70:1 |
Rice straw | 67:1 |
Corn stover | 57:1 |
Legume hay | 17:1 |
C:N ratio of different agricultural crops at harvest [38].
The C:N ratio changes with stage of the crop. It also differs in different plant parts and with the progression of decomposition [38]. Cereals take longer period for composting that can be reduced by mixing with legumes or supplementing nitrogenous fertilizers. In compost pits cereal substrates are put in alteration with the vegetables or pulse residues. For example, rice straw and grass put together resulted in the highest rate of vermicompost production at the end of 120 days cycle compared to either of these substrate composted separately [39]. Similarly, [40] suggested addition of food stuff with rice bran for getting superior vermicompost with average C:N ratio of 20.85, 183.3, 16.86 and 15.16 from 1:1, 1:2, 1:3 and 1:5 ratio of rice bran: food stuff, respectively.
Crop residues are used for vermicomposting, enriched composting, farm yard manure, etc. Vermicomposting is the biological degradation of substrates by combined action of earthworms and microorganisms. Windrows method of vermicomposting is popular and widely practiced by adding rice straw, animal manure, and shredded banana trunks and maintaining the moisture at 60 per cent [41]. Tank, pit or heap method of vermicomposting can be followed as per convenience and quantity of available residues to be managed. Spent straw from mushroom farm containing C and N of 14.3 and 0.7 per cent can also be recycled through composting [41].
Unlike open burning, composting preserves essential plant nutrients and almost all nutrients remain inside the compost. Only the loss of N occurs in form of ammonia and nitrous oxide due to volatilization [42]. As much as 75 per cent of total N in manure is lost in form of NH3 and 1.5 to 7.3 per cent in form of N2O [43, 44]. Most composts do not contain more than 2 per cent N and its release depends on the C:N ratio, soil temperature, moisture and microbial activity [44]. Composts are better supplements for crop plants unlike most chemical fertilizers that are devoid of trace or micronutrients. The CHNS analyses of rice straw and its compost revealed increase in oxygen, sulfur and moisture but reduced total organic carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen [45]. Application of effective microorganisms (EM) to composting rice is reported to have increased macro and micronutrient content. The N, P and K content of the rice-compost is higher with EM and the Fe content was significantly higher without significant increase in Zn and Cu [46].
Production of biochar or pyrogenic carbon was the age-old practice in the Amazonian river bank which was evident from the
Researchers have observed that the pyrolytic temperature of 400°C brings in high alkalinity, cation exchange capacity, high level of available P and exchangeable cation in rice straw biochar which is suitable for soil amendment and used as fertilizer [49]. At this temperature, rice straw biochar shows the largest Cu (II) absorption capacity (0.37 mol kg−1) that is mostly of non electrostatic absorption [50]. Corn stalk biochar can also be used as efficient absorber of Pb+2 [51] and Cd+2 [52]. Continuous application of rice straw biochar and rice straw has positive influence on soil physicochemical properties with 26.9 and 70.2 per cent increase in total porosity and air permeability [53]. Its application increases soil microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen [53] and increases wheat productivity and accumulate P in grain [54]. Corn cob biochar is reported to have increased the pH, organic matter, soluble and available K in calcareous sandy soil [55]. Maize straw biochar application to soil reduced harmful bacteria diversity but selectively promoted community of functional bacteria population [56]. The C sequestration capacity of corn stalk (0.26) was increased to 0.64 to 1.0 on charring as resistance of char to decomposition prohibits C losses during charring [57].
Plant residues contain cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin with small fractions of sugars, pectin, protein, nitrogenous, lipids, tanins and inorganic materials [58]. Lgnin mostly provides the structural support and is almost resistant to chemical reactions and biological degradation compared to cellulose and hemicelluloses and thus resists fermentation [59, 60, 61]. In crop plants, the nonfood portion such as stalk, husk, straw, stover and bare corn cob contain lignocellulosic biomass. As in agriculture, cereals occupy the maximum area and production so also the largest quantity of such lignocellulosic materials. The residue management in cereal-cereal system such as in rice-rice and rice-maize/wheat is the biggest challenge before researchers. Very often the farmers opt for onsite open burning of the crop residues to get rid of huge biomass with higher lignocellulosic materials in it [62]. But with the advent of innovative green energy technologies, such so called wastes are now converted into precious biofuels to mitigate the growing demands.
Biofuels are produced through pretreatment of lignocellulosic materials by fungi, bacteria and enzymes that break down the lignin, a complex polymer and degrade cellulose and hemicelluloses to corresponding monomers and sugars for effective fermentation and fuel conversion [63]. The pretreatment is mostly chemical or biological but it could be mechanical and physicochemical too that result in increased surface area and porosity, and decrease in crystalinity. Biomass degradation results into ethanol, biodiesel, biobutanol, syngas, and woodtar/oil. The ethanol produced from crop residues is known as 2G bioetahol. Depending on the feedstock and process design, several by-products such as stillage, evaporator condensate and solubles, spent cake and/or distiller’s grains are produced which can be used in agricultural amendment, civil construction or sanitary landfills. Stillage is a nutrient rich biodegradable material rich in both total suspended solids (TSS) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) that requires significant processing for remediation. Lignin, a waste product from bioethaol plant is used for generating heat energy required for other processes and thus the final produce is in a form of ash. Ash is alkaline in reaction with significant quantities of Si, P, K, Ca, AL, Fe, and Mg in it which can very well be used in agriculture. In Figures 4 and 5, the harvested paddy straw is gathered by square baler and stacked in the collection centre at Thuapali village of Bargarh distract in Odisha, India as a pilot study programme under the direct supervision of the BPCL, India.
Post harvest operation of square baler in farmer’s field in Bargarh district of Odisha, India.
Stacking of square bales of rice straw in stockyard in Bargarh district of Odisha.
Anaerobic digestion of biomass produces biogas, a renewable energy containing methane as primary constituent and a final solid nutrient rich residue. Stages of anaerobic digestion include hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis. In hydrolysis, the water splits into H+ and OH−. Larger polymers such as proteins, fats and carbohydrates breakdown to smaller monomers such as amino acids, simple sugars, and fatty acids in presence of an acid catalyst. In acidogenesis, acidogenic bacteria further break down organic matter still too large for methane production. Acetogenesis is the formation of acetate by acetogens for further breaking down of the biomass to a point from where methanogens can further act and degrade the remaining material to generate methane as biofuel [64]. Dried cereal crop residues should not be directly injected into the biogas unit rather mixing of animal dung in partial combination is preferable to increase the biogas efficiency. However, maize silage can be directly used for biogas production [65]. Biogas generation technology is older than biofuel production technology. The methane production potential of wheat straw is of 0.145 to 0.39 m3 kg−1 and rice straw of 0.241 to 0.367 m3 kg−1 [15]. By 2030, grasses and cereals could be the primary source of biomass for the biogas plants across the globe [66]. Table 4 enlists the major composition of bio-wastes from major crops.
Source | Composition |
---|---|
Rice | Husk, bran and straw |
Wheat | Bran and straw |
Maize | Stover, husk, and skins |
Millet | Stover |
Residues produced from major crops [67].
Rice husk and cereal straw are used for making of particle boards. Rice husk is cleaned and cereal straw thus defibred into particles is mixed with rice husk at desired proportion and then blended with cashew nut shell liquid or cardanol phenol formaldehyde resin [68]. The mixture is spread into a mat or layer of uniform desired thickness and hot pressed like conventional method of particle board making [68]. Rice husk is 20 per cent of total rice produced which can be used as cheaper, lighter, denser, stronger, durable and more uniform substitute for conventional wooden and ply boards thereby protect against deforestation and environmental degradation. Because of high Si content rice husk is difficult to burn. Apart from rice husk, rice and wheat straw can also be used for making straw-wood particle composite boards and insulation boards. However, use of rice husk in comparison to bamboo for particle board making resulted in poor quality due to higher Si content in rice husk and non-availability of suitable blender for effectively binding rice husk [69]. Advance researches are still continuing to develop an efficient and effective adhesive for rice husk boards.
Rice straw can be used as raw material for making quality paper. It contains lesser lignin compared to conventional wood and thus requires milder chemical pre treatment. Cheaper soda and soda-AQ methods are used for making paper in many developing countries but blending pollutes water by releasing more than 500 chlorinated compounds that are highly toxic, bioaccumulative and carcinogenic [70]. The graduates of IIT, Delhi have developed a pulp making process in a start up called Kriya Labs [71] that can be used in making paper, plates and cups [72].
Bio-Lutions India in Bengaluru purchases crop wastes from farmers and transforms them into biodegradable packaging materials for fruits and vegetables which can be degraded completely within three months [72]. Bio-plastics, derived from rice straw by mixing with starch, cellulose, glycerol and protein are ready to substitute the conventional plastic very shortly as it is readily biodegradable within 180 days of use compared to 500 years required for plastics to degrade [72].
The straw functions very well as bedding for animals such as horses. When briquetted, straw absorbs 5 times more fluid than normal straw for bedding. This minimizes the cleaning work in the stable, and creates a better environment for the animals. Furthermore, briquetted straw is useful for burning, and it is an excellent source of energy through generating heat, steam and electricity in conventional boilers or gasification plants.
With the advent of modern scientific agricultural practices, the agriculture and agri-waste production have increased at exponential rates across the globe. Cereals, being the staple food for humans as well as feed for cattle, contribute the most to the pool of such agri-wastes. Sustainable management of crop residues, especially in cereal systems, has been the greatest challenge before us in this world with the ever burgeoning population, agricultural production and economic growth. Rice and wheat contribute the most to the agri bio-waste pool due to wider cultivation and large scale production. However, many countries in Asia, Africa and America, at present, have failed to cope up with the large volume of crop residues although a majority of these are used as fodder and fuel. In India, northern states such as Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh burn crop residues in the month of October and November every year thereby releasing toxic fumes into the atmosphere that are very often drifted to the adjacent cities and states. Most of these residues are byproducts of wheat and rice. Small farmers usually resort to burning of crop residues as it is the inexpensive alternative in absence of technical know-how on any other better profitable and sustainable residue management or disposal opportunities.
Large scale burnings of crop residues shockingly increase air pollution and serious health issues. In the past few decades, the authorities have relentlessly tried to explore multiple waste management options to cater such unequivocal but perilous agri-wastes from the cereal systems. The possibilities of waste incorporation and decomposition through soil addition and composting are few preferred acceptable alternatives. Penal actions have also been provisioned against the errant promoters of open burning. In this line, in India, the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) have come together to monitor open burning of crop residues through aerial surveillance and to penalize farmers for doing so. However, continued air pollution in the month of November and December in spite of much touted successful, sustainable and effective actions against open burning has raised many eyebrows. Hence, efforts are being made to explore farmers’ friendly and financially viable options of residue management such as composting, biochar making, biofuel and biogas production, particle and composite board making, paper manufacturing, etc. In many developed countries, 1G and 2G ethanol production have now gained momentum that use waste biomass judiciously for generation of liquid and gaseous fuels. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) funds are being allocated in many countries for conducting research and development on large scale profitable biofuel production. It is high time to develop national gas-grid line with the support of remote sensing and GIS tools to monitor and regulate biomass production and utilization. Community biomass collection centres could facilitate easy and speedy collection and back up storage of biomass for further residue management strategies. And importantly, the residue management options should involve environment, education, social, and economic sectors holistically in addition to agriculture and energy sectors beyond the disciplinary boundaries.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2093-7397 (SK Dwibedi).https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2250-6726 (VC Pandey).
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
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\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. 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