Institutional orders of state, market, corporate, religion, and family [6].
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been gaining heightened global interest and has become a key term in global economy discourse. The attention attributed to CSR escalated through globalization forces and increased international trade. It is an umbrella term encompassing multiple concepts regarding the role and impact of business on society. At its core, the concept assumes a firm to be a social agent and part of a global setting where managerial decisions and actions create impacts and form relationships with society, economy and the environment. Due to the increased complexity of national systems and societies, governments are falling short on their roles in providing adequate attention to citizens’ needs, living standards, and local developmental challenges. Therefore, the private sector is expected to take part and contribute to society on many fronts. This is also driven by increased public pressure, media criticism about corporate externalities, global competition, and the role of states [1].
\nCSR is an important differentiator in the current global business arena as companies are adamant about communicating their CSR contributions to gain legitimacy, enhanced brand image in the pursuit of higher financial performance and long-term profits. The global trend is therefore calling for firms to go beyond ‘business as usual’ and assimilate local and global societal and environmental challenges. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) provides a definition of the concept as the integration of environmental and social values into core organizational processes and with stakeholder interactions for the purpose of sustainable economic development [2]. Other conceptual definitions of CSR outline a social responsibility pyramid with four paradigms of application spanning economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic patterns [3]. It is economic if companies pursue CSR for higher profits or to save brand image from public criticism. The legal paradigm constitutes following policies and regulations by taking managerial action to avoid legal issues. Ethical decision-making involves long-term planning for responsible behavior for its integration with all aspects of operations and stakeholder interaction. Philanthropic CSR is when companies provide a financial contribution for meaningful causes to address societal and environmental issues. It becomes clear that CSR is more than merely philanthropic; it involves a restructuring of managerial perspectives on the relationship of the business with its surroundings.
\nThe practice of CSR started in highly developed nations, such as in USA and Europe, where corporations were responding to the increased public criticism and media pressure to avoid bad corporate image or legal lawsuits regarding harmful practices to society and the environment. As it caught traction in western contexts, and with globalization, the concept spread through multinational corporations (MNCs), their subsidiaries and international standardization, leading to the salience of global best practices of CSR and the importance accorded to environment in other parts of the world, including the Middle East [4]. Consequently, the CSR concept diffused from West to East, carrying western values, connotations, and practices that form its basic understanding. This is referred to as “western assumptive logics”, as is evident in mainstream business literature and the theoretical inferences made by CSR studies. Research on CSR in non-western contexts has asserted its divergence in different political, cultural and socioeconomic settings [5]. Therefore, as western assumptive CSR logics spread, they get diffused and altered according to every unique national context. Each country has a set of institutional variables that define its collective political and cultural values, beliefs and practices. In light of each constellation of particular institutional order logics, CSR is invariably translated for local applicability.
\nIn western contexts, CSR is organized based on coherent systems of governance and national business systems that form western institutional realities and have implications for the way CSR is understood and practiced [6]. In such contexts, CSR is increasingly entrenched by corporate strategies and institutional particularities. On the other hand, less developed nations have vastly heterogeneous institutional order logics that interfere with the way CSR is translated for local practice. For instance, research on CSR in developing contexts has outlined the different cultural and religious motivations to pursue CSR in the form of voluntary philanthropic contributions to local communities [4]. CSR logics in non-western contexts are therefore dependent on the merger of western assumptive logics of CSR with local socio-economic, historical, cultural and political realities. These realities form the particular institutional order logics of a country; as highlighted in Figure 1, they include state, religion, market, corporate, family, and profession institutions. Each institutional order logics and their specific interactions with western assumptive logics, creates peculiar and unique CSR discourses and practices specific to each nation. For this chapter, the focus is on the main institutional order-CSR logics and how they influence CSR implementation in various contexts. Each country has a set of dominant logics pertaining to each institution which form the collective system of meaning that interacts with western assumptive logics of CSR. The various logics will also interrelate dynamically with each other to create particular expressions in local contexts. This dynamic translation and adaptation process of CSR leads to nuances in the ways it is understood and practiced and thus calls for a nuanced analysis of each local context and its salient institutional order logics at play. Table 1 below outlines the understanding of institutional orders and their functional roles in a particular nation, as outlined by [7].
\nDiffusion of generalized assumptive CSR logics with institutional logics [
Institutional orders and their functions | \n|
---|---|
State | \nState institutional order refers to the governance structure of a nation where regulations, policies, and decisions are made on a national level. | \n
Market | \nMarket institutional order constitutes the compartmentalization and pricing of human activity in neo-liberal market economics. | \n
Corporate | \nCorporate institutional order forms a hierarchal structure organizing a set of skills and knowledge to be used as a facilitator for neo-liberal market economics. | \n
Religion | \nThe institutional order of religion forms the dominant moral values, belief systems and world view. | \n
Family | \nFamily institutional order refers to the relationships formed between family members. | \n
Institutional orders of state, market, corporate, religion, and family [6].
This book chapter will focus on a particular context in the Middle East, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Business activities are embedded in Middle Eastern history as the region has a strategic geographical positioning for trade across three continents. The current Middle Eastern business arena has witnessed a proliferation of CSR practices due to globalization and global sharing of best practices. The translation and adaptation of western assumptive CSR logics was also driven by social media attention, awareness and education in the area of CSR, and greater local demands for accountability and sustainable development [1]. Businesses are now accountable not only for their economic performance but also for their social responsibility and corporate citizenship as these concepts become more embedded in mainstream business practices across the region.
\nThe Middle East is a region in South-West Asia containing around 25 nations comprising highly heterogeneous and diverse contexts. It is also referred to as Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region and includes Arab and non-Arab nations. It is divided to multiple sub-regions and these include Mashriq which comprises countries to the East of Egypt, Maghreb which includes countries to the West of Egypt, and the GCC which includes all Arab States on the Persian Gulf except Iraq. GCC is not only a geographical categorization but also an intergovernmental economic and political union between Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, and Kuwait. The GCC countries have the highest Human Development Index (HDI) in the region and are categorized by the UNDP as very high HDI countries [8]. The six countries of interest have the highest published content on CSR and their key country and economic indicators are outlined below in Table 2.
\n\n | Qatar | \nSaudi Arabia | \nUAE | \nBahrain | \nKuwait | \nOman | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population (million), 2016 [10] | \n2.6 | \n32.3 | \n9.3 | \n1.4 | \n4.1 | \n4.4 | \n
GDP per capita (USD), 2016 [10] | \n59,324 | \n20,029 | \n37,622 | \n22,579 | \n27,359 | \n14,982 | \n
GDP growth (annual %), 2016 [10] | \n2.2 | \n1.7 | \n3.0 | \n2.9 | \n3.5 | \n2.2 | \n
GDP (PPP) as a share (%) of world total, 2016 [11] | \n0.28 | \n1.46 | \n0.56 | \n0.06 | \n0.25 | \n0.15 | \n
5.9 | \n5.3 | \n6.0 | \n5.1 | \n4.9 | \n5.1 | \n|
Institutions | \n5.6 | \n5.0 | \n5.9 | \n5.0 | \n4.0 | \n5.0 | \n
Public institutions | \n5.8 | \n5.0 | \n6.0 | \n5.0 | \n4.1 | \n5.0 | \n
Infrastructure | \n5.8 | \n5.2 | \n6.3 | \n5.1 | \n4.3 | \n4.9 | \n
Macroeconomic environment | \n5.8 | \n4.9 | \n5.6 | \n4.0 | \n5.6 | \n4.7 | \n
Health and primary education (Rank 1–7), 2015 [11] | \n6.2 | \n6.0 | \n6.3 | \n6.2 | \n5.6 | \n5.9 | \n
Higher education and training | \n5.0 | \n4.9 | \n5.0 | \n5.0 | \n3.9 | \n4.4 | \n
Goods market efficiency | \n5.2 | \n4.6 | \n5.6 | \n5.0 | \n4.2 | \n4.5 | \n
Labor market efficiency | \n4.9 | \n4.1 | \n5.2 | \n4.6 | \n3.6 | \n3.5 | \n
Financial market Development | \n4.7 | \n4.2 | \n4.8 | \n4.3 | \n4.1 | \n4.2 | \n
Technological readiness | \n5.4 | \n4.9 | \n5.8 | \n5.6 | \n4.3 | \n4.5 | \n
Market size | \n4.4 | \n5.4 | \n4.9 | \n3.3 | \n4.4 | \n4.1 | \n
Business sophistication | \n5.0 | \n4.5 | \n5.3 | \n4.5 | \n4.0 | \n4.0 | \n
Innovation | \n4.7 | \n3.7 | \n4.6 | \n3.6 | \n3.0 | \n3.3 | \n
Corruption perception index (Rank out of 168), 2015 [9] | \n31 | \n62 | \n24 | \n70 | \n75 | \n64 | \n
The Middle East contains diverse nations, each having a unique set of institutional order logics. As previously mentioned, these institutional orders consist of state, market, corporate, religion and family, and each has a particular function. Although some development challenges are shared among countries in the region such as gender equality or worker rights, however other socioeconomic factors remain rather diverse. Therefore, we expect to see in each country a specific amalgamation of logics that shapes a unique CSR arena including discourses and practices for CSR. The GCC region for instance collectively has almost half of the oil reserves in the world and 65.5% of the OPEC total [12]. They also have the highest per capita carbon emissions, which makes them liable to more environmental challenges than other parts of the Middle East. Table 2 highlights some key indicators that help create a vision of each country’s development and socio-economic context that will guide the analysis. The information gives an overview of the institutional realities of each nation. As outlined, GCC has been successful in advancing their development metrics as compared to other countries in the region. Saudi Arabia has the highest population of 32.3 million and occupies the biggest surface area of the peninsula. Qatar has a significantly higher GDP per capita than the other neighboring countries, followed by UAE, Kuwait, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and lastly Oman. However, in terms of total GDP, Saudi Arabia ranks the highest and accounts for 25% of the Arab World’s GDP [13]. Moreover, Qatar ranks the highest on HDI of 0.856, followed by Saudi Arabia, UAE, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Oman.
\nIn terms of their GCI ranks, UAE ranks the highest with 5.3, followed by Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, and then Oman. The most problematic factors for doing business in Qatar are access to financing and restrictive labor regulations. The same holds true for Saudi Arabia whose global competitiveness remains fairly stable [11]. Qatar remains the second highest competitive economy in the Arab World but has receded on worldwide ranking from 18th to the 25th place mainly due to the drop-in oil and gas prices which has impacted its fiscal situation; yet Qatar is still strong in many areas including infrastructure of its facilities, and goods market economy [11]. The UAE scores highest in the Arab World for overall competitiveness however the problematic factors for doing business in UAE relate to high inflation and also access to financing; Bahrain scores fairly high on ease of doing business with a slight problematic factor pertaining to inefficient governmental bureaucracy [11]. Kuwait has the highest inefficiency in governmental bureaucracy and the highest corruption rate; and lastly, Oman ranks highest on restrictive labor regulations and has other problematic factors regarding inadequately educated workforce and insufficient governmental bureaucracy [11]. It is important to note that the figures used for this analysis date prior to the 2017 Qatar-Gulf crisis, when several countries in the Gulf, namely Saudi Arabia, UAE and Bahrain, in addition to Egypt cut off their diplomatic ties with Qatar and imposed an air, sea and land blockade.
\nDue to the diverse contexts presented above, we expect to encounter a diversity of CSR logics in GCC region reflecting the amalgam of western and local CSR-institutional logics and the translation of these logics in the context of the unique systems of meaning and local practices in each nation [6]. Global forces through the sharing of best practices regarding social responsibility of MNCs and local forces resulting from the unique social, cultural and historical dynamic are both significant factors affecting CSR translation in the region. To study the CSR logics in the GCC region, a folder was created for each country and journal articles, book chapters and review publications analyzing CSR practices, expressions, and connotations in each country were downloaded. Through content analysis, the information was extracted from statements that are collectively used to draw conclusions on each institutional order logics and their interface with CSR. The analysis is inductive in nature where extracted statements provide evidence in relation to the nature of institutional logics of each country and their amalgamation with western assumptive CSR logics, in order to draw conclusions in relation to salient CSR logics in each context. Each of the following sections of the chapter (3–7) discusses the institutional order-CSR logics interface: Section 3 discusses CSR logic at the state level where regulations, policies, and decisions are made on a national level; Section 4 relates religion (dominant moral values, belief systems and world view) to CSR practices; Section 5 looks into CSR-market logic which captures the compartmentalization and pricing of human activity in neo-liberal market economics; Section 6 discusses CSR from a corporate institutional order which is a hierarchal structure organizing and facilitating neo-liberal market economics and Section 7 will relate CSR to family ownership and family ties. Finally, Section 8 presents the discussion of the results with concluding remarks and recommendations.
\nA recent report published by the Arab Forum for Environment and Development recognizing the transition to sustainable practices as a necessity for the region to secure a path towards a sustainable future [14]. The GCC governments seem to play an integral role in achieving the necessary goals set by the Arab Forum. CSR logics however have unique expressions in each national context. Although these contextual differences exist in highly developed nations, literature points to higher heterogeneity among emerging economies [15]. For example, even in a single country such as the UAE, differences are prevalent between the different emirates and how their economies are run [15]. This section will discuss the various State-CSR logics that have manifested in the GCC region in recent years, discerning between positive, neutral, and negative State-CSR logics.
\nSaudi Arabia is a strong emerging economy; it has 20% of the world’s proven oil reserves and is the largest oil exporter in the world [16]. Due to the recent downfalls in the oil economy, the government is attempting to diversify its national economy and is consequently encouraging and supporting the private sector in its significant role and participation in its vision [16]. CSR has caught traction in Saudi Arabia where large firms are displaying strategic views on CSR. CSR is a great facilitator and an important component in the government’s desire to strengthen its relationship with the private sector and it has been encouraging companies to partake in CSR initiatives [16].
\nIt has been mentioned in the literature that there is a lack of legislation or an institutionalized system for CSR; this has resulted in fragmented efforts with a low level of overall strategic strength [17]. Governmental and legislative factors including high bureaucracy, labor laws, corruption, legal systems, and investment regulations are major challenges for CSR implementation [18]. The above factors point to negative state-CSR logics, where systematic efforts are needed to develop CSR in the Kingdom [17, 18]. On the other hand, positive state-CSR logics have emerged in Saudi Arabia. The government passed a legislative requirement through the 2006 Saudi corporate governance (CG) code, which requires firms to have an audit committee with at least three non-executive directors and at least a financial and accounting director; this code had a positive impact on CSR disclosure with a higher number of companies registered by research studies post its application [13]. However, it can be argued that this is a non-intentional CSR impact, where more direct legislative policies are required for promoting CSR.
\nMoreover, other systemic attempts exist to institutionalize CSR in Saudi Arabia, namely through the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority (SAGIA), established in 2000, with the aim of strengthening the economy and rendering it more competitive. SAGIA has made efforts to spread CSR awareness and encourage the private sector to participate through launching a measure, the Saudi Arabia Responsible Competitive Index (SARCI). The governmental initiative aims at monitoring and evaluating CSR strategies of leading companies through social, environmental, economic, management, and stakeholder participation metrics [16]. However, issues of human and labor rights, corruption, and environment are pressing international issues that are of concern to CSR global standards; and these concerns are not addressed by SARCI [19].
\nThe UAE is a fast-developing country with a growing economy. It has large oil reserves particularly in the Abu Dhabi Emirate; this has enabled it to become a business and trade hub of the Middle East. Indeed, the oil sector currently only accounts for 28% of its GDP signaling a strong diverse economy [20]. Due to its economic strength and opportunity and its affluent sales prospects, MNCs consider the UAE economy as a gateway to enter the Middle Eastern market. In terms of CSR, the government of UAE has been encouraging business involvement in social responsibility and consumer awareness of their rights through various programs; such as activities for sustainable management focused on the importance of philanthropic initiatives to aid sustainable development [20]. Particularly, Dubai has championed emerging sustainability projects, specifically in construction and energy conservation.
\nPoverty reduction is a main concern for the government which has been tackled through food and housing projects and marriage funds. The Sheikh Zayed Housing Program and the Mohammed bin Rashid Housing Establishment are two examples of UAE-led philanthropic initiatives to aid citizen welfare, in addition to humanitarian initiatives that provide food for subsidized prices; in accordance to cultural attitudes, UAE also provides a marriage fund for low income citizens along with other programs such as healthcare and educational support [20]. Government funded CSR programs are also expanding internationally and deal with international development challenges; this is initiated by various programs such as Dubai Cares, which is the largest CSR initiative in the Middle East supporting social welfare in low-income countries in fields of education, health, water and sanitation, and school infrastructure [20]. The government also encourages employees to participate and volunteer in social projects through an initiative called ENGAGE [21]. Other UAE-funded national and international initiatives support SMEs by promoting CG and raising awareness on issues of transparency, responsibilities of board directors, auditing, and sustainability practices [20, 21]. Lastly the Dubai Ethics Resource Centre specifically targets issues of CSR in the Gulf markets by planning forums and seminars in collaboration with business leaders and Gulf executives; their training sessions focus on improving knowledge of CSR targeted at professionals with the aim of enhancing CSR programs, strategies and infrastructures [21].
\nAlong with providing CSR training sessions, the Center for Responsible Business in Dubai, provides assistance in CSR implementation and conducts audits to recognize responsible business behavior and rewards it with CSR labels; similarly, a UAE- funded project, the Arabia CSR Network audits and rewards CSR best practices in the country [21]. UAE governmental initiatives have yielded tangible results, evident through the increased awareness by consumers in the country, and specifically in Dubai and Abu Dhabi Emirates, where responsible business programs are concentrated [20].
\nQatar is also a country rich in oil and gas with other booming sectors, with Qatar recently serving as the largest exporter of cement and steel [22]. It is a small country with the second highest migration rate and the first GDP per capita in the world [23]. The Qatari government has been according importance to accountability and transparency issues in the country, setting fertile ground for the disclosure of information, specifically related to socially responsible behavior [24]. This is an improvement as the country lacked any proper regulations for financial reporting and all information disclosed on company’s annual reports was completely voluntary [25].
\nWhile financial reporting has improved in the past decade, CSR disclosure is still a voluntary practice in Qatar, and not enforced by law. Companies lack a broad scope of CSR disclosure that mostly focuses on human resources; state regulations by the Qatari Government would help enhance CSR activities and set clear environmental disclosure standards in line with global sustainability trends [22]. Due to its contextual dynamics, as a small country with relatively low population, Qatar has excelled in inclusive social welfare initiatives; apart from its high living standards, the country’s contribution to global development has been pronounced. Through initiating semi-governmental institutions, Qatar has participated in national and international philanthropy and community outreach programs [23]. In 2015 the country put forth the Qatar National Vision 2030 setting clear sustainable development goals with economic, social, and environmental targets. To set a pathway for the 2030 targets, Qatar has emphasized the role of the private sector through an emphasis on CSR activities; a 2016 study on CSR practices in Qatar found that corporations are driven by the country’s vision for a sustainable future which also sets a framework for CSR activities and targets [23]. To further promote CSR activities and disclosure, the government should apply legal regulations for private sector involvement based on international and professional standards and criteria [14, 26].
\nOman is an emerging mixed market economy that also highly relies on the oil and gas sector with a salience of joint ventures with international corporations [27]. Private sector partners along with the civil society are expected to collaborate with the government to maintain national competitiveness and equality. The state has set local development targets through the national socio-economic development plan (Vision 2020), launched in 1996; these collaborations are also in line with national inclusion, where all sectors are expected to be involved in steps for development planning [27].
\nKuwait has a large oil economy and therefore the recent oil production cuts have affected economic growth [10]. The government is attending to this issue through plans of economic diversification; a privatization plan was put in place to shift dependence from the oil and gas sector. However, the state legal framework and enforcement is weak; there are no CG laws put in place and company regulations lack any reference to stakeholder’s rights [28]. Due to its legal context, it is up to the firm to participate in socially responsible activities such as human and labor rights. A study on CG practices in businesses in Kuwait suggests the low level of development in that field with a salient lack of accountability, disclosure, shareholders’ and stakeholders’ rights. While some companies studied had assigned a board committee, others do not even have a selected board committee to look over governance issues [28]. There is no legal framework for social responsibility issues; however, some large sized companies exhibit some kind of participation in CSR practices [28]. This would be more organized and enhanced with well-structured legal regulations for accountability, CG, and social responsibility. Moreover, setting down regulations will be in line with the government’s current privatization plan as proper CG laws with clear reference to the rights of shareholders and stakeholders would encourage investment and economy diversification.
\nNormative and institutional pressures resulting from belief systems have a great impact on CSR practices in the GCC [17]; Islamic teachings salient in the region, view social responsibility as an obligation to business activity [18], namely through the
Companies in Saudi Arabia have been following a religious tradition of
Philanthropy has always been practiced in UAE through
Qatar also has salient Religion-CSR Logics as it is an Islamic country with high social, cultural, and religious expectations of firms participating in philanthropy; this ultimately influenced the introduction of CSR in the professional realm and encouraged company participation to meet their social responsibility expectations [23]. Community involvement of businesses in Qatar has always been prevalent through donations such as to orphanages, elderly homes, and particularly sports [29]. Religious groups in Qatar also act as pressure groups on companies to get involved in the annual
Bahrain is a small GCC country and has a dearth of research on CSR practices by corporations. However, one study focused on social responsibility reporting of Islamic financial institutions based in Bahrain. The results show a thorough understanding of CSR as the banks are required by law to produce an annual report, the Shari’a Supervisory board report, to assert their commitment to Islamic teachings [30]. There is evidence of voluntary philanthropic practices in Islamic financial institutions which signifies a commitment to social welfare issues in the country [31].
\nSimilar to other countries in GCC, Oman is a Muslim nation characterized with philanthropic practices to low income groups, which has contributed to the assimilation of CSR concepts [27]. There is evidence of a merger in Oman of traditional philanthropic traditions with strategic CSR practices integrating economic, social and environmental challenges [27].
\nMarket-CSR interface creates various logics depending on the market dynamics of the specific context. International market integration greatly influences CSR logics and expressions. The local context has an even greater impact, for instance in case of monopolies or other peculiar ownership contexts. Moreover, the pursuit of market growth might produce operational negative externalities impacting society or the environment.
\nDespite the fact that Saudi Arabia is an Islamic state following Islamic law and practices, a study found that companies pursue CSR beyond charitable and philanthropic activities [32]. Indeed economic, environmental, and social pillars are addressed through CSR, marking a qualitative shift in the country. However, companies through these practices are in pursuit of higher economic value with higher profits and long-term success [32]. Therefore, it seems that although a developmental approach is prevalent in some companies in Saudi Arabia; the guiding principle is in line with economic priorities. Saudi Arabia has strong connections politically and economically to the west, and western market logics have manifested in the country [14]; It is emphasized by many authors that this particular Saudi CSR expression is inspired by western free-market economy influences, and plays a significant role in shaping business practices and economic priorities [14, 32].
\nIn light of the start of the Arab Spring, Saudi Arabia began to focus on driving CSR discourse forward and spreading awareness on the importance of CSR as a political strategy to meet the public’s demand for sustainable local social and economic development. CSR became essential for enhancing social cohesion and solidifying the country’s authority and political role in the region [33]. In this way, it has changed from being an economic activity to a political priority. Consequently, multiple governmental projects took place including generous philanthropic assistantship to low income groups in the Kingdom, as well as a housing development project where the government built half a million residential units for the needy [14]. This marks an evolution in CSR in the country moving away from western market logics and into new applications rooted in socio-economic rationales.
\nUAE is characterized with an internationally integrated market; in fact, only 20% of its population comprises nationals and local citizens and 80% constitute migrants from 100 different countries searching for work opportunities; although it is an oil and gas rich nation, the sector only contributes to 28% of its GDP [20]. Market logics in UAE are driven by high economic growth and international integration and competitiveness. This open market environment aiming for rapid economic growth may result in socially irresponsible behavior. Indeed, due to opportunistic attitudes permeating the UAE, business practices have been characterized with poor labor rights, low customer safety standards, unequal welfare distribution, and environmentally damaging activities [15].
\nGovernmental laws and structured regulations regarding business conduct exist but their implementation depends on institutional monitoring and enforcement capacity [15]. Although positive state-CSR logics prevail, there are several challenging factors that inhibit proper stakeholder engagement in the UAE market. Due to some firm’s monopoly positions, there has been a failure of prioritizing stakeholder management in organizational operations; in addition to the diversity of cultures and backgrounds in the country and short-term residencies, effective communication channels are difficult to build and long-term relationships with stakeholders are not maintained due to the high turnover rates [15].
\nDue to the high rate of economic development and international market integration, CSR in Qatar is growing exponentially as western-centric CSR is diffused to relevance in the local context [26]. Due to the high percentage of international firms in Qatar, CSR global standards and reporting are followed, especially in the energy sector [23]. The energy sector in Qatar however does not follow the same type of CSR disclosure seen in western energy sectors. It is expected that such an industry would be keener on disclosing socially responsible behavior regarding environmental challenges; however, this is not the case in the Qatari energy market, as a study revealed that the sector’s highest emphasis through CSR reporting is related to human resources rather than an environmental theme [22].
\nOn another note, the recent governmental privatization program is attempting to enhance local investments. A study revealed that post the implementation of this program, a high association between shareholder percentages and CSR reporting prevailed [25]. Management is attempting to assure current and potential private investors of the company’s commitment to transparency and social responsibility through proper disclosure. Shareholders in Qatar prefer investing in socially responsible firms that prioritize social and environmental challenges [25].
\nThe Omani market enjoys joint ventures and a majority natural resources sector. This has had a significant effect on shaping CSR expressions in the country, where they are found to be consistent with other emerging economies with similar characteristics [27]. The best type of CSR practiced in Oman is through philanthropy; this could be due the traditional charitable activities. However, it is argued that economies that are highly dependent on natural resources conform to ‘CSR as philanthropy’ philosophy [27].
\nDue to the economic structure in Kuwait where the market is dominated by major shareholders with a weak legal system, there exists a lack of accountability, proper shareholder rights, and transparent disclosure [28].
\nCorporation-CSR logics constitute of two main paradigms: Corporations pursuing CSR for the aim of higher profits and economic priorities; and corporations focusing on integrating local and global development challenges through CSR strategies.
\nCompanies in Saudi Arabia with CSR practices usually consider local development priorities in strategizing their CSR goals. However, due to the cultural context in the country, businesses and citizens view social responsibility and development as the primary goals of the state structure [18]. The fact that businesses in Saudi Arabia view CSR as voluntary stands in the way of the governmental plans to make CSR strategies the norm of doing business. Saudi Arabian corporations also showed a high correlation between improved CSR disclosure and board independence and firm size [13, 34], signifying that companies with higher financial liquidity and independent audits, are more willing to invest in a CSR strategy and disclosure. However, small and medium sized enterprises face structural challenges in integrating CSR into their business operations; such companies do not create high employment nor do they follow strategic developmental approach to CSR, rather they merely stick to paying the annually ensued Zakat tax [14].
\nMNCs in the UAE tend to follow sustainability pathways through supporting society and the environment in their CSR practices; the majorities of these firms operate in free trade zones of the country [20]. In a study on CSR perceptions of UAE corporates in free trade zones revealed some linkage between CSR and business performance; most respondents believe in the high economic value that CSR produces such as reputational gains, higher profits, and long-term success [21]. Nonetheless, clearly targeted and structured CSR strategies are not salient in UAE; this is due to the lack of understanding of how CSR practices should be formulated and what constitutes an effective CSR strategy [21]. Despite the high awareness of the significance of CSR and importance of following international standards, firms do not have the knowledge of how to implement these standards.
\nDespite the high international market integration in Qatar, corporations fall short on CSR practices as the main themes of CSR reporting are related to human resources and product development; the disclosure is mostly in a narrative format through the chairman’s report which indicates that companies through CSR pursue higher profits and a corporate image and reputation as responsible corporate citizens rather than contributing to the enhancement of local sustainable development [22]. The highest amount of reporting is recorded in large companies [25, 35]; as they have higher financial resources to be able to apply CSR strategies, in addition to being more visible to the public eye and so need to maintain a responsible corporate image for long-term success [25]. Large companies are also more likely to secure funds from banks and other financial funding institutions and therefore they tend to disclose detailed information to convince investors [25].
\nThe local development context in Qatar is characterized with many challenges such as inapt human and worker rights and transparency and accountability. These areas are not covered by CSR programs of corporations; rather their focus is mainly on health, education, environment, and sponsoring of sport events [26]. Corporations in Qatar ought to develop their professional skills in dealing with CSR by hiring specialized professionals in separate CSR departments for greater integration of local development context of ineffective labor and human rights, working environment, and governance issues [26].
\nThe highest sector that practices strategic developmental CSR in Oman is the oil and gas sector as it is dominated by transnational corporations that work in joint venture contracts with the government. Corporations in this sector apply more systematic approaches to CSR integrating economic, social and environmental issues, as well as incorporating local traditions of philanthropy [27]. This is not the case with SMEs in Oman as they primarily follow religious obligations to philanthropy; although some integrate CSR in their core operations, that is usually not organized or systemic [27]. Despite the lack of governmental regulations for CG or CSR in Kuwait, strategic CSR is salient in some large companies in the country. Social responsibility in Kuwait is still underdeveloped, and requires more effort from governmental institutions and large companies to drive the practice forward [28].
\nFamily logics in a specific country greatly influence CSR strategies in family owned firms; this is specifically true in the Middle East as a large portion of corporations are family owned. Family-CSR logics interface is affected by the cultural attitudes of helping relational in-groups; tribe culture as a salient logic in the GCC area might also influence CSR expressions. Negative CSR-family logics might occur due to the high level of nepotism and giving priority to employing family members in the business that is detected in some cases in the Middle East.
\nSaudi Arabian corporations apply the religious philanthropic traditions of
Due to the Qatari corporate ownership structures that are mainly dominated by the government or a number of families, corporations do not have incentives to disclose socially responsible information. These powerful and wealthy Qatari families can directly request information from management, and therefore companies do not tend to voluntarily disclose information about their corporate citizenship and social responsibility, as civil society pressure groups do not exist [25]. On the other hand, religious pressure groups exist and therefore companies tend to meet their requests through improving the living standards of employees and through charity or philanthropy [25].
\nAlthough it is highly international, Qatar still preserves Islamic and in-group values that are evident through its relationship with expatriates. It has been criticized by international organizations due to concerns about human and labor rights; the nationalities of expatriates determine their social status and treatment within the Qatari society [23]. This is in fact prevalent throughout GCC countries in general, and needs to be addressed through CSR programs targeted at nationals and minority groups to enhance social cohesion.
\nSimilar to Qatar, ownership in Kuwait is concentrated with either families or governments, and corporations have a lack of proper disclosure of information [28]. Ownership structures create agency issues for corporations in Kuwait, where the process of appointing board members and audit committees is prejudiced by large shareholders and nepotism [28].
\nThe cultural attitudes and familial ties in UAE follow a collectivist philosophy that views social welfare and relationships in a philanthropic fashion [36]. Although governmental efforts to promote global standards of CSR are highly prevalent in UAE, CSR is still viewed in a philanthropic manner and at times merely as a religious requirement [36].
\nThe above analysis provides a broad scope understanding of the nuanced peculiar national contexts in the GCC and the relevant CSR expressions prevalent in light of the diffusion of western assumptive logics of CSR through globalization. In terms of State-CSR logics, supportive logics are expressed in the GCC countries; Saudi Arabia passed the 2006 Saudi corporate governance code that had an indirect positive impact on CSR disclosure by companies in addition to institutional attempts through SARCI that have collaborated with stakeholders from multiple sectors to promote CSR. The UAE government has initiated and funded various community outreach projects, in addition to institutional CSR initiatives to promote and audit CSR practices. Similarly, the Qatari government has funded several initiatives for CSR promotion and awareness as well as social welfare projects. On the other hand, Omani government CSR initiatives are still shy; apart from setting a socio-economic governmental plan that requires tri-sector collaboration, more emphasis on structured CSR regulations would help its promotion. The state of Kuwait does not provide any type of support for CSR in the country. Indeed, structural obstacles hinder its application, such as a feeble legal system, poor human and worker rights, lack of accountability and nepotism.
\nIn terms of Religion-CSR logics, the Islamic tradition of
In terms of market-CSR logic interface, western market values have proliferated in Saudi Arabia, UAE and Qatar and have manifested in economic and business priorities through CSR practices in these countries. Moreover, a negative market-CSR logic prevails where the market dynamic has created opportunistic attitudes causing negative externalities on society and the environment; this is evident in UAE markets where some corporations’ monopoly positions lead to negative CSR expressions. Similar obstacles exist in the Kuwaiti market that is dominated by major shareholders; this has led to low accountability and responsibility standards. In Saudi Arabia however, an economic and market oriented CSR approach has transformed into a political rationale and priority in light of the emergence of the Arab Spring.
\nCorporation-CSR logics prevail in GCC countries under two main paradigms, either prioritizing economic profits or integrating local developmental challenges. The former is evident in Saudi Arabia where large companies with higher financial liquidity tend to invest more in CSR practices, in UAE where companies pursue long-term success, and in Qatar where corporate image and financial gains are prioritized. On the other hand, developmental corporation-CSR logics exist in some companies in Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and in the oil and gas sector in Oman.
\nLastly, three family-CSR logics have been detected in the GCC literature. Companies follow the traditional familial values of helping family members and in-groups that is salient in the region; For instance, the UAE family-owned companies exhibit the collectivist social politics, and this has led to the ‘CSR as philanthropy’ understanding. Another Family-CSR logic is through the impact of familial values on business practices where the managers practice CSR in accordance with their personal beliefs; in Saudi Arabia, there is a positive association between higher CSR disclosure and family ownership where family owned companies tend to apply a broad view of Islamic values for social responsibility in their business operations, going beyond the annual
Generally, it is clear that in each of the GCC countries, we see an amalgam of global, mainly western, logics relating to CSR, and local logics tied to indigenous institutions. Western CSR logics rarely stay intact, and are often adapted in local contexts as they interact with local institutional logics. Therefore, we detect nuances in the understanding and applications of CSR across contexts, even when these countries are located in close proximity to each other as is the case for the GCC. This comes across clearly through our contribution and we need more research along these lines to contribute to the global comparative CSR agenda as we enrich our understanding of the diversity of CSR and its manifold applications across developed and developing contexts. Future research can be done on the possibility of including independent members on the Board of Directors in family-owned businesses in order to overcome the obstacle of negative CSR-family logics. CSR in the GCC countries should encompass a broader view than just philanthropic programs and Islamic views. Future research can also tackle the issue of shifting CSR views from economic activities to a political priority initiated by the government, and also practiced by businesses as mandatory through laws that enforce CSR practices and legal regulations for accountability.
\nPectin is the major constituent of all plants and makes up approximately two-third of the dry mass of plant primary cell walls. It provides structural integrity, strength, and flexibility to the cell wall and acts as barrier to the external environment [1]. Pectin is also a natural component of all omnivorous diet and is an important source of dietary fiber. Due to the resistant in digestive system and lack of pectin digestive enzymes, human beings are not able to digest pectin directly but microorganism present in large intestine can easily assimilate the pectin and convert it into soluble fibers. These oligosaccharides promote beneficial microbiota in gut and also help in lipid and fat metabolism, glycemic regulation, etc. [2]. Being complex and highly diverse in structure, role of pectin is not only limited to the biological and physiological functions, but it has tremendous potential and contributes substantially in other applications ranging from food processing to pharmaceuticals. Pectin is a water-soluble fiber and used in various food as emulsifier, stabilizer, gelling, and thickening agent.
\nCommercial pectins are extracted from citrus and apple fruit. On the basis of dry mass, apple pomace contains 10–15% pectin, whereas citrus peel possesses 20–30% pectin. However, pectin has also been extracted in higher amount from several other fruits and their by-products, such as sunflower head, mango peal, soybean hull [3], passion fruit peel [4], sugar beet pulp [5],
S. No | \nSource | \nParts used | \nExtraction method used | \nPectin yield (%) | \nType of pectin (HMP/LMP) | \nRef | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nPassion fruit | \nPeel | \nAPP | \n14.8% | \nHMP | \n[4] | \n
2 | \nBanana | \nPeel | \nAPP | \n5–21% | \nHMP (DE, 50–80%) | \n[8] | \n
3 | \nChick pea | \nHusk | \nAcid extraction, APP, and freeze dried | \n8% | \nLMP (DE, 10%) | \n[9] | \n
4 | \nKrueo Ma Noy | \nLeaves | \nAPP, DPP | \n21–28% | \nLMP (DE, 34–42%) | \n[11] | \n
5 | \nYellow Passion | \nFruit rind | \nAPP, DPP, MPP | \n3–16% | \nHMP (DE, 54–59%) | \n[12] | \n
6 | \nDurian | \nRind | \nAPP | \n2–10.25% | \nHMP (DE, 50–64%) | \n[13] | \n
7 | \nMulberry | \nMulberry bark with epidermis (MBE) and without epidermis (MB) | \nExtracted using 60–100% isopropanol | \n11.88% | \nHMP (MB–DE, 71.13%); LMP (MBE–DE, 24.27%) | \n[14] | \n
8 | \nYuzu, citrus family | \nPomace | \nExtracted with APP and enzyme (Viscozyme® L with 1.2 × 10−4 fungal β-glucanase | \nDPP, APP (7.3–8%) | \nLMP (APP–DE, 41%; DPP–DE, 46.3%) | \n[16] | \n
9 | \nCacao pods | \nHusk | \nExtracted with 1 N HNO3 at different pH and precipitated by ethanol and acetone | \n3.7–8.6% | \nLMP (DE 36.7% @ pH 1, DE 44.3% @ pH 3); HMP (DE 52.4% @ pH 2) | \n[17] | \n
10 | \nCashew apple | \nPomace | \nAOP at different pH (1.0, 1.5, and 2.0) | \n10.7–25.3% | \nLMP (DE, 28–46%) | \n[18] | \n
11 | \nLeaves | \nExtracted with acid and alkali, precipitated the pectin by ethanol | \n4–8% | \nHMP (acid treated: 65–75% DE) LMP (Alkali treated: 36% DE) | \n[19] | \n|
12 | \nDragon fruit | \nPeel | \nExtracted using HCl, precipitated and purified with 70 and 99.6% isopropanol. | \n18.59% | \nLMP (DE, 46.95%) | \n[20] | \n
13 | \nJackfruit | \nPeel | \nUltrasonic-microwave-assisted extracted (UMAE) pectin | \n21.5% | \nHMP (DE, 62.5%) | \n[22] | \n
14 | \nPotato | \nPulp | \nExtracted with different acids and precipitated by ethanol | \n4.08–14.34% | \nLMP (DE, 21.51–37.45%) | \n[23] | \n
High methoxyl pectins (HMP) and low methoxyl pectins (LMP) from various horticultural crops.
APP, alcohol-precipitated pectin; MPP, metal ion-precipitated pectin; DPP, dialyzed precipitated pectin.
Pectin is a highly complex plant cell wall polysaccharide that plays a significant role in plant growth and development. It is predominantly present in fruits and vegetables and constitutes approximately 35–40% of the primary cell wall in all the dicot plants [24]. The composition and structure of pectin is influenced by the developmental stages of plants [25, 26]. Structural analysis of pectin revealed that it is a polymer comprised of chain-like configuration of approximately 100–1000 saccharide units; therefore, it does not possess a defined structure. In general, pectin is illustrated as a heteropolysaccharide of three components namely, homogalacturonan (HG), rhamnogalacturonan-I (RGI), and rhamnogalacturonan-II (RGII) [28, 29]. The Backbone structure may branch with other neutral sugar chains such as arabinan, xylogalacturonan (XGA), arabinogalactan I (AG-I), and arabinogalactan II (AG-II).
\nHomogalacturonan (HG) is a polymer of galacturonic acid (GalA), in which Gal A residues are linked together by α-1-4 glycosidic bond and the number of GalA residues in HG may vary from 72 to 100% depending on the source of pectin [30]. For instance, the HG backbone of cashew apple pectin,
Rhamnogalacturonan I represents approximately 20–35% of the pectin polysaccharides. It is the highly branched and heterogeneous polysaccharide which is characterized as repeating units of α-(1 → 2)-linked rhamnose and α-(1 → 4)-linked GalA residues. It can be O-acetylated at O-2 and/or O-3 positions of GalA residues [33, 34]. Pectin from citrus peels, mung bean, kidney bean, apple fruit, and flax hypocotyls has been reported 100% methyl esterified in the RGI region [35, 36]. The composition of RGI varies in pectin extracted from different sources. In sugar beet pectin, 80 repeating units of [→2] –α-L-Rha-(1–4)- α-D-GalA-(1→) comprised the backbone of rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I), whereas citrus pectin contains only 15–40 repeating units [37]. The polymeric side chains of galactans and arabinans are substituted at the O-4 position of RG-I backbone. Arabinogalactan I (AG-I) and arabinogalactan II (AG-II) are also reported to be present as polymeric side chains [38, 39, 40]. The side chains are often referred to as “hairs” and believed to play an important role in pectin functionality. The loss of side chains may increase the solubility of the pectin [41]. PGI is prone to enzymatic depolymerization. However, protease and acid-catalyzed cleavage of RGI has also been reported [28, 42, 43].
\nThe highly conserved polysaccharide of pectin is rhamnogalacturonan II which constitutes about 10% of the pectin polymer [44]. This polysaccharide is made up of (1 → 4)-linked-α-D-GalA units containing 12 monosaccharide such as apiose, acetic acid, 3-deoxy-manno-2-octulosonic acid (KDO), and 3-deoxy-lyxo-2-heptulosaric acid (DHA) as side chains [30, 39]. GalA present in backbone of rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II) may be methyl esterified at the C-6 position. The percentage of esterified GalA and acetylated groups in HG chain is termed as the DE and DAc, respectively. It is proposed that in the early developmental stages of plants, highly esterified pectin is formed that undergoes some deesterification in the cell wall or middle lamella. In general, tissue pectin ranges from 60 to 90% DE [45]. Both the DE and the DAc of pectin may vary depending on the method of extraction and plant origin [30, 46]. The functional properties of the pectin are determined by the amount and the distribution of esterified GalA residues in the linear backbone. Presence and distribution of esterified and nonmethylated GalA in pectin define the charge on pectin molecules. Based on their degree of esterification (DE), pectins are classified as high methoxy pectins (HMP) or low methoxy pectins (LMP). DE values of HM pectin range from 60 to 75%, whereas pectin with 20–40% of DE is referred as LM pectin. It was also observed that solubility, viscosity, and gelation properties of pectin are correlated and highly dependent on structural features [47, 48]. Pectin and monovalent salts of pectins are generally soluble in water but di- and trivalent ions are insoluble. The solubility of pectin in water increases with decrease in polymer size and increase in methoxy contents. Pectin powder gets hydrated very fast in water and forms clumps. The solubility of these clumps is very slow. As the pectin molecules come in contact with water, deesterification and depolymerization of pectins start spontaneously. The rate of decomposition of pectin depends on pH and temperature of the solution. As the pH of the solution decreased, with elevated temperature, ionization of carboxylate groups also reduced, which suppresses the hydration and repulsion between the polysaccharide molecules and results in the association of molecules in the form of gels. During thermal processing, solubilization of pectin is affected by β-elimination which depolymerized the pectin molecule and reduced its chain length. Small polymers have poor affinity with cell wall framework and solubilize easily. However, preheating, as well as reduced moisture contents in thermal processing, adversely affects the solubility of pectin in water [49, 50].
\nFood additives that are used in food processing to blend two immiscible liquids to produce a desirable product are known as food emulsifier or emulgent. These additives act as surface-active agents on the border of immiscible layers and reduce oil crystallization and prevent water separation. Emulsifiers are used in large number of food products such as ice creams, low-fat spreads, yoghurts, margarine, salad dressings, salty spreads, bakery products, and many other creamy sauces, to keep them in stable emulsion [27]. Emulsifiers increase the whip-ability of batters, enhance mouthfeel of the products, and improve texture and shape of the dough. Moreover, emulsions also help to encapsulate the bioactives [51]. Based on the disperse phase, there are two types of emulsion: oil in water (O/W) and water in oil (W/O). Milk, mayonnaise, dressings, and various beverages are some examples of O/W emulsion, whereas butter and margarine are the typical examples of W/O emulsion. Progress in hydrocolloid chemistry has resulted in the development of multitype emulsion such as O/W/O and O/W/O type emulsion (Figure 1). These emulsions are very important for fat reduction or encapsulation of bioactives and are used in preparation and stabilization of various low-fat creams, seasoning, and flavoring of sauces [52].
\nTypes of emulsions.
Commonly used emulsifiers in food processing are (i) small-molecular surfactant such as lectithins, derivatives of mono- and diglycerides prepared by mixing edible oils with glycerin or ethylene oxide, fatty acid derivatives such as glycol esters, sorbitan esters, polysorbates and (ii) macromolecular emulsifiers that include proteins and plant-based polymers such as soy polysaccharide, guar gum, modified starch, pectin, etc. [53]. As far as the properties of food emulsifier are concern, a good emulsifier should be low in molecular weight, capable to reduce the surface tension rapidly at interface, and should be soluble in continuous phase [54]. Research on food additives revealed the adverse effect of synthetic food additives on human being. Chassaing et al. found that polysorbate 80(P80) or carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) had adverse effects on gut microbiota and their continuous use triggered the weight gain and metabolic syndrome after 12 weeks of administration in mouse [55]. A recent research carried out on mice shows that regular use of P80 and CMC triggers low-grade intestinal inflammation which may ultimately lead to the development of colon cancer [56]. Therefore, safety issues with the synthetic food additives and consumer’s demand for all natural food ingredients have necessitated the use of plant-based emulsifiers and stabilizers in food.
\nPectin is a natural hydrocolloid which exhibits wide spectrum of functional properties. Because of the gelling ability of pectin, it is used as viscosity enhancer. During emulsification process, pectin molecules adsorb at the fine oil droplets from at O/W interface and protect the droplet from coalescing with adjacent drops (short-term stability). The quality of emulsifier is defined by its ability to provide long-term stability against flocculation and coalescence [27]. Figure 2 depicts the stages in long-term emulsion formation using pectin as emulgent. When the viscosity of the continuous phase is increased, the movements of oil droplets become restricted which improves the shelf life of emulsion [57]. In the past decade, some pectin has also been reported to exhibit surface active behavior in oil-water interface and thereby stabilizing the fine oil droplets in emulsion [42, 58]. These functions of pectin are determined by its source, structural modification during processing, distribution of functional groups in pectin backbone, and also by various extrinsic factors such as pH, temperature, ionic strength, cosolute concentration, etc. The emulsification or surface active properties of pectin, i.e., formation of fine oil droplets, are mainly contributed due to the high hydrophobicity of protein residue present in pectin [46, 59] and also by hydrophobic nature of acetyl, methyl, and feruloyl esters [42, 60], whereas emulsion-stabilizing ability is attributed to the carbohydrate moieties and their conformational features [61].
\nEmulsion formation and stabilization using polymer as emulgent.
The mechanism of emulsion formation is shown in Figure 3. Different models explain the emulsion formation as covalently bound protein moieties in pectin are adsorbed onto the oil-water interface [46], form anchor points at the interface, and reduce the interfacial tension while the charged carbohydrate units extend into the aqueous phase [62] and stabilize by steric and viscosity effects in the aqueous phase(Figure 3a). Now, it is a well-established fact that pectin from different source shows variability in structure and protein contents. Leroux et al. identified many anchor points in sugar beet pectin (SBP) molecules [46], and proposed a loop-and-tail model (Figure 3b). According to the authors, only a limited amount of protein is adsorbed at the oil surface and acts as main moiety in the stabilization of the emulsion. This model was further confirmed by Siew and others [62]. The study was carried out to measure the thickness of the adsorbed SBP on oil-water interface layer, proposed a multilayer adsorption model (Figure 3c). Electrostatic interactions between the positively charged protein moiety and the negatively charged carbohydrate moiety were also reported.
\nDifferent models showing pectin adsorption at oil/water interface during emulsion formation.
Pectin O/W emulsion is generally stabilized through steric and electrostatic interaction. The carbohydrate moieties and neutral sugar side chains of RG I region of pectin confer the stability to the pectin emulsions through steric properties of the adsorbed polymers, when pectin is used as monoemulsifiers. In addition, pectin reversible association with galactan/arabinogalactan prior to emulsification also improves the emulsion stability [42, 63]. Electrostatic stabilization of emulsion is ascribed to sugar moieties and structural features of the HG units of pectin. If the pH of dispersion medium is above 3.5, nonmethylated carboxylic group of HG region gets ionized and confers charge on the pectin surface. Interaction of an ionic surfactant with oil droplets results in electrostatic stabilization [64]. Pectin viscosity also plays an important role in controlling the emulsion stability. HG region-rich pectin shows higher intrinsic viscosity ([
Molecular weight of pectin has also been reported to affect the emulsifying capacity of pectin. Pectin with low molecular weight was more efficient in stabilizing small emulsion droplets than high-molecular weight pectin. However, very small size of citrus pectin had negative effect on emulsion-stabilizing ability of pectin. It could be due to the poor steric stabilization of depolymerized polymer [59].
\nEmulsion-based food products can be defined as a network of pectin-protein molecules entrapping the oil droplet in between. Nowadays, a large number of pectin- and polysaccharide-based emulsified low-fat dairy products, meat products, spreads or desserts, bakery products, sauces, etc., are available in market. Low-fat and low-cholesterol mayonnaise, low-fat cottage cheese, low-fat drinking yogurt, and flavored oil-containing acidified milk drinks are the few examples of pectin-based emulsified products. These products are prepared by replacing full-fat milk from skimmed milk, emulsified oil, and whey proteins [70, 71]. A low-fat cheese was prepared using skimmed milk and water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) emulsified canola oil. Different emulsifiers such as amidated low-methoxyl pectins (LMP), gum arabic (GA), carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), and combinations of GA-CMC or GA-LMP were used to stabilize the emulsion. Textural characteristics and sensory evaluation of low-fat cheese show that polymers used to stabilize the emulsion affected both microcrystalline structure and organoleptic properties. The cheese prepared using GA and LMP was almost similar in textural characteristics to the full-fat milk cheese [72]. In another study, Liu et al. compared the textural and structural features and sensory quality of full-fat and low-fat cheese analogs prepared with or without the incorporation of pectin [71]. Microstructure analysis using scanning electron microscopy revealed that full-fat cheese was denser and contained higher concentration of fat globules than low-fat cheese made with or without pectin. Comparison within the low-fat cheese analogs showed clear difference in their hardness, gumminess, chewiness, and adhesiveness. Addition of pectin had positive effect on textural and sensory attribute and scored better in mouthfeel also.
\nLow-fat (Lf) mayonnaise was prepared by partial replacement of egg yolk and incorporation of pectin as emulsifier [73, 74]. Pectin weak gel, pectin microencapsulation, and whey protein isolate were used in preparation of low-fat (Lf) mayonnaise. Physicochemical and sensory properties of Lf mayonnaise were compared with full-fat (Ff) mayonnaise; Lf mayonnaise had low energy and more water contents than Ff. Textural features and rheological properties of the Lf and Ff mayonnaise were similar and both displayed thixotropic shear thinning behavior and categorized as weak gels. Moreover, Lf mayonnaise prepared using pectin had better acceptability than whey protein incorporation [75]. Emulsified oil is used as an effective delivery system of active compound in functional foods, and also serves as milk fat replacer in fat-free dairy products. To improve the nutritional value of food, low-fat dairy products are produced, whereas saturated milk fat is generally replaced with emulsified-unsaturated vegetable oils [76].
\nIn recent year, pectin in combination with inulin has been reported to prepare low-fat meat batter. Méndez-Zamora et al. studied the effect of substitution of animal fat with different formulations of pectin and inulin on chemical composition, textural, and sensory properties of frankfurter sausages [77]. Finding of the research showed that fracturability, gumminess, and chewiness of the low-fat sauces were slightly lower than those of the control. However, addition of 15% inulin improves the sensory properties. In a similar work, replacement of pork back fat with 15% pectin and 15% inulin was found effective in maintaining the physicochemical properties and emulsion stability of the low-fat meat batter [78].
\nThe use of pectin in food products as a gelling agent is a long tradition. Later on, it was discovered that pectin forms different types of viscoelastic solution under suitable conditions. This property of pectin is commercially exploited in preparation of jams, jellies, and marmalades. Rheological behaviors of pectin depend on pectin source, its degree of methylation, distribution of nonmethylated GalA unit on pectin backbone, and degree of acetylation, and also on various extrinsic factors such as temperature, pH, concentration, and presence of divalent ions. At a constant pH, the setting time of pectin increases with decreasing DM and degree of blockiness (DB) in the absence of bivalent ions [79]. Therefore, on the basis of gelling process, pectin is classified as rapid, medium, and slow set pectin [80].
\nGelling process of pectin and its stabilization follows different mechanisms for different types of pectin. HMP form gels in a narrow pH range (2.0–3.5) in the presence of sucrose at a concentration higher than 55% w/v in medium. During the gelatin process of HMP, junction zones are formed due to the cross-linking of two or more pectin molecules. These junctions are stabilized by weak molecular interaction such as hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds between polar and nonpolar methyl-esterified groups and require high sugar concentration and low pH [81]. These gels are thermally reversible. LMP can form gel over a wide pH range (2.0–6.0) independent of sucrose, but requires divalent ion, such as calcium [82, 83]. LMP follow the eggbox model for its gelation, where positively charged calcium ions (Ca2+) are entrapped in between the negatively charged carboxylic group of pectin. The zigzag network of Ca2+ ion and GalA molecules looks like eggbox, and therefore, model is named as eggbox model [80]. These gels are stabilized by electrostatic bonds. In the presence of Ca2+, calcium bridges are formed with pectin molecules that make the solution more viscous. At the higher pH, the ionic strength of the solution is increased and thus more Ca2+ is needed for gelation. In case of highly acetylated pectin such as sugar beet, acetyl groups cause steric hindrances and interfere with the Ca2+ ion and GalA bond formation, thus preventing gel formation. Kuuva et al. [84] reported that enzymatic modification in pectin structure, i.e., removal of acetyl groups using α-arabinofuranosidase (α-Afases) and acetyl esterase enzymes, can improve the gelling property of acetylated pectin.
\nHMP are generally used in preparation of standard jams where sugar contents are above 55%, high-quality, tender confectionary jellies, fruit pastes, etc. LMP do not require sugar for its gelatin and therefore preferred choice for the production of low-calorie food products such as milk desserts, jams, jellies, and preserves, [28, 85]. LM pectins are more stable in low pH and high temperature conditions as compare to HM pectins and can be stored for more than a year.
\nFood packaging is one of the fastest growing segments of food industry. Traditionally, packaging system was limited to the containers and packaging material to transport the food items from manufacturer to the retail market and then to the consumers. Such type of packaging was unable to contribute in the extension of the shelf life and maintenance of the quality of the products. Due to the globalization of food market and increasing demand of shelf-stable processed food that retains the natural properties of food, the need of functional/active packaging material is increasing. To meet the industrial demand, a number of polymers are being synthesized and used in food packaging because of their flexibility, versatility, and cost effectiveness. Although, synthetic materials are able to fulfill all the industrial needs and keep food fresh and safe by protecting them from abiotic factors such as moisture, heat, oxygen, unpleasant odor, and biotic components such as micro- and macroorganisms. But, disposal of nonbiodegradable packaging material is a serious problem which poses a threat to the environment. Therefore, more research has been focused on the development of biodegradable packaging for food packaging applications using poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(hydroxyalkanoates) (PHAs), starch, etc. [86]. Among all the natural polymers, polysaccharides are gaining more attention as they are versatile in nature and easily available in relatively low cost.
\nA variety of natural polysaccharides, such as pectin, chitosan derivatives, alginate, cellulose, seaweed extract, and starch are usually used in the preparation of edible films and coatings [87]. Pectin is one of the most significant renewable natural polymers which are the main component of all the biomass and ubiquitous in nature. Being flexible in nature, pectin and its derivatives are used in many biodegradable packaging materials that serve as moisture, oil, and aroma barrier, reduce respiration rate and oxidation of food [88]. Pectin along with food grade emulsifiers is also used in the preparation of edible films. These films are used in fresh and minimally processed, fruits and vegetables, foods and food products as pectin is the main component of the omnivorous diet and can be metabolized. Edible coating protects the nutritional properties of the food and also saves highly perishable food from the enzymatic browning, off-flavor development, aroma loss, retards lipid migration, and reduces pathogen attack during storage.
\nAt low pH, LM pectins are cross-linked with calcium cations and form hard gels. These gels have highly stable structure and act as water barriers. Because of these properties, LM pectin films are used as edible coatings [88, 89]. Extension of shelf life of avocado fruits was also reported to over a month at 10°C by using edible pectin films. It was found that when avocados were coated with edible pectin films and stored at 10°C, rate of oxygen absorption and rate of respiration decreased which results in delaying of texture and color change of fruits [90]. Oms-Oliu et al. used calcium chloride and sunflower oil cross-linked with LM pectin films onto fresh-cut melon to see the effect on extension of shelf life of cut fruits [91]. It was observed that edible pectin films maintained the initial firmness, decrease the wounding stress of fresh-cut fruits, and prevent the dehydration during storage up to 15 days at 4°C but could not reduce the microbial growth onto the fresh melon. It has been observed that to reduce the respiration rate and to prevent the off-flavor development, different pectin and emulsifier formations are required for different fruits. Edible coating film formulation consisted on pectin, sorbitol, and bee wax was successfully used by Moalemiyan et al. to keep the fresh-cut mangoes in original state for over 2 weeks [92]. Whereas in a similar study, pectin coating containing sucrose and calcium lactate was able to prevent the fruits’ respiration rate and maintain sensory properties in fresh melon fruits for up to 14 days storage at 5°C. In a similar study [93], pectin edible coating solution containing pectin (3%), glycerol (2.5%), polyvinyl alcohol (1.25%), and citric acid (1%) was prepared and applied on sapota fruits by dipping method and uncoated sapota fruits were used as control. Both the treated and control fruits were stored at 30 ± 3°C. Physicochemical parameters namely, weight, color, firmness, acidity, TSS, pH, and ascorbic acid contents of both the coated and control fruits were measured at regular interval up to 11th day of the storage at 30 ± 3°C. Reduced rate of change in weight loss and other parameters were reported in pectin-coated sapota as compared to control fruits and it was observed that pectin film formulation was able to maintain good quality attributes and extend the shelf life of pectin-coated sapota fruits up to 11 days of storage at room temperature, whereas control fruits were edible up to 6 days. Furthermore, it was also observed that sapota fruits dipped in sodium alginate containing 2% pectin solution for 2 min were more effective in maintaining the organoleptic properties up to 30 days of refrigerated storage as compared to sapota fruits dipped for 4 min and untreated sapota fruits [94]. Bayarri et al. developed antimicrobial films using lysozyme and LM pectin complex. The main purpose of the study was to control the release of lysozyme in packaged food and to target lysozyme-sensitive bacteria such as
In last few years, some researchers have focused on pectin-based coating containing edible essential to improve the antimicrobial properties and to enhance the efficiency of the pectin films. Edible coating formulation containing sodium alginate and pectin (PE) enriched with eugenol (Eug) and citral (Cit) essential oil at different concentrations was used to increase the shelf life of strawberries. Physical and organoleptic parameters of coated fruits stored at 10°C for 14 days show that formulation containing PE 2% + Eug 0.1%; PE 2% + Cit 0.15% was more suitable than sodium alginate-based formulations [96]. Pectin coating containing lemon and orange peel essential oils was reported to increase the shelf life and quality attributes of the strawberry fruits up to 12 days when stored at 5°C. It was also observed that fruits coated with pectin + 1% orange essence showed less weight loss and soluble solids as compare to their control during the storage [97]. Sanchís et al. studied the combined effect of edible pectin coating with active modified atmospheric packaging on fresh-cut “Rojo Brillante” persimmon. Persimmon fruit slices were coated by dipping in the pectin-based emulsion or in water as control. Both the treated and control slices were packed under 5 kPa O2 (MAP) or under ambient atmosphere for up to 9 days at 5°C. Various parameters, such as package gas composition, color and firmness of slice, polyphenol oxidase activity, were measured during storage. It was observed that edible coating along with MAP significantly reduced the CO2 emission and O2 consumption in the packaged fruits. Furthermore, coating was also effective in controlling microbial growth and reducing enzymatic browning and maintains good sensory parameters up to 10 days on storage [98].
\nDrying is the traditional and oldest method of fruit and vegetable preservation. It decreases the enzymatic activity, reduces the moisture contents, and protects the food from microbial attack. However, drying results in loss of nutrients, vitamins, heat-labile enzymes, modifies the texture, color, and organoleptic quality of dried fruits and vegetables and therefore diminishes the market value also. Pretreatment of food products with pectin coatings containing other bioactive compound such as ascorbic acid, CaCl2, edible gum, etc., before drying or blanching has been proposed as an effective method to preserve the nutritional as well as organoleptic quality of dried food [99]. Recent researches have shown that application of pectin coating could protect the moisture and vitamin C loss in pretreated papaya slice and osmotic dehydrated pineapple. In one of the research [100], pineapple slice was pretreated with pectin coating formulation containing (50%)/calcium lactate (4%)/ascorbic acid (2%) solutions and then dried by hot-air-drying method. Physicochemical analysis of dried product showed less reduction in vitamin C contents as compared to untreated pineapple slice. In a similar work, pectin coating supplement with vitamin C (1%) was used for precoating of papaya slice. It was found that incorporation of vitamin C did not affect the drying process. However, significant increase in vitamin C content was observed in final product [101].
\nFrying is a method of cooking that causes changes in chemical and physical parameters of food and enhances the taste. However, high temperature vaporizes the water of food and affects the nutritional properties due to protein denaturation and starch gelatinization. The oil uptake during frying is affected by various parameters such as type of oil used, frying temperature and duration, product moisture content, shape, porosity, prefrying treatment, etc. [102]. Surface area and pretreatment of products are the major factors that determine the oil absorbed. Edible coating has also been used successfully, to reduce the oil uptake during frying in various deep-fried products. Reduction in oil uptake and improvement of texture and quality of potato slices was reported by Daraei Garmakhany et al. in 2008. Authors found that coating of potato slices with pectin, guar, and CMC solutions can reduce the oil uptake when compared with nontreated potato chips [103]. Similar results were also obtained by Khalil, where a combination of pectin or sodium alginate with calcium chlorides significantly reduces the oil uptake of French fries. Coating formulation of 0.5% calcium chloride and 5% pectin was most effective in reducing the oil uptake [104]. Kizito et al. used different edible coatings (pectin, carboxy methyl cellulose, agar, and chitosan) at a concentration of 1–2% for pretreatment of potato chips, followed by deep frying of chips. Fried chips were analyzed biochemically and organoleptically to investigate the quality attributes of the products. It was revealed that all the coating polymers were successful in reducing the oil uptake but pectin was most effective and reduced oil uptake up to 12.93%, followed by CMC (11.71%), chitosan (8.28%), and agar (5.25%) and significantly improved moisture retention of strips (p < 0.05) [105].
\nThe application of natural polymers in food industry is increasing day by day. Researchers are focusing more and more toward the pectin because of the ease-of-availability, structural flexibility, and versatile composition. Pectin can be sourced from a number of easily available horticulture crops (Table 1). Pectin is a hydrocolloid which is used as a food emulsifier, gelling agent, thickener, and stabilizer. It is the preferred choice of most of the food processors as fat or sugar replacer in low-calorie foods. In the recent years, increasing demand of ready-to-serve foods, fresh-cut fruits, and vegetable has opened a new market for edible films. Being biodegradable and recyclable, a lot of research is being done on pectin-based edible film formulations. These films reduce the exchange of moisture, gases, lipids, and volatiles between food and environment, and also serve as protective barrier for microorganisms.
\nEven though a lot of information is available regarding pectin structure and many pectin-based products are available in market, role of many carbohydrate moieties and their effect on various function of pectin are not yet well defined. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the structural-function relationship of pectin and its interactions for developing functional food products.
\nThe authors thank Director, CSIR-CFTRI for the encouragement.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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