\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"},{slug:"suf-and-intechopen-announce-collaboration-20200331",title:"SUF and IntechOpen Announce Collaboration"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"533",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Heat Analysis and Thermodynamic Effects",title:"Heat Analysis and Thermodynamic Effects",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The heat transfer and analysis on heat pipe and exchanger, and thermal stress are significant issues in a design of wide range of industrial processes and devices. This book includes 17 advanced and revised contributions, and it covers mainly (1) thermodynamic effects and thermal stress, (2) heat pipe and exchanger, (3) gas flow and oxidation, and (4) heat analysis. The first section introduces spontaneous heat flow, thermodynamic effect of groundwater, stress on vertical cylindrical vessel, transient temperature fields, principles of thermoelectric conversion, and transformer performances. The second section covers thermosyphon heat pipe, shell and tube heat exchangers, heat transfer in bundles of transversely-finned tubes, fired heaters for petroleum refineries, and heat exchangers of irreversible power cycles. The third section includes gas flow over a cylinder, gas-solid flow applications, oxidation exposure, effects of buoyancy, and application of energy and thermal performance index on energy efficiency. The forth section presents integral transform and green function methods, micro capillary pumped loop, influence of polyisobutylene additions, synthesis of novel materials, and materials for electromagnetic launchers. The advanced ideas and information described here will be fruitful for the readers to find a sustainable solution in an industrialized society.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-585-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6052-6",doi:"10.5772/1044",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"heat-analysis-and-thermodynamic-effects",numberOfPages:408,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"43307d6e3a4a15728222e1ae75451353",bookSignature:"Amimul Ahsan",publishedDate:"September 22nd 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/533.jpg",numberOfDownloads:71202,numberOfWosCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitations:20,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:54,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 3rd 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 1st 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 14th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 7th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"36782",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amimul",middleName:null,surname:"Ahsan",slug:"amimul-ahsan",fullName:"Amimul Ahsan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36782/images/system/36782.jpg",biography:"Associate Professor Amimul Ahsan was born in Netrokona, Bangladesh. He received a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Fukui, Japan. He has nearly 15 years’ research, teaching, and industry experience. He has published extensively on water and environmental engineering, including nine books, 16 book chapters, and over 131 journal articles. He has received 14 international awards, including 'Who\\'s Who in the World 2015,” 'Leading Engineers of the World 2013,” and the 'Vice Chancellor Fellowship Award (Science and Technology)” from Sultan Selangor (Chancellor, UPM), Malaysia, in 2015. He is editor-in-chief of five journals in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Malaysia, and founder of the Journal of Desalination and Water Purification and the Journal of Advanced Civil Engineering Practice and Research. He is involved with several collaborative research projects globally and has a Scopus h-index of 22. 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Herbicides refer to a large number of compounds widely used to kill plants that interfere with the growth of desired crops, thereby improving the productivity of the crop system. One group of herbicides that includes compounds generally designated as dinitroanilines has been shown to interfere with plant cells by interrupting mitosis and the formation of multinucleated cells. Research has shown that these effects are due to interference with microtubules, i.e., a cytoskeleton structure that is ubiquitous in eukaryotic cells and plays a fundamental role in several biological processes, including the determination and maintenance of cell shape, the motility of several cell types that use flagella and cilia for locomotion, the intracellular transport of organelles, and the movement of chromosomes during cell division. Other processes involving microtubules are not as well characterized. Previous research has shown that dinitroanilines interfere with microtubules by binding to sites on the surface of the longitudinal contacts established between the tubulin subunits that contain lysine and arginine residues, which in turn bind to the nitrile group of dinitroaniline [1,2].
Microtubules are made of α-and β-tubulin heterodimers that form long (i.e., several µmeters in length), filamentous, tubular structures when polymerized. The number of tubulin isotypes varies according to the organism species (e.g.,six types of α-tubulin and seven types of β-tubulin are found in human cells). They can be very dynamic structures that undergo constant assembly and disassembly in cells. Tubulin molecules may be post-translationally modified by polyglutamylation, polyglycylation, phosphorylation, acetylation, detyrosination/tyrosination, and removal of the penultimate glutamic acid residue found in α tubulins. In addition, an increased number of proteins can interact with microtubules; these proteins are known as microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs)and include dynein, kinesin, etc., all of which interfere with the stability of the microtubules and their function. Further data on microtubule composition and dynamics can be found in an excellent review by Gardner et al. [3].
Dinitroanilines correspond to a family of herbicides that were originally discovered through studies evaluating dyes and chemical synthesis intermediates. The most important member of the group is trifluralin, which is widely used in soybean production. The family is divided into the following two subfamilies: the methylanilines, which includes trifluralin, pendimethalin, benefin, dinitramine, fluchloralin, and profluralin, and the sulfonylanilines, which includes oryzalin and nitralin [1,4,5].Initial studies showed that these compounds inhibit cell division by interfering with the assembly of microtubules, thereby interfering with the formation of the plant cell walls and chromosome movement during the mitotic process, which ultimately leads to the appearance of multinucleated cells [6].
One characteristic feature of several pathogenic protozoa is the presence of a large number of structures in which microtubules are a major component. In the case of the Trypanosomatidae family, which includes such important pathogenic species as Trypanosoma cruzi, Trypanosoma brucei, and Leishmania, subpellicular microtubules are located immediately below the plasma membrane, establishing connections between them, the plasma membrane, and the profiles of the endoplasmic reticulum. They are seen throughout the protozoan body with exception to the region of the flagellar pocket [7]. This large group of organisms also contains the flagellar microtubules and intranuclear spindle microtubules involved in the process of nuclear division. In the case of Apicomplexa, which includes such pathogens as Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium, Eimeria, Babesia, etc., researchers have found subpellicular microtubules, i.e., a special type of microtubule that forms the conoid, spindle microtubules, and flagellar microtubules in microgametes [8]. In Giardia lamblia, the microtubules are associated with the adhesive disc (i.e., a structure involved in the attachment of the trophozoite to the intestinal epithelial cells) and form the spindle microtubules and flagella. In the case of trichomonads (e.g., Trichomonas vaginalis and Tritrichomonas foetus) microtubules form the flagella and such structures as the pelta-axostylar system and the spindle microtubules [9, 10].
In the following text, I will review the literature focused on the effects of herbicides on each group of pathogenic protozoa.
The microtubules that are found in trypanosomatids, especially those that are subpellicular, are considered resistant to several compounds that usually depolymerize microtubules found in eukaryotic cells, including colchicine, vinblastine, and vincristine [11]. However, these organisms show some sensitivity to taxol [12]. Research has shown that trifluralin inhibits cell division in several members of the Trypanosomatidae family, including Leishmania amazonensis, Leishmania mexicana, Leishmania infantum, Leishmania major, Leishmania panamensis, T.brucei, and T.cruzi [13-15]. The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) for these protozoa ranges from 0.9 to 670 µM. In general, the Leishmania species were more sensitive to the herbicides than the Trypanosoma species [16]. In general, the amastigotes, which are the predominant and proliferative intracellular form, are more sensitive than the forms that grow in axenic media (i.e., promastigotes and epimastigotes). A microscopic analysis showed that trifluralin induced changes in the shape of T. cruzi epimastigotes (i.e., they became more rounded), affected the mitochondrion, interfered with the ingestion of macromolecules through the cytostome, decreased the number of horseradish peroxidase containing reservosomes, induced the appearance of multi-flagellated cells (i.e., probably due to interference with the cell division process), and blocked the process of metacyclogenesis; yet,trifluralin does not disrupt the subpellicular microtubules [17].
Some papers have described attempts to use dinitroanilines in vivo. For instance, promising results were observed when using topical applications of dinitroanilines to treat lesions induced by L. major and L. mexicana [14] and oral applications of dinitroanilines to treat the chronic phase of Chagas disease in mice. These results are similar to those obtained with benznidazole [18].
More information on the effect of herbicides is available for this group of eukaryotic microorganisms, especially T.gondii. Most of the studies on organisms within Apicomplexa were performed by Morrisette and her colleagues. The first paper in 1996 [19] showed that dinitroaniline herbicides inhibited intracellular division in the tachyzoites of T. gondii. This classical paper also demonstrated that oryzalin and ethalfluralin inhibited 50% of the protozoan growth at concentrations of 100 nM. In the case of trifluralin, the IC50 was 300 nM. These concentrations are very low; most importantly, even at concentrations that were 100 times higher, the drugs did not interfere with the human fibroblasts used to cultivate the protozoa. These compounds blocked the process of endodyogeny, i.e.,a special characteristic of cell division in T. gondii trophozoites where two daughter cells are formed inside a mother cell. Oryzalin, not ethalfluralin, disrupted the subpellicular microtubules. None of the compounds interfered with the structure of the conoid, i.e., a structure made of microtubules of a special type [20]. The authors also obtained mutant parasites that were resistant to the herbicides under investigation through chemical mutagenesis. Subsequently, the research showed that in the presence of oryzalin at a concentration of 2.5 µM, the tachyzoites retained the capacity to assemble the spindles and undergo nuclear division. However, due to disintegration of the subpellicular microtubules, the parasites were no longer able to invade new cells. At 2.5 µM, the compound interfered with the spindle microtubules, and the protozoa increased in size [21]. Morrissette and her co-workers further analyzed the obtained mutants and showed that they were localized in or near the M and N loops, i.e., domains that coordinate the lateral interactions between protofilaments [1, 22, 23]. Subsequently, several other oryzalin analogs were synthesized, thereby leading to the acceptance of an antimitotic structure-activity relationship for dinitroanilines.
N1,N1-dipropyl-2,6-dinitro-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1,3benzenediamine is the most potent agent against T. gondii [5]. These studies were extended to Plasmodium falciparum, and the results indicated that trifluralin and oryzalin inhibited the progression of the protozoa inside erythrocytes by blocking the mitotic division with the accumulation of abnormal microtubular structures [24]. This research also demonstrated that trifluralin is active against the gametocytes of P. falciparum, thereby inducing disassembly of the subpellicular microtubules due to the formation of tubular structures containing disassembled microtubules. The researchers used labeled trifluralin and electron microscopy autoradiography to show that the compound binds to the tubular structures [25]. Oryzalin and trifluralin derivatives also showed activity against Cryptosporidium parvum. Several derivatives of these compounds were synthesized and, despite their reduced toxicity, showed similar activity [26].
Oryzalin was tested against Giardia lamblia trophozoites. The obtained results showed that oryzalin inhibited parasite proliferation in an axenic culture. At 50 and 100 µM, most of the protozoa were killed. Morphological studies showed curling of the flagella in about 60% of the cells, elongation of the median body (i.e., a structure made of microtubules), changes in the shape of the cell, and blockage of cell division (Figures 1-3) [27].
Light microscopy of the control (A) and oryzalin-treated (B) trophozoites of Giardia lamblia. The control cell displays a pyriform shape with four pairs of clearly identifiable flagella. In the treated cell, the loss of its normal shape is observed. Bar, 3 µm [27].
Scanning electron microscopy showing several alterations in the organization of the trophozoite form of G. lamblia, including shortening and curling of the flagella (arrows in a and b). Bar, 1µm [27].
Transmission electron microscopy of thin sections of the control (A) and oryzalin-treated (B) trophozoites of G. lamblia where inhibition of protozoan division is clearly seen. Bar in A and B, 0.5 and 2 µm, respectively [27].
Phospholipid analogues, such as miltefosine, have been shown to be very effective against parasitic protozoa, especially Leishmania donovani, and are now considered the favorite pharmaceutical treatment for visceral leishmaniasis in India [28]. The association via molecular hybridization combines the pharmacophoric moieties of miltefosine and trifluralin, thereby leading to some compounds that are very active against T.cruzi and L.amazonensis (submitted for publication). The effects observed on the structural organization of the protozoa seem to also affect the membranes and cytoskeleton structures, thereby offering new possibilities in the treatment of parasitic diseases. Based on the preliminary results obtained with these compounds it seems to me that very soon some of them will be in the phase of clinical trials.
The work conducted in the author’s laboratory was supported by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico-CNPq, Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos-FINEP, Fundação de Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior-CAPES, and Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro-FAPERJ.
Increase in global temperature had major impact on crop productivity especially in tropical and sub tropical regimes. Based on climate model predictions, around 1.8–4.0°C rise in air temperature was expected in 21st century [1]. The increase in temperature beyond a certain threshold level tends to induce detrimental effects in plant growth and development. In general, the elevation in temperature of 10–15°C above ambient triggers heat shock in crop plants. The extent of induced heat stress depends on the duration, intensity and rate of increase in global air temperature [2]. Indian lowlands share 15 per cent of global wheat production. The change in global climate would shift these fertile lowlands into heat stressed unproductive environment [3]. Similarly, the cultivation of cereals in Southern Africa and South East Asia was predicted to be heat stressed zone in near future [4]. Around 4–14% yield decline in rice was encountered due to elevated temperature of 1°C in South-East Asia [5]. The declined productivity due to elevated temperature imposes the urgent need for development of climate resilience genotypes. Evolving heat tolerant cultivars would highly benefit the livelihood of developing countries as around 70–80% of population relies on agriculture. Understanding the effect of heat stress on crop plants and its adaptation mechanisms would help in framing out the breeding strategies for high temperature tolerance.
\nHeat tolerance in crop plants is a complex mechanism involving adaptations through altered physiological process, morpho-anatomical features and induction of several biochemical pathways. On exposure to high temperature, several signal transduction pathways were triggered leading to changes in gene expression. As a result, varied stress related proteins were synthesized contributing heat tolerance in plants [6]. The tolerance mechanism to high temperature stress varies within genotypes of a plant species. The existing variation between and within species provide scope for evolving heat tolerant lines through conventional breeding approaches [7]. Dissecting out genetic information through molecular tools would hasten the development of climate resilient cultivars contributing to food security in near future. A brief review on plant response, adaptation mechanisms and genetic approaches to combat heat stress were presented in this chapter.
\nHeat stress had varying impact on different phenological stages viz., germination, seedling, vegetative, flowering and reproductive of crop plants [8]. The plant response to heat stress depends on the duration, degree of rise in temperature and plant type. Under tropical regimes, high temperature with intense solar radiation poses a major limiting factor for yield by inducing leaf abscission, leaf senescence, scorching of leaves, branches and stems, growth inhibition, pollen infertility and poor seed formation [9, 10]. A significant decline in relative growth rate, shoot dry weight and net assimilation rate was recorded in sugarcane, maize and pearl millet on exposure to high temperature stress [11]. High reduction in grain quality was recorded in most of the cereal crops grown under heat stress environments [12]. Several physiological processes such as partitioning of assimilates, plant-water relations and shoot growth was affected due to heat stress in common bean [13]. In general, the susceptibility to heat stress was found higher at reproductive stage of plant development. An excessive yield loss is recorded in legumes on exposure to high temperature (30–35°C) during anthesis stage [14]. Drastic reduction in grain number and weight was observed in wheat at high temperature regimes [15]. Heat stress affects several metabolic pathways leading to accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which is a major component for oxidative stress in crop plants [16]. The photosystem centres (PS I and PS II) of chloroplast, mitochondria and peroxisomes are the major sites for generation of ROS in plants [17]. High temperature stress disrupts the stability of cell membrane through protein denaturation [18]. The induction of ROS due to high temperature stress was correlated with premature leaf senescence in Gossypium sp. [19]. Accumulation of ROS in root cells was evidenced in wheat on exposure to high temperature for two days [20].
\nPlants tend to adapt several complex mechanisms through phenological and morphological changes to combat high temperature stress (Figure 1). On heat stress regimes, plants exhibit varied short term escape/avoidance mechanisms viz., altered leaf orientation, transpirational cooling, altered membrane lipid properties, early maturation and so on for its survival. Plants show varied degree of leaf rolling upon intensity of solar radiation. A significant tolerance to high temperature was observed in wheat by maintenance of water potential in flag leaf through adoption of leaf rolling under heat shock conditions [21]. Increase in trichomatous and stomatal densities, waxy layer on leaves, and larger xylem vessels are the common features induced during heat stress [22]. On contrary, plants also evolve long term tolerance mechanisms for its effective survival and productivity under high temperature. Induction of osmoprotectants, antioxidants, late embryogenesis abundant proteins, dehydrins, and heat shock proteins are the major factors involved in counteracting the heat shocks. Accumulation of osmolytes such as proline, trehalose, and glycine betaine plays a vital role in imparting tolerance via cellular osmotic adjustment, detoxification of ROS, stabilization of enzymes and membrane proteins [23]. Several enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense components are also involved in protection against oxidative stress induced by free radicals [24]. The activities of ROS scavenging enzymes are temperature specific. In general, most of the antioxidant enzymes show increased activity with elevation in temperatures. It is also influenced by genotype, growing season and phenological stages of plant [25]. Under high temperature conditions, several signaling molecules such as nitrous oxide, Ca-dependent protein kinases, Mitogen mediated protein kinase, sugars, and phytohormones play a role in stimulation of stress responsive genes via transduction pathways [26]. Evolving adaptation mechanisms (either tolerance or avoidance) to high temperature and drought would be more rewarding at arid conditions as it is often correlated.
\nAdaptation mechanisms for high temperature tolerance in crop plants.
Breeding for high temperature tolerance requires an essential knowledge on plant adaptation response to heat shocks. In general, the genotypes exhibiting less detrimental effect on photosynthesis and reproductive development tend to survive well under heat prone areas [27]. Involvement of these two components in selection criteria would be beneficial in evolving thermo tolerant cultivars. Tolerant genotypes evolve several morphological, physiological and biochemical alterations in response to heat shocks. Knowledge on sensitivity of several phenological stages to high temperature will pave way for trait specific improvement. High temperature is often correlated with other environmental factors which poses a major limitation for selection under field conditions. At present, varied selection criteria has been developed by scientists, which favors delineation of superior variety at prevailing environment [28]. Heat tolerant index has been evolved for sorghum which depicts the proportion of growth recovery after exposure to high temperature stress. It is the ratio of increase in coleoptile growth in a heat stress environment [50°C] to the enhancement in coleoptile length under normal environment (non-stress) [29]. It proves cost effective and rapid method to screen a large population size within shorter period. A proper validation of such technique would facilitate the development of tolerant lines in other crop species. Pollen viability and fruit set was considered as major selection criteria to predict yield under high temperature stress in tomato [30]. Physiological based trait selection such as harvest index, photosynthetic efficiency, respiration rate, delayed senescence and canopy architecture will also contribute towards increased tolerance to heat stress [31, 32].
\nInter-mating among closely related individuals for improvement of economic traits resulted in decline of genetic variability in a crop species [33]. Characterization of gene pool including land races and wild relatives would offer several tolerant genes for abiotic tolerance. Extensive efforts were made in screening of heat tolerant genotypes which can be directly introduced as a cultivar or utilized to introgress gene into new genetic background [34]. Thermo-tolerant lines were successfully isolated from wild gene pool in wheat [35]. High magnitude of variation was observed in wild progenitor “Aegilops tauschii” of wheat for cell viability and membrane stability [36]. Similarly, a heat tolerant source for reproductive stage was identified in A. geniculata and A. speltoides Tausch which would pave way in development of thermo-tolerant hexaploid wheat cultivars in near future [37]. A higher growth rate and improved photosynthetic efficiency was observed in wild relative “Oryza meridionalis” of rice at high temperature [38]. Indirect selection on pollen viability led to identification of thermo-tolerant accessions in soybean (DG 5630RR) [39], chickpea (ICC15614 & ICC1205) [40], maize (AZ100) [41], and several other crop species. Direct selection based on yield under target environment (heat stress) resulted in development of tolerant lines in many tropical grain legumes. Four tolerant genotypes/accessions viz., SRC-1-12-1-48, SRC-1-12-1-182, 98012-3-1-2-1 and 98020-3-1-7-2 were isolated in common bean by employing stress tolerant indices [42]. Nine thermo-tolerant wild accessions were delineated in USDA upland cotton germplasm by employing chlorophyll fluorescence technique [43].
\nEvolving thermo-tolerance through conventional breeding approach proves promising in many crop species. Breeding for early maturing genotype in broccoli had improved head quality by avoiding heat stress at flowering stage [44]. In general, breeding programmes are carried out in hotter regions which promote selection of thermo-tolerant traits. Physiological based trait breeding was practiced at International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) for development of heat tolerant cultivars in wheat. The parental genotypes were characterized through various crossing schemes and appropriate breeding programme was framed for improvement of thermo related traits [45]. A wild ancestor “T. tauschii” was utilized as a gene donor for achieving increased grain size and filling percent under high temperature through recurrent selection [46]. Similarly, three cycles of recurrent selection had led to improved yield under heat stress regimes in potato [47]. Thermo tolerant alleles were introgressed into heat sensitive cultivar “Paymaster 404” from a donor accession “7456” of G. barbadense through backcross breeding [48]. A significant improvement in yield was realized under heat stress environment by adoption of gametic selection in maize [41]. A deep rooted cultivar “Nagina 22 (N22)” of aus rice exhibited high pollen viability and spikelet fertility (64–86%) under heat stress [49]. The thermo-tolerance of N22 was successfully introgressed into Xieqingzao B line through backcross method [50]. Dissecting out the genetic and physiological basis of thermo-tolerance will hasten up the development of resilient cultivars suited to hotter regions.
\nThe genetic basis of thermo-tolerance is not clearly understood because of complex trait inheritance. Advances in molecular approaches such as DNA marker identification and genotyping assay had paved way in determination of several QTL’s associated with high temperature tolerance [51]. In wheat, QTL’s were identified for canopy temperature, and chlorophyll fluorescence imparting tolerance to heat stress [52]. A major QTL “Htg 6.1” in lettuce was involved in enhancement of seed germination capacity at high temperature [53]. A recessive QTL for increased spikelet fertility under high temperature was dissected out in rice at chromosome 4. The identified QTL were found in several populations of heat tolerant rice cultivars [54]. Six QTL’s were involved to enhance fruit set at high temperature in tomato [55]. Five thermo tolerant QTL’s were identified in Brassica campestris by employing random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers [56]. In maize, eleven major QTL’s for increased pollen germination and pollen tube growth under high temperature was mapped using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers [57]. Identification of candidate QTL’s would pave way in precise introgression of heat tolerant genes into superior cultivars through marker assisted breeding approach.
\nThe closely associated markers with targeted QTL will hasten the recovery of superior genotypes with heat tolerant traits in a population. A marker assisted breeding approach was employed in rice to derive heat tolerant line with superior grain quality. Two flanking markers viz., ktIndel001 and RFT1 enclosing 1.5 Mb chromosomal region was transferred from tolerant cultivar “Kokoromachi” to Tohoku 168. Significant improvement in grain quality under high temperature was observed in the derived NIL’s compared to susceptible cultivar “Tohoku 168” [58]. Fourteen SSR markers linked to heat susceptibility index of grain filling per cent and single kernel weight was identified in bread wheat which was employed in marker assisted selection (MAS) to screen genotypes for thermo tolerance [59]. Utilization of MAS approach for heat tolerance remains less efficient because of high gene x environment and epistatic interactions. The low breeding efficiency can be resolved by genomic selection (GS) approach which involves wide number of molecular markers exhibiting high genome coverage. High genetic gain is realized in GS approach due to close association between predicted and true breeding value over generations [60].
\nAt present, transgenic approach also proves to be desirable tool for designing thermo tolerant lines via introgression of genes from diverse gene pools [61]. The genetic transformation was focused primarily on transcription factors, induction of heat shock proteins, molecular chaperones, osmolytes, antioxidant components and growth regulators [62]. Heat shock proteins play a primary role in imparting thermo tolerance in crop species. It is functionally associated with diverse group of molecular chaperones that is involved in restoration of degraded proteins to their native structure under high temperature. Induction of heat shock proteins through genetic manipulation was achieved in arabidopsis [63], maize [64], rice [65], soybean [66], and pepper [67]. The DREB gene family was also reported to impart heat tolerant response in many crop species. Over expression of ZmDREB2A in maize [68] and GmDREB2A in soybean [69] was associated with increased survival and adaptation under high temperature. Transgenic techniques were employed to alter membrane lipid properties for thermo-tolerance in crop species. High proportion of saturated fatty acid in membrane had increased tolerance under heat stress. Suppression of omega-3 fatty acid desaturase gene in chloroplast had reduced the accumulation of trieonic fatty acid in transgenic tobacco [70] and tomato [71] leading to thermo-tolerance. A significant accumulation of glycine betaine (osmolyte) was achieved in arabidopsis through transfer of “cod gene” from Arthrobacter globiformis [72]. High proportion of glycine betaine protects the PSII component by inhibiting the ROS activities under heat stress. Implementation of transgenic approaches in other crop species will accelerate the development of resilient genotypes suited to high temperature regimes.
\nDevelopment of thermo-tolerant lines has to be prioritized to meet out the future climatic change coupled with food demands. Knowledge on plant response and adaptation mechanisms to heat stress is required for framing out breeding strategies. It remains a challenging task in evolving resilient genotypes suited to high temperature because of less efficient screening protocols at field conditions. The existence of low genetic variation for heat response related traits limited the progress of conventional breeding approach in many crop species. Use of molecular breeding strategies had opened up several heat tolerant related QTL’s in crop species. However, still precise research work involving huge marker data is needed for attaining high breeding efficiency for thermo tolerance. Recently, the involvement of transgenic approach paved way for utilization of tolerant source from diverse gene pools. Study on induction of heat shock proteins led to increased thermo tolerance in many crop species. Similarly, other heat response related traits such as induction of antioxidant components, osmolytes, and chaperones were also included in transgenic approach for inducing heat stress tolerance. Thus, high economic yield could be realized at elevated temperature regimes with the involvement of combined breeding approaches.
\nThe authors are highly thankful to Dr. V. Geethalakshmi, Director, Directorate of Crop Management, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU) for her valuable suggestions towards this chapter. We also acknowledge Dr. P. Jayamani, Professor and Head, Department of Pulses, TNAU; Dr. M. Raveendran, Professor and Head, Department of Biotechnology, TNAU; and Dr. K. Ganesamurthy, Professor and Head, Department of Rice, TNAU for rendering supportive documents on high temperature tolerance.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest towards this chapter.
The authors express their gratitude to the Directorate of Crop Management for providing scientific support on high temperature tolerance.
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\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\n\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
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