\r\n\tThis necessitated a need to understand control theoretical concepts and system analysis in a discrete time domain, which gave rise to the area of discrete time control systems. This has helped control engineers and designers to theoretically ascertain the possibilities and limitations of a control system design implemented in a digital framework, whereas continuous time designs suffer from the essential mismatch in the nature of the underlying independent time variable in theoretical studies and practical implementation. Also, many practical systems are inherently discrete time in nature, sensors and transducers sample data only at fixed time intervals, and computers calculate the control input only in some finite time.
\r\n\tTraditionally, fundamental concepts of discrete time control systems are derived from the continuous time counterpart upon time discretization of the latter and subsequent formal analysis. This gave rise to discrete time counterparts of system models and controllers in z-domain as well as in state space form. However, discrete time control system design and analysis matured as a discipline in itself with the advent of optimal and adaptive techniques solely based on discrete time approach. Robust nonlinear discrete time controllers were also developed utilizing the ideas of sliding modes, model predictive control, etc.
\r\n\tThe techniques for parameter estimation and system identification are largely dominated by discrete time methods. Well-established Kalman filter and extended Kalman filters are developed in discrete time. Many discrete time stochastic filters are utilized in control systems to reduce the impact of noise and disturbance during practical implementation.
\r\n\tDespite the developments in discrete time control designs and their usefulness in control system implementation, there are a few challenges like discretization effect on systems stability, communication loss, etc. which are also areas of serious research. With all its usefulness and limitations, discrete time control systems have found vast areas of application from process control and automation, robotics, network control systems and internet of things, control of networks and multi-agent systems, etc.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with an overview of detailed control system design methodologies in discrete time which are well-established in literature. Emerging areas of interest in discrete time systems catering to new and existing challenges are also welcomed.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11adc19fee98d36348ba8456e6bf7bfb",bookSignature:"Dr. Sohom Chakrabarty",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9253.jpg",keywords:"frequency domain, state space approach, model predictive control, sliding modes, LQR, LQG, parameter estimation, system identification techniques, Kalman filter, extended Kalman filter, discretization effects, communication loss",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 30th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 2nd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 1st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 20th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 20th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"196800",title:"Dr.",name:"Sohom",middleName:null,surname:"Chakrabarty",slug:"sohom-chakrabarty",fullName:"Sohom Chakrabarty",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196800/images/system/196800.jfif",biography:"Dr. Sohom Chakrabarty is an assistant professor in the Electrical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. Prior to this, he worked as a research associate at the University of Kent, UK, and has been invited as a visiting researcher at Lodz University of Technology, Poland, and as a visiting associate professor at RMIT University, Australia. He obtained his PhD degree\nin Control Systems from the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India. He has been teaching nonlinear systems and robust control, sliding mode control and observation, modeling and simulation, and digital electronics as part of his appointment at the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. 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Introduction
New digital technologies, or media, have brought us a new phenomenon‑the so-called cyberspace. Once we enter cyberspace and communicate in it, it is not just our communication space that expands, the same happens with our living space.
Though it is obvious that the internet brings also another, alternative form of cyberspace1, it is now most frequently associated specifically with the internet [2, 3]. It is understood to be the most dominant place for (social) communication. As Cappuro points out, individual people are connected with each other through global communication. Cyberspace as such allows various synergies inside and outside our political, ethnical, economical and cultural boundaries or differences [4].
The aim of the chapter is (on the background of the characteristics of cyberspace as a life world) to solve the problem of values and significance, but also the risks of our so-called cyber experience, in this context, to identify various conditions, axiological indicators and the relevant elements of the quality of our life in cyberspace itself.
In the following chapters by the phenomenological-hermeneutic method, we will be talking about the internet cyberspace as of a new, specific living world, in which we spend a great deal of time to create our identity, and where we live our specific cyber experience. In this context, we will focus especially on its axiological dimension. We will also look at some values and risks that come along. Further, we will examine digital welfare (well-being) and “good life” in the cyberspace of internet in the axiological and ethical aspect. We will also speak of the virtue to live “ars vivendi” and, finally, about education that can help us achieve this goal.
2. Cyberspace of the internet as our living world
The term cyberspace generally describes an interface between computers and people, or a meeting point for digital information and human perception. However, it is also often used to refer to interaction between people using computers, especially through the internet [3]. We define the internet and other computer networks as collective usage of virtual entities [5]. Thanks to its new ways, the internet and other computer networks have introduced a change in the nature of social interaction, or communication, new possibilities and routines. Its net-like nature and structure have contributed to expansion of mutual space and, as Nanni points out, this form of media is able to start interaction between masses and wipe out territories [6].2
We can state here that the internet cyberspace is for people who are not solely its passive users simply because these people actually co-create it. They define and shape its character and actively create its content through the way they use it. This is the reason why people are the most important component, the highest level [2]. Cyberspace thus represents a kind of socially constructed world or dimension, an electronic Agora‑a central public space. It is a “cyber-café” [1]. Also Hakken, as Macek points out, understands cyberspace as a social arena, place for social interaction between those who use advanced communication and information technology. This definition covers any and every possible lifestyle that is bound up with cultural existence mediated by this advanced technology [7].
It is possible to state that the internet cyberspace as such has become our new living world in which we communicate, learn, do business or get entertained. It is a specific place that reflects a vast part of our personal life, so in this context, we can perhaps mention that it becomes a place in which we like to spend some time‑and feel almost at home. Cocking explains that computer technology offers a range of dimensions that we can use to express and develop our personal identity and various kinds of relationships. We can for example use the text-based email and chat-room, forums or web-site and web-cam technology to present ourselves, start professional, but also personal relationships and participate in any possible communities (based on hobby, interests and so on) [8].
Reflecting the fact that the internet cyberspace represents a great means for self-expression and communication in the present society [9] and, as Cocking points out, that we today present ourselves extensively when we conduct a great deal of activities and relationships with the help of computer technology, together with the author of this paper, we can ask what kind of online identity and relationship it is actually possible to create [8].
It reveals that cyberspace can be understood as a dimension that constitutes almost limitless possibilities for new forms of identity and behaviour [1]. Here we can develop, change or multiply our identity. Also Deuze mentions that in the world of media, we have an opportunity to create various versions of not only ourselves but also other people, and we are free to form and shape these versions at will. We can project, co-construct and bring to life one or various versions of ourselves in media. We can cooperate with other people to construct self-presentations and share them [10]. In this context, cyberspace is a sort of “screen” to show our dreams, desires and ideas. It is a form of extension for our creativity that helps us present ourselves. Similarly, Turkle [11] points out that computer acts as our new mirror that brings some influence, in it we consequently turn ourselves into objects and thus create our second nature.3
Discussions about our social interactions often emphasise difference between online and offline interactions, with cyberspace understood to be the distinctive place for such interactions [12]. However, shaping our identity here is not very different to shaping it in the “real” world. In fact, there are two mutual problems [9]. In cyberspace too, we deal with relations “world-person”. It is interactions with other people that define what persons we become here; our identity is partially defined by what physical relations we have with other people. Relevant for cyberspace are consequences of our online interactions that, however, are influenced by our physical world. The physical nature is distinguishable in our online interactions and acts as a distinguishing factor for who we are, or what we mean for other people [13]. We can also notice that in cyberspace, our new living world, we can indeed have a multitude of partial identities, even simultaneously, but these are not independent from our subjective situation or social and cultural environment in “real” living world [9].
When a person is submerged in cyberspace, his or her experience is mediated; this person thus becomes a part of specific experience‑the so called cyber experience. It appears that modern people like to spend time in this new living world and that cyber experience as such is very attractive. As a next step, we will explore potential of values and risks that come with internet communication.
3. Cyber experience in the internet dimension, values and risks that come along
In the cyberspace living world, we cooperate with others, communicate and create (virtual) societies. Here, we are, as Deuze notices, more that ever interconnected medially with other people and we cannot overlook and disregard other people’s lives [10]. We become part of a specific social cyber experience as intersubjectively communicating individuals. This cyber experience that becomes both individual and collective at the same time seems to be rather attractive for us. However, in what way does it become really valuable?
General good, a value hidden in humane communication, can generally be found when communication meets its mission, in other words, where it contributes to closeness, reciprocity and understanding between people, where it helps individuals manifest their feelings, intentions, where people look for mutual understanding, which is, as E. Višňovský points out, the nature of humane communication [14]. We can say that communication that favours intersubjectivity based on our own understanding of what is valuable and meaningful means general good for us. Such communication constitutes society that is based on mutual closeness and shared experience. As Rankov points out, communication on the internet brings satisfaction, positive feelings triggered by content that we communicate, but also by sharing other people’s experience and communication as such [15]. Joy, happiness, pleasure and meaningful communication that the cyber experience of communication offers are a few of the qualities that we associate with “good life”. However, is there a place for real mutual understanding, or its importance?
Višňovský notices that starting an interaction through the internet and finding mutual understanding and fellowship are two different things [14].4 Also Bauman and Lyon warn in this context, when they say that rather than fellowship, we often find just the net itself. However, this net does not interpret true human community, because it does not look after us and is unreliable [16].5 In this perspective, communicating community cannot win over offline non-network communication, and it seems that its cyber experience cannot compare to real human understanding that is relevant for healthy social bounds or society.
However, we can use also another approach to virtual communities, network communication and values that come with it. For example, Deuze explains that here social bounds are not based on mutual experiences or history, but chiefly on information exchange and talking about life. Here, sociability means lively and fleeting interactive social relationships, ephemeral but intense communication sessions. It is a specific kind of network sociability that seeks for contact and interaction, but also sensitive passionate and emotional communication and conversation. Offering emotional intimacy and credit, it is not meaningless. Deuze believes that societies that use virtual dimension to communicate may constitute more fragile communities, but these are still meaningful and offer rather coherent understanding of the individual ME that should not be underestimated [10]. It is obvious that collectives of people who communicate in the internet cyberspace really constitute a totally new kind of society [15].
We should not overlook that it is the already mentioned sociability that makes new forms of media, especially the internet, attractive [10] and that it is also virtual communities that serve now as engine for flourishing and surprising life in this universal dimension that was born of contact [17]. However, this does not detract from the fact that the very cellular detachedness of individuals presents a risk for cyber experience within the network-based internet communication. Kováč and Gyén state that the internet, as a social technology used primarily for communication, can ignite social isolation in individual people, bring feelings of loneliness and depression and destroy their well-being [18]. Brožík notices that we witness people who become loners, people sitting in front of computer screens, losing grasp of their own life because their virtual partner actually drags them further and further from the real world [19]. Furthermore, let us notice for example anonymity, a specific determinant of communication in the internet cyberspace. As Rankov notices, along with neutralisation of social status, anonymity also triggers disinhibition, or unrestrained behaviour. We can on the one hand see that there is probably a connection with growing bravery to express ideas. We are more open, more sociable and capable of expressing what we think. We are less stiff and more inclined to joke and dare to be unique. On the other hand, however, feeling protected by anonymity, we are prone to breaking the norms, telling lies and being aggressive and vulgar when we deal with others [15]. Disinhibition in the context of relative anonymity and physical safety can hurt our self-confidence and favour intimacy that may open the gate for anger and hatred and thus make us aggressive and violent [18]. We can therefore state that anonymity and disinhibition pose individual and social risk in our cyber experience on the internet, which influences the whole value that it brings.
We should also notice the cyber experience of construction of ME, or our identity, online. As we have already mentioned, together with Deuze, we routinely create a vast variety of versions of ME on the internet. We project and develop one or a number of versions of ME, but to be more precise, we do this in cooperation with others when we constantly share these versions and self-presentations of ME [10]. We thus offer our self-image for others, even though not completely. We all, yet each of us individually, show what it means to be a human, what values are important to us, how we distinguish what is good and what is evil and what it actually means for us to be alive. We share our ideas and visions when we co-create and present our identity. We can say that whether intentionally or non-intentionally, this way we declare our meaning of life.
Obviously, our image on the internet depends on how we (intersubjectively, or publicly) self-project our position [13]. In the light of this, the internet, or communication using the internet, can surely also deconstruct our subjective identity, as, for example, Kuzior [20] notes. Bystřický warns that media reality as relation reality on the one hand brings a new paradigm into development stages of the extension of ME, but on the other hand, it also brings a risk of copying someone else’s attitudes and ways of constructing a social, mental and aesthetic pattern. Relation-based character of media-presented reality may imply states of multiphrenia, individuals splitting to non-homogeneous segments, or multiply our own and private investments into empty and useless forms of self-presentations, false expression of hypothetical possibilities of one’s own development [21]. In the context of cyber experience, we then face a risk of losing identity and depersonalisation, and this introduces a relevant question of interiority of the subject in cyberspace, or his or her coherence in time, which is necessary.
Who we became or are becoming in the internet cyberspace does make a difference. The way we deal with “life in media”, using Deuze’s words [10]‑what we can and what we actually do invest in our relation to the others, is important. By our self-projection, self-construction and self-presentation in cyberspace, we become a part of collective process of “learning to live”, in which intersubjectivity is bound to our understanding of what is relevant and valuable. In this perspective, our attitude is similar to that of Deuze [10]‑we understand that it is reasonable to see self-expression of individuals today as more and more important in the cyberspace of internet.
According to Baeva, analysis of the nature of change of values in modern man reveals that rise of e-culture has led to construction of new values (electronic communication, e-spare time, e-creativity and so on) [22]. However, it is necessary to point out that cyber experience also brings certain risks presented by influence of the very technology, yet these risks cannot be specified in the reflection of cyber experience because they influence its value. We should not forget that also M. McLuhan speaks of self-amputation in connection with technological extension of man [23]. Similarly, also Bystřický points out that it seems we will pay for technological development by reducing one of the dimensions of our living world. Each new discovery in technology influences our personal living world and social system and imprints its own perspective onto the map of our individual and collective perception [21].
Therefore, to get the maximum advantage of cyber experience, it is important to be able to cope with various effects. Here, authors such as Gui et al. [24] define the so-called digital well-being.
4. Digital well-being and “good” life in the cyberspace of internet
The concept of digital well-being seen in Gui et al. is emerging right now, with communication stimuli overflow becoming hard to deal with [24]. Seeing how the internet is used now and how important it is for our communication and living world in the axiological context, we take this concept as undoubtedly relevant. These authors define and understand digital well-being as a state in which our subjective digital comfort is maintained by surplus of digital communication. In this state of well-being, individuals are able to use digital media to ensure their subjective comfort, safety, happiness and satisfaction. Such digital well-being secures general well-being of the subject in both hedonic and eudemonic perspective. It does not concentrate just on satisfaction and minimization of side effects of using digital media (hedonic dimension) but also on the ability to use this technology to present a meaningful help to one’s own potential in life (eudemonic perspective) [24].
The way we handle digital media is, we believe, a key element for quality life. Theoretical approaches and empiric findings clearly identify a number of ways how media contents and media usage influence our everyday happiness, satisfaction with life, our effort to develop our personality and understand meaning of life, as Reinecke and Oliver point out [25]. They also argue that the way we use digital media and the internet is influenced by our skills, by competence and also by primary factors, such as self-control, media literacy, parent/child intervention, etc. [25]. All these are determined by social and cultural context that we experience [24]. Gui et al. point out that digital media, or technology, systematically shape our behaviour regardless of our features, and they also warn that in order to maintain digital well-being or quality of life in cyberspace, we need to introduce and form new aspects of digital skills [24].
As these authors explain, features that make digital technology or media useful (reliability, mobility, user-friendly approach and fast processing) can endanger our productivity and innovations but also our well-being as the stimuli patterns and patterns of individual reactions that are bound here are rather complex and specific. Combination of characteristics in this type of technology makes this cognitive and emotional dimension unprecedented and not neutral in relation to our opportunity to take part in a satisfactory communication practice. It seems to lead to a rapid and nonlinear use of information and communication. The authors warn that also those who are creative and have good social skills can constantly suffer from overcommunication [24], which, in our opinion, may be regarded as a risk that comes with our technically mediated internet-based interaction and communication in regards to quality of our life and digital well-being in the cyberspace of internet.
Self-control in using digital technology is simply not enough for us to cope with side effects of information overload, Gui et al. explain; complexity of modern media world wins this fight because self-control has always depended on moral values of the subject more than on any other competences. Therefore, we need to control digital stimuli and filter them so that they can serve our personal aims and well-being. We need to develop a new set of strategic resources, cognitive and metacognitive approaches and operational skills that influence our attention. These will lead to strategic approach in dealing with side effects of digital overcommunication. Such strategies should then serve as a prevention of stress caused by excessive information flow and also as a means to minimise wasting of time and attention on irrelevant activities in our everyday life [24].
Forming of these new aspects of digital skills is certainly a positive sign; however, we believe that quality life cannot entirely depend just on them, even though they, no doubt, contribute to digital well-being. If then we really aim for “good life”, meaning more in axiological and ethical than psychological context, we must go even beyond.
We would argue that if we want to achieve “good life” in the internet cyberspace, based on high standards of morals and values, then the aspect of moral and humanly acceptable life, behaviour and actions, or good manners and positive principles, is relevant. We believe this is the condition for “ars vivendi”. This is also the reason why we should use and improve elements that form it. We will be speaking about these elements in the following chapter.
5. “Ars vivendi” in the cyberspace of internet and education
As the specific living world of the cyberspace of internet shows, each person that is involved deals with aspects of life that are, to a great extent, given. We believe that we, creative beings, have a duty to “give our life a meaning and ensure it is coherent with our experience” [26] also in the context of our living world. In this world, our individual interests and social roles should create a coherent, even though not complete, life story [9].
Deuze suggests that this life should mean a piece of art, and it should be our life with ethic and aesthetic potential [10].6 Our attitude is similar, and we think that in the context of using digital media, or with our life in the digital universe of internet cyberspace, our life should follow the idea of “ars vivendi”‑“good life” that is expressed by ethos‑the way we live and deal with the others [27]. It is a way of life that becomes a prerequisite for us‑intersubjectively communicative moral beings, a condition for every humane “learning to live” a humane life among other people.
Also Baeva points out that we, as human beings, still remain moral subjects even in the digital world of internet cyberspace, despite our virtual way or life that we lead here; we still keep our individual decision-making processes but, in addition, we also have new forms of freedom of moral choice. Values that media culture offers (freedom, personality orientation, pragmatism and others) become a new moral challenge for our behaviour, while ethical, axiological and value pluralism impose on us even bigger personal responsibility for our own moral and value choices [22].7 What is important here, Deuze explains, is our ability to lead “our life in media” responsibly and safely in the internet cyberspace‑in other words‑make it safe, authentic and ethical. Deuze points out that this is our lifelong moral responsibility, even duty [10].
We agree with Deuze that we have individual responsibility to understand what we do in the internet cyberspace. However, there is a question that we need to ask here: who are we in this cyberspace? Deuze also points out that we should not lose oneself in the multitude of our own self-images and identities. We should use the internet, or digital media, in a way that both secures our independency and allows us to learn about ourselves at the same time. Deuze continues and explains that it can be difficult to find out who we really are in cyberspace, just as much as it is difficult to find out who we are in real life. This requires more emphasis on our own individual experience and understanding of the world. It is therefore necessary for us to contemplate our own life and existence [10].8 This represents a path that leads to the required coherent self-understanding in our “ars vivendi” within the context of the internet cyberspace. In fact, we believe that it is indispensable.
According to Varanini, we need to prepare for life in the digital cyberspace [28]. The question is how a modern man can get prepared for life that should represent “good life” and “ars vivendi” in the digital universe of internet. If, for example, education is one of the social and cultural mechanisms that prepares individuals for life roles, then teaching us cope with everyday life becomes an actual task and challenge for education. Also Kačinová argues that the general goal of education, especially media education, is to prepare a student for life in the world of media [29] obviously also in the context of the internet cyberspace. The developing concept of media literacy, or digital literacy, meets this objective.9
Despite undergoing various changes in the past, it seems that understanding of digital literacy needs to be revised once again. Its concept needs to be refreshed. As far as we speak of digital well-being in the internet cyberspace, it is necessary to say that we are confronted with certain limits that (media) education should, or even must, deal with. We therefore believe that digital literacy should cover the new aspects of digital skills that are beneficial for our life in the context of the internet cyberspace and digital well-being. Education that provides relevant digital literacy applicable for our living world should include forming of the aspects that we mention above‑skills, cognitive attitude and strategies that also Gui et al. speak about [24].
On the other hand, Deuze correctly points out that for quality life in the context of digital media, or good life with values and moral attitude, we need to avoid over-estimating of media literacy for life in digital cyberspace and putting it above other skills. He continues, along with R. Rorty, that our culture employs instrumental rationality that favours knowing, expertise and professionalism, which prevent internal instability and increase immunity against romantic enthusiasm. This causes lack of inspiration, beauty and hope in our answers to challenges brought by “life in media” and therefore there is not enough inspiration, beauty and hope in the cyberspace of internet. According to Deuze, we should not be restricted by normative principles; in fact, we should use playful principles (tools and abilities) and also the virtue to feel astonished [10].
We believe that the above-mentioned attitude means that (media) education, which intends to prepare us for “good life” and corresponding values and moral attitudes in the internet cyberspace, should include also psychagogy.10 This way it could prepare the ground for our self-reflexion and self-projection and also assist to improve our morality and self-control as something that is relevant for our “ars vivendi” in the internet cyberspace. We think that this education should lead us towards healthy scepticism in what we think is obvious and indisputable, and we should then be more active in our quest for the true, good and beautiful. However, it could also let us express our hopes, dreams and ambitions, and we should be free to wonder, appreciate and feel astonished. There could also be an opportunity for human modes such as slow speed, waiting, silence, boredom and emptiness11, as well as for keeping one’s distance or askesis in relation to digital media. We believe these are methods and elements that, when incorporated into the process of building digital literacy, can help us approach digital media and understand both ourselves and our living world in the internet cyberspace in a way that our “ars vivendi” requires.
6. Conclusion
It appears that we are reaching another milestone in our development and becoming “homo digitalis”, moving to Cyberia, a cyberland [34]. As “homo digitalis,” “we in fact become “homo cyberneticus”, but also “homo medialis”, “homo informaticus” and also “homo interneticus” or “homo smartphonus” dwelling in a specific world of the internet cyberspace. As this cyberspace is a virtual place, we can say that we become virtualised bio-socio-electronic subjects [22], and in this virtual space, we, human beings, think and act, behave certain way, project and express our ambitions, hopes, motives and goals. We simply live and take advantage of media technology. This way we are part of specific cyber experience, individual and collective at the same time. This comes with many positives, but also certain risks that in the long term may negatively influence its value.
If our experience in the communication-based living world of the internet is to bring us maximal value and enriching element, it has to offer the so-called digital well-being, which is one of the conditions and indicators of its quality. Along with this, we believe, in the axiological and ethical point of view, that life in cyberspace should also mean moral-value based “good life”, which means appropriate values, behaviour and conduct, doing good‑in other words, employ positive humane values and principles. This constitutes the “ethos”, our style of life and actions visible for the others [27].
To conclude, who we are and how we live in the internet cyberspace is important. It is quite a significant issue as this way we intersubjectively define our life and values and share this definition with others. In fact, we inevitably take part in an intersubjective and collective process of “learning how to live”. In this perspective, we are all confronted with the relevant “ars vivendi” with necessary coherent self-understanding and moral-value attitude. We believe that education that could really be beneficial should also include psychagogy. This could be a complementary aspect in building digital literacy and thus help us use digital media correctly and develop our self-understanding and understanding of the living world of the internet cyberspace by identifying values and morals that constitute our “ars vivendi”.
\n',keywords:"internet, cyberspace, living world, values, well-being, good life, ars vivendi, education, psychagogy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71568.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71568.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71568",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71568",totalDownloads:253,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 27th 2019",dateReviewed:"February 26th 2020",datePrePublished:"March 28th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The subject of the chapter is cyberspace in an axiological perspective, which is our new lifeworld. The focus is particularly on the problem of the quality of our life in its specific circumstances. The aim is (on the background of the characteristics of cyberspace as a lifeworld) to solve the problem of values and significance, but also the risks of our so-called cyber experience. In this context, the aim is also to identify various conditions, axiological indicators and the relevant elements of the quality of our life in cyberspace. The authors pursue their goal using the phenomenological-hermeneutic method within the four parts of the chapter. In part 1, cyberspace is interpreted as a life world that is co-constructed in our acts of communication. In part 2, the problem of values, significance and risks of our cyber experience is discussed. The key variable is digital “well-being.” As they point out in part 3, it should be our morally based value “good life,” which is expressed as “ethos” in our life. In part 4, in this perspective, we are faced with the relevant task of the art of living ‘ars vivendi’ with the necessary coherent self-understanding and value-moral claims and the education should also have a “psychological” dimension.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71568",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71568",book:{slug:"cyberspace"},signatures:"Sabína Gáliková Tolnaiová and Slavomír Gálik",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Cyberspace of the internet as our living world",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Cyber experience in the internet dimension, values and risks that come along",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Digital well-being and “good” life in the cyberspace of internet",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. “Ars vivendi” in the cyberspace of internet and education",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'[Holmes D. Communication Theory. Media, Technology and Society. London: Sage; 2010. p. 243]'},{id:"B2",body:'[Clark D. Characterizing Cyberspace: Past, Present and Future [online]. 2010. Available from: http://web.mit.edu/ecir/pdf/clark-cyberspace.pdf [Accessed: 15 December 2013]]'},{id:"B3",body:'[Groothuis D. Christian Scolarship and the Philosophical Analysis. JETS 41/4, December 1998. pp. 631-640. Available from: https://www.etsjets.org/files/JETS-PDFs/41/41-4/41-4-pp631-640-JETS.pdf [Accessed: 15 January 2020]]'},{id:"B4",body:'[Cappuro R. Beyond humanisms. Journal of New Frontiers in Spatial Concepts. 2012;4:1-12. Available from: http://ejournal.uvka.de/spatialconcepts/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/spatialconcepts_article_1362.pdf [Accessed: 15 January 2020]]'},{id:"B5",body:'[Brey P, Søraker JH. Philosophy of Computing and Information Technology. 2009. Available from: https://ethicsandtechnology.eu/wp-content/uploads/downloadable-content/Brey_Soraker_2009_Phil-IT-1.pdf [Accessed: 15 January 2020]]'},{id:"B6",body:'[Nanni C. Výchovná komunikácia: Modely, limity a to, čo ich presahuje [educational communication: Models, limits and what goes beyond them]. In: Kudláčová B, Rajský A, editors. Kontexty filozofie výchovy v novoveku a súčasnej perspektíve. Trnava: TU; 2014. pp. 83-93]'},{id:"B7",body:'[Macek J. Koncept rané kyberkultury [early cyberculture concept]. In: Média a realita. Brno: MU; 2003. pp. 35-61]'},{id:"B8",body:'[Cocking D. Plural selves and relational identity. Intimacy and privacy online. In: Van de Hoven J, Weckert J, editors. Information Technology and Moral Philosophy. Cambridge: University Press New York; 2009. p. 123-141]'},{id:"B9",body:'[Sprondel J, Breyer T, Wehrle M. CyberAnthropology – Being human on the internet [online]. 2011. pp. 1-77. Available from: http://www.hiig.de/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/CyberAnthropology-Paper.pdf [Accessed: 16 November 2014]]'},{id:"B10",body:'[Deuze M. Život v médiích. [Media life]. Karolinum: Praha; 2015. p. 268]'},{id:"B11",body:'[Turkle S. The Second Life. Computers and the Human Spirit. Cambridge: The MIT Press; 2005. p. 387]'},{id:"B12",body:'[Kendall L. Meaning and identity in “cyberspace”: The performance of gender, class, and race online. Symbolic Interaction. 2011;21(2):129-153]'},{id:"B13",body:'[Matthews S. Identity and Information technology. In: Van den Hoven J, Weckert J, editors. Information Technology and Moral Philosophy. Cambridge: University Press New York; 2009. p. 142-160]'},{id:"B14",body:'[Višňovský E. Človek Ako Homo Agens. Ľudské Konanie Medzi mysľou a sociokultúrnym Kontextom. [the Man as Homo Agens. Human Action between Mind and Socio-Cultural Context]. Bratislava: Iris; 2009. p. 279]'},{id:"B15",body:'[Rankov P. Informačná spoločnosť – perspektívy, problémy, paradoxy [Information Society - Perspectives, Problems, Paradoxes]. Levice: LCA Publisher Group; 2006. p. 175]'},{id:"B16",body:'[Bauman Z. Lyon, D. Tekutý Dohled [Liquid Supervision]. Broken Book: Olomouc; 2013. p. 150]'},{id:"B17",body:'[Lévy P. Cyberculture. Minnesotta: University of Minnesota Press; 2001. p. 280]'},{id:"B18",body:'[Kováč T, Gyén M. Internet ako psychologický problém? [Internet as a psychological problem?] In: Vopálenský J, editor. Médiá na prahu tretieho tisícročia – človek v sieti mediálnej recepcie. Trnava: FMK UCM; 2003. p. 165-179]'},{id:"B19",body:'[Brožík V. O hodnotách a ľuďoch [About values and people]. Nitra: FF UKF; 2006. p. 177]'},{id:"B20",body:'[Kuzior A. Dekonštrukcia subjektu vo svete simulakier. [subject deconstruction in the world of simulacras]. In: Karul R, Porubjak M, editors. Realita a fikcia. Bratislava: SFZ pri SAV a KF FF UCM. 2009. pp. 246-251]'},{id:"B21",body:'[Bystřický J. Mediální realita [Media reality]. In: Magál S, Mistrík M, Solík M, editors. Masmediálna komunikácia a realita I. Trnava: FMK UCM; 2009. pp. 11-18]'},{id:"B22",body:'[Baeva VL. Existential and ethical values in an information era. Journal of Human Values. 2014;20(1):33-43]'},{id:"B23",body:'[McLuhan M. Understanding Media. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd; 2012. p. 400]'},{id:"B24",body:'[Gui M, Fasoli M, Carradore R. Digital well-being. Developing a new theoretical tool for media literacy research. Italian Journal of Sociology of Education. 2017;9(1):155-173]'},{id:"B25",body:'[Reinecke L, Oliver MB. Media use and well-being: Status quo and open questions. In: Reinecke L, Oliver MB, editors. The Routledge Handbook of Media Use and Well-Being: International Perspectives on Theory and Research on Positive Media Effects. New York: Routledge; 2016. p. 3-13]'},{id:"B26",body:'[Veugelers W. Introduction: Linking autonomy and humanity. In: Veugelers W, editor. Education and Humanism. Rotterdam: Sense Publisher; 2011. pp. 1-7]'},{id:"B27",body:'[Foucault M. Moc, Subject, Sexualita. Články a Rozhovory [Power, Subject, Sexuality. Articles and Interviews]. Bratislava: Kalligram; 2000. p. 233]'},{id:"B28",body:'[Varanini F. Human being in the digital world: Lessons from the past for future CIOs. In: Bongiorno G, et al, editors. CIOs and the Digital Transformation [Online]. 2018. Available from: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318831126_Human_Being_in_the_Digital_World_Lessons_from_the_Past_for_Future_CIOs> [Accessed: 20 February 2019]]'},{id:"B29",body:'[Kačinová V. Teória a prax mediálnej výchovy. Mediálna výchova ako súčasť všeobecného školského vzdelávania [Theory and practice of media education. Media education as a part of general school education]. Trnava: FMK UCM; 2015. p. 260]'},{id:"B30",body:'[Suoranta J, Vadén T. Wikiworld. Political Economy of Digital Literacy and the Promise of Participatory Media. University of Tampere, Paulo Freire Research Center [online] 2008. Available from: <https://wikiworld.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/suoranta_vaden_wikiworld.pdf> [Accessed: 20 September 2018]]'},{id:"B31",body:'[Gáliková Tolnaiová S. Problém výchovy na prahu 21. storočia (alebo o obrate k „psychagógii“ v súčasnej filozofii výchovy) [the Problem of Education at the Beginning of the 21st Century (or about Turning to “Psychagogy” in Contemporary Education Philosophy)]. Bratislava: Iris; 2007. p. 250]'},{id:"B32",body:'[Gáliková Tolnaiová S. Idea psychagógie v holistickej perspektíve [the Idea of Psychagogy in a Holistic Perspective]. Bratislava: Iris; 2014. p. 156]'},{id:"B33",body:'[Welsch W. Umelé rajské záhrady? Skúmanie Sveta elektronických médií a iných Svetov. [Artificial Garden? Exploring the World of Electronic Media and Other Worlds]. Bratislava: Soros Center for Contemporary Arts; 1995. p. 42]'},{id:"B34",body:'[Leary T. Chaos & Cyberculture. Oakland, California: Ronin Publishing, Inc.; 2014. p. 372]'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"We should keep in mind that the internet is not the only network, as even before the internet there was a lengthy development of networks that actually qualified as domains of cyberspace [1]. On the other hand, similar to the past, also now different forms of cyberspace develop parallelly in different ways (e.g., Clark mentions various connections between the four levels of cyberspace). However, we can say that their structures and structural implications are not very different [2]."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"As a form of media, the internet can enable access, contact, exchange and discussion in an enhanced connection with every corner of the world, where a terminal is connected to the network. It seems it can support pluralism as well as unification; digital culture is destructuralised and decentralised. The internet world breaks institutional forms and disregards race hierarchy, gender and ethnicity. It subverts rational and logocentric forms of political authority [1]."},{id:"fn3",explanation:'As Cocking states also in this perspective, many theoretical approaches reveal cyberspace identity as much more fluid and variable. Cyberspace thus approaches this unstable, fractured and inconsistent "ME" and sees it as multiple identity. This "ME" is freed from physical world [8]. People can construct and shape this "ME" as something that is subject of numerous online versions of "ME", where for example gender does not play a role. We need to state here that these approaches mean, in fact, a denaturalised process of shaping the subject [12].'},{id:"fn4",explanation:"According to Višňovský, one often looks for community, or communication, because it is needed but not found. In day-to-day life, we only find interaction, contact. The possibilities of virtual communication with the whole world are, Višňovský believes, utterly inadequate for us [14]."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"Bauman and Lyon believe that the real, trusty community in sociological sense is reliable, our position here is more stable as we are confronted with duties and restrictions; we are watched and punished when community thinks it is necessary. Network, on the other side, lets us disconnect any time we want, so we are much freer to do what we like. Plus, and this is very important, network offers entertainment [16]."},{id:"fn6",explanation:"We share his idea‑he believes, following Z. Bauman, M. Foucault or F. Nietzsche, that our life can be a piece of art in which we all are actors, willingly or unwillingly, whether we realise it or not, and regardless of whether we enjoy it or not [10]."},{id:"fn7",explanation:"Since simulated virtual reality is, by nature, reversible, temporary and never definitive and therefore always possible reality, it is necessary to be aware of our responsibility for our actions in cyberspace [22]."},{id:"fn8",explanation:'Also Deuze points out that life in media inevitably brings multiple versions of "ME". So, who do we look for in media when we ask who we really are? Are all these versions that live in media equal? Are we able to distinguish between us and other individuals in media, or do we need to scrutinise bits and pieces? [10].'},{id:"fn9",explanation:"Together with J. Suoranta and T. Vadén, we believe we can understand it as various processes of using digital information and communication technology to achieve the common good [30]."},{id:"fn10",explanation:"More on psychagogical dimension [31, 32]."},{id:"fn11",explanation:'These are "counter measures" of virtual, or media reality [33].'}],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sabína Gáliková Tolnaiová",address:null,affiliation:'- Faculty of Mass Media Communication, University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Trnava, Slovakia
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Slavomír Gálik",address:"s_galik@yahoo.com",affiliation:'- Faculty of Mass Media Communication, University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Trnava, Slovakia
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1. Introduction
\n
Increasing world population has resulted in higher consumption of goods and services that has driven a substantial increase of organic wastes originating from households, industry, and agriculture [1]. Much of the organic wastes are highly infectious as they contain a variety of pathogenic microorganisms. Dumping of organic wastes in open areas generates serious environmental issues such as the accumulation of heavy metals in soil, pollution of ground and surface waters due to leaching and run-off of nutrients. These organic wastes when applied directly to agricultural fields cause soil environment-related problems including phytotoxicity [2]. These wastes represent a valuable organic resource, which could be recycled and transformed into nutrient rich fertilizer and/or soil conditioner [3, 4, 5]. Moreover growing awareness about adverse effects of agricultural chemicals on human health has increased interest in organic agriculture [6]. Organic agriculture also promotes ecological conservation due to judicious use of natural resources [7, 8, 9]. In demand for safe and sustainable strategies to treat organic wastes includes best known practices of composting and vermicomposting for biological stabilization of solid organic wastes by transforming them into a safer and more stabilized material that can be used as a source of nutrients and soil conditioner in agricultural applications [10, 11, 12]. Vermicomposting is one of the most efficient means to mitigate and manage environmental pollution problems [13]. Recently, many studies are being done to establish vermicompost as one of the preferred organic substitutes to chemical fertilizers [14, 15]. Vermicompost is more rich in NPK, micronutrients and beneficial soil microbes (nitrogen fixing and phosphate solubilizing bacteria and actinomycetes), an excellent growth promoter and protector for crop plants [16, 17] than compost [18, 19].
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1.1 Vermicomposting- a preferred approach in organic farming
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Vermicomposting (vermis from the Latin for worm) is a mesophilic process [20] which involves a joint action of earthworms (active at 10–32°C) and mesophilic microbes [21] for the conversion of organic wastes into a valuable end product known as vermicompost. Whereas, composting involves the degradation of organic waste by microorganisms under controlled conditions, in which the organic material undergoes a characteristic thermophilic stage that allows sanitization of the waste by elimination of pathogenic microorganisms [22]. Composting is also used to treat manures, green wastes or municipal solid wastes [23]. However, vermicomposting gives a higher-quality end product than composting due to joint action of enzymatic and microbial activities that occur during the process [24]. This process is faster than traditional composting as the material passes through the earthworm gut, whereby the resulting earthworm castings are rich in microbial activity and plant growth regulators, and fortified with pest repellence attributes as well [25, 26]. Compared to traditional composting method, vermicomposting also results in mass reduction, shorter processing time, and high levels of humus with reduced phytotoxicity [27]. Thus, vermicompost is considered an ideal manure for organic agriculture as it is nutrient rich and contains high quality humus, plant growth hormones, enzymes, and substances that are able to protect crops against pests and diseases [28, 29]. Moreover, vermicompost has high porosity, aeration, drainage, and water-holding capacity [20]. In addition to increased N availability, C, P, K, Ca and Mg plant nutrient availability in the earthworm casts are also found [30]. Plant growth hormones namely cytokinins and auxins are found in organic wastes processed by earthworms [31]. They also release certain metabolites, such as vitamin B, vitamin D and similar substances into the compost [32]. Thus, earthworms accelerate the mineralization rate and convert the manures into casts with higher nutritional value and degree of humification than traditional method of composting [33]. The composition of commonly available nutrients in vermicompost is as follows: Organic carbon 9.5–17.98%, Nitrogen 0.5–1.50%, Phosphorous 0.1–0.30%, Potassium 0.15–0.56%, Sodium 0.06–0.30%, Calcium and Magnesium 22.67–47.60 meq/100 g, Copper 2–9.50 mg/kg, Iron 2–9.30 mg/kg, Zinc 5.70–11.50 mg/kg, Sulfur 128–548 mg/kg [34]. Hence, vermicomposting enables biological transformation of wastes into a valuable organic fertilizer [35, 36]. Vermicompost is popularly called as black gold and has become one of the major components of organic farming system [26].
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2. Role of earthworm in vermicomposting
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2.1 Biology of earthworm
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Earthworms are invertebrates belonging to the phylum Annelida, class Oligochaeta and family Lumbricidae. The earthworms are long, elongated, cylindrical, soft bodied animals with uniform ring like structures consisting of segments along the length of their body outwardly highlighted by circular grooves called annuli. On the ventral surface of sides of the body each segment bears four pairs of short, stubby bristles, or setae used for its movement. Earthworms have an opening at the anterior end is mouth and the one at the posterior is anus. Earthworms possess both male and female gonads, so are called as hermaphrodites. They deposit their eggs in a cocoon without any larval stage. At the time of egg laying, the sexually mature worms contain a distinctive epidermal ring just beneath the anterior segments called, clitellum, which has gland cells to form a viscid, girdle like structure known as cocoon. The number of fertilized ova in each cocoon has 1–20 lumbricid worms.
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2.2 Classification of earthworm
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There are about 3320 species of earthworms all over the world [37], but hardly 8–10 species are suitable for vermicompost preparation. Earthworms have been extensively utilized for the recycling of a variety of organic wastes like municipal solid wastes [38] wheat straw [39], sewage sludge [40], forestry waste [41], vegetable waste [42], farmyard manure [43], sorghum stalk, wheat straw, paddy straw [44], coir pith [45]. Renowned scientists, Charles Darwin called earthworms as the ‘unheralded soldiers of mankind’, and Aristotle described them as the ‘intestine of earth’, as they could digest a wide range of organic materials [46, 47]. On the basis of morpho-ecological characteristics, earthworms have been classified into three categories [48]; Anecic (Greek word “out of the earth”) – these are burrowing worms that only come to the surface at night to drag food down into their permanent burrows deep within the mineral layers of the soil. Endogeic (Greek word “within the earth”) – these are also burrowing worms but their burrows are typically more shallow and they feed on the organic matter inside the soil, so they come to the surface only rarely. Epigeic (Greek word “upon the earth”) – these worms live on the surface litter and feed on decaying organic matter. They do not have any permanent burrows. These “decomposers” are the type of worm used in vermicomposting. Two tropical species, African night crawler, Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg) and Oriental earthworm, Perionyx excavates (Perrier) and two temperate ones, red earthworm, Eisenia andrei (Bouche) and tiger earthworm, Eisenia fetida (Savigny) are extensively used in vermicomposting [49, 50, 51]. Most vermicomposting facilities and studies are using the worms E. andrei and E. fetida due to their high rate of consumption, digestion, and assimilation of organic matter, tolerance to a wide range of environmental factors, short life cycles, high reproductive rates and endurance and resistance during handling [52]. A few other species Drawida nepalensis, Lampito mauritrr. Dichogaster spp., Polypheretima elongate, Amynthas spp. Dendrobaena octaedra, Eisenia hortensis [53] have also been used for composting under specific conditions.
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2.3 How does earthworm facilitate vermicomposting?
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Earthworms promote the growth of “beneficial decomposer aerobic bacteria” in organic waste material and also act as a grinder, crusher, chemical degrader and a biological stimulator of waste material [54, 55]. Earthworm hosts millions of decomposer (biodegrader) microbes [56], hydrolytic enzymes and hormones that helps in rapid decomposition of complex organic matter into vermicompost in a relatively smaller duration of 1–2 months [57] as compared to traditional composting method which takes nearly 5 months [58]. The mechanism of formation of vermicompost by earthworms occurs in following steps; organic material consumed by earthworm is softened by the saliva in the mouth of the earthworms. Food in esophagus is further softening and neutralization by calcium and physical breakdown in muscular gizzard results in particles of size <2 μ, thereby giving an enhanced surface area for microbial processing. This finally ground material is exposed to various enzymes such as protease, amylase, lipase, cellulase and chitinase secreted in lumen by stomach and small intestine [12]. Moreover, microbes associated with intestine facilitate breaking down of complex biomolecules into simple compounds. Only 5–10% of the ingested material is absorbed into the tissues of worms for its growth and the rest is excreted as vermicast. The vermicast is a good organic fertilizer and soil conditioner. High-quality vermicast can be produced by worms such as the red wrigglers (E. fetida) as it contains humus with high levels of nutrients that has good potential for the production of organic fertilizer. Vermiwash is a liquid fertilizer and used as a foliar spray produced by passing water through columns of vermiculture beds [59].
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2.4 Suitable environmental conditions for earthworms
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Optimum conditions of temperature 15–20°C (limits 4–30°C), Moisture content 80–90% (limits 60–90%), Oxygen – Aerobicity, Ammonia content of the waste Low: <1 mg·g–1 (0.016 oz.1b–1), Salt content Low < 0.5% and pH of 5–9 are preferred for stable life cycle of earthworm.
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2.5 Starter food for multiplication of earthworms
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To attain the desired earthworm population their starter food includes 1:1 mixture of cow dung and decaying leaves in a cement tank/wooden box/plastic bucket with proper drainage facilities and on attaining sufficient number of earthworms, subsequently other sources of organic wastes can be provided. Compost worms being voracious feeders, consume in excess of their body weight each day but they prefer some foods to others. Manures are the most commonly used worm feedstock, with dairy and beef manures generally considered the best natural food for E. fetida [60]. The unit should be kept in shade. Sufficient moisture level should be maintained by occasional sprinkling of water. Within 1–2 months, the worms multiply 300 times, which can be used for large scale vermicomposting.
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3. Methods of vermicomposting
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Earthworms are used to convert organic waste material into dark brown nutrient rich humus that is a good source of manure for plants. Worms can also degrade specific pollutants and might allow community formation of useful microorganisms. Three commonly used methods for vermicomposting are discussed below:
Bin composting: The most common method for small scale composting is bin composting method. The bin can be constructed of several materials such as wooden/plastic/recycled containers like bathtubs and barrels. A vermicompost bin may be in different sizes and shapes, but its average dimensions are 45 × 30 × 45 cm. Around 10 holes with 1–1.5 cm in diameter holes in bottom, sides and cap of bin is useful for aeration and drainage.
Pit composting: For large scale composting, pits of sizes 2.5 m × 1 m × 0.3 m under thatched sheds with sides left open are advisable. The bottom and sides of the pit should be made hard with a wooden mallet.
Pile composting: Pile method is mostly used for vermicomposting in larger scale. The piles can be made in porch place like greenhouse or in a floor with some facilities for drainage in warm climate. The pile size may vary in length and width, however, its height is average height of bin used for bin composting.
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4. Conventional steps involved in vermicomposting
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Prior to the vermicomposting process, it is preferred to assign pre-composting of organic waste (thermophilic composting), which comprises a short period of high temperature for facilitating mass reduction, waste stabilization, and pathogen reduction [61, 62]. Thermophilic composting results in sanitization of organic wastes and elimination of toxic compounds [63]. Although pathogen removal occurs during transit in the worm gut [64] but thermophilic composting prior to vermicomposting is advisable to avoid the earthworm mortality. Then, after some days of high temperature, pre-mature compost is cooled by spreading it as thin layers on vermicomposting beds. Vermicomposting can be done either in containers, pits or piles.
Materials required for vermicomposting: Carbon and nitrogen-rich organic materials, spade, ground space, stakes, hollow blocks, plastic sheets or used sacks, water (according to the season) and water sprinklers, shading materials, nylon net or any substitute to cover the beds, and composting earthworms.
Site Selection: Vermicompost production can be done at any place which is having shades, cool and has high humidity. For instance, abandoned cattle shed, or poultry shed or unused buildings or artificial shading could also be provided.
Shredding of organic waste material: The collected organic waste material should be processed for shredding along with mechanical separation of the metal, glass and ceramics that should be kept aside.
Pre-digestion of organic waste material: Pre-digestion of organic waste should be done for at least 20–25 days prior by mixing the waste material along with raw material (e.g., cattle dung slurry). Regular watering is required for partially digesting it and making it fit for earthworm consumption. Raw material to be used includes for composting – cow dung, crop residues, farm wastes, vegetable market wastes and fruit wastes. Cow dung should be at least 20–25 days old to avoid excess heat generation during the composting process. Moreover addition of higher quantities of acid-rich substances such as citrus wastes should be avoided. It is important to mix carbonaceous with nitrogenous organic materials at the right proportions to obtain a C: N ratio of about 30:1, as it results in product of highest stability, the best fertilizer-value and with lowest potential for environmental pollution. For example, rice straw and fresh manure are mixed at about 25:75 ratio by weight. When the material with higher carbon content is used with C:N ratio exceeding 40:1, it is advisable to add nitrogen supplements to ensure its effective decomposition.
Earthworm bed preparation: An hospitable living environment for worms called bedding is prepared. Bedding is a material that provides the worms with a relatively stable habitat with following characteristics:
High absorbency: As earthworms breathes through their skins and therefore bedding must be able to absorb and retain water fairly well. Worms dies if its skin dries out.
Good bulking potential: Worms respire aerobically and different bedding materials affect the overall porosity of the bedding, including the range of particle size and shape, the texture, and the strength and rigidity of its structure. If bedding material is too dense or packs too tightly, then the flow of air is reduced or eliminated. This overall effect is referred as the material’s bulking potential.
Low protein and/or nitrogen content/high Carbon: Earthworms consume their bedding as it breaks down and it is very important for this process to be slow. High protein/nitrogen levels can result in rapid degradation of bedding and its associated heating, creating inhospitable or fatal conditions. High carbon content is required as earthworms and microbes in the feed mixtures activate microbial respiration and degradation of organic wastes, thereby increasing the loss of organic carbon during the vermicomposting process [65, 66]. Various bedding material according to absorbency, bulking potential and C:N are enlisted in Table 1.
Vermiculture bed: Vermiculture bed can be prepared by placing a first layer of saw dust, newspaper, straw, coir waste, sugarcane trash etc. at the bottom of tub/container. Newspaper is one of bedding material that high in absorbency whereas for the sawdust the level of absorbency is poor to medium. A second layer of moistened fine sand of 3 cm thick should be spread over the culture bed followed by a layer of garden soil (3 cm). The floor of the unit should be compacted to prevent earthworm’s migration into the soil.
Loading of organic waste mixture in bed: Third layer of the pre-digested organic waste prepared is added. Thereafter a thin layer of cow dung mixture is placed on the surface of waste material as starter food for compost worms. Then compost worms are to be added without spreading them out. Earthworms consume various organic wastes and reduce the volume by 40–60%. Earthworm eats waste equivalent to its body weight, and produce cast about 50% of the wastes, it consumes in a day.
Composting process: After addition of compost worms wait for at least 15 days for the thermophillic process to end. During this process there is a rapid increase in temperature followed by a gradual decrease. During this period turning to the material 2–3 times at 4–5 days interval is required. Its temperature should be maintained at 30°C, when temperature approaches ambient temperature (<35°C) covering is to be removed and for temperature maintenance, upturning and regular sprinkling of water is advisable. Prominent precautionary measures include; Composting pit should be covered with nylon net or any substitute material to serve as barrier against predators like ants, birds, lizards as it may disturb the activity of earthworm, Blockage of side air vents should be avoided as it can quickly lead to putrefaction and extreme weather conditions such as frost, heavy rainfall, drought and overheating should be avoided. No smell comes out of composting site if the right products or bedding and feed are used. The vermicompost once formed completely will give the smell of moist soil. Maturity could be judged visually also by observing the formation of granular structure of the compost at the surface of the tank. Next step is to make a heap in sunlight on a plastic sheet and keep it for 1-2 hours. The worms will gather at the bottom of heap. After removing vermicompost on top, the worms settled down at the bottom can be carefully collected for use in the next batch of vermicomposting.
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\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBedding Material | \nAbsorbency | \nBulking Pot. | \nC:N Ratio | \n
\n\n\n\nHorse manure | \nMedium-good | \nGood | \n22–56 | \n
\n\nPeat moss | \nGood | \nMedium | \n58 | \n
\n\nCorn silage | \nMedium-Good | \nMedium | \n38–43 | \n
\n\nHay–general | \nPoor | \nMedium | \n15–32 | \n
\n\nStraw–general | \nPoor | \nMedium-Good | \n48–150 | \n
\n\nStraw–oat | \nPoor | \nMedium | \n48–98 | \n
\n\nStraw–wheat | \nPoor | \nMedium-Good | \n100–150 | \n
\n\nPaper from municipal waste stream | \nMedium-Good | \nMedium | \n127–178 | \n
\n\nNewspaper | \nGood | \nMedium | \n170 | \n
\n\nBark–hardwoods | \nPoor | \nGood | \n116–436 | \n
\n\nBark–softwoods | \nPoor | \nGood | \n131–1285 | \n
\n\nCorrugated cardboard | \nGood | \nMedium | \n563 | \n
\n\nLumber mill waste–chipped | \nPoor | \nGood | \n170 | \n
\n\nPaper fibre sludge | \nMedium-Good | \nMedium | \n250 | \n
\n\nPaper mill sludge | \nGood | \nMedium | \n54 | \n
\n\nSawdust | \nPoor-Medium | \nPoor-Medium | \n142–750 | \n
\n\nShrub trimmings | \nPoor | \nGood | \n53 | \n
\n\nHardwood chips, shavings | \nPoor | \nGood | \n451–819 | \n
\n\nSoftwood chips, shavings | \nPoor | \nGood | \n212–1313 | \n
\n\nLeaves (dry, loose) | \nPoor-Medium | \nPoor-Medium | \n40–80 | \n
\n\nCorn stalks | \nPoor | \nGood | \n60–73 | \n
\n\nCorn cobs | \nPoor-Medium | \nGood | \n56–123 | \n
\n\nPaper mill sludge | \nGood | \nMedium | \n54 | \n
\n\nSawdust | \nPoor-Medium | \nPoor-Medium | \n142–750 | \n
\n\nShrub trimmings | \nPoor | \nGood | \n53 | \n
\n\nHardwood chips, shavings | \nPoor | \nGood | \n451–819 | \n
\n\nSoftwood chips, shavings | \nPoor | \nGood | \n212–1313 | \n
\n\nLeaves (dry, loose) | \nPoor-Medium | \nPoor-Medium | \n40–80 | \n
\n\nCorn stalks | \nPoor | \nGood | \n60–73 | \n
\n\nCorn cobs | \nPoor-Medium | \nGood | \n56–123 | \n
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Table 1.
List of some of the commonly used earthworm bedding material.
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5. Effect of abiotic factors on vermicomposting
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The most important abiotic factors which affect vermicomposting process include moisture, pH, temperature, aeration, pH value, ammonia and salt content.
Moisture: A strong relationship exists between the moisture content of organic wastes and the growth rate of earthworms. In a comparative study on vermicomposting process and earthworm’s growth at different temperature and moisture ranges showed that 65–75% is most suitable range of moisture at all ranges of vermicomposting temperature [67]. The bedding used for vermicomposting must be able to hold sufficient moisture as earthworms respire through their skins and moisture content in the bedding of less than of 45% can be fatal to the worms. Although epigenic species, E. fetida and E. andrei can survive moisture ranges between 50% and 90%, but they grow more rapidly between 80% and 90% [20, 68]. The bacteria also plays vital role in vermicomposting. Its activity decreases in moisture content lower than 40% and it almost stops in lower than 10% [69].
Temperature: Earthworm’s activity, metabolism, growth, respiration and reproduction are greatly influenced by temperature [70]. The temperature for the stable development of earthworm population should not exceed 25°C [71]. Although E. fetida cocoons survive extended periods of deep freezing and remain viable [72] but they do not reproduce and do not consume sufficient food at single digit temperatures. It is generally considered necessary to keep the temperatures preferably 15°C for vermicomposting efficiency and 20°C for effective reproductive vermiculture operations. Temperatures above 35°C will cause the worms to leave the area or if they cannot leave, they will quickly die. Bacterial activity is also greatly depended on temperature as it multiplies by two per each 10°C increase in temperature and is quite active around 15–30°C.
Aeration: Earthworms are oxygen breathers and cannot survive in anaerobic conditions. They operate best when compost material is porous and well aerated. Earthworms also help themselves by aerating their bedding by their movement through it. E. fetida have been reported to migrate in high numbers from oxygen depleted water saturated substrate, or in which carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide has accumulated.
pH value: The pH value is also one of the important factors affecting the vermicomposting process [73]. Epigenic worms can survive in a pH range of 5–9 [74]. The pH of worm beds tends to drop over time. If the food source/bedding is alkaline, than pH of bed drop to neutral or slightly alkaline and if the food source is acidic than the pH of the beds can drop well below 7. The pH can be adjusted upwards by adding calcium carbonate or peat moss for adjusting pH downward can be introduced into the mix. Although microorganisms which are active in vermicomposting which can maintain their activity even in lower pH of around 4 but recommended pH range for compost is around 6.5–7.5.
Ammonia and salt content: Earthworms cannot survive in organic wastes containing high levels of ammonia. Worms are also very sensitive to salts and they prefer salt contents less than 0.5% [75]. However, many types of manures have high salt contents and if they are to be used as bedding, they should be leached first to reduce the salt content, it is done by simply running water through the material for a period of time [60].
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6. Common methods of vermicompost harvesting
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The vermicompost is ready within 60–90 days and ultimately the material becomes black, granular, lightweight, moderately loose, crumbly and humus-rich. Watering must be avoided two to three days before emptying the beds to facilitate the separation of worms from the compost. Common procedures for harvesting the vermicompost are briefly described below. Any method may be adopted exclusively by preference. Moreover, two or more methods may be applied on the same pile. Except for the first method, the rest are intended for bulk harvesting.
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6.1 Manual harvesting of Vermicompost
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This method is practiced if one wants to collect small amounts of vermicast just a few days after the compost pile is stocked with composting worms. In this case only top layer is covered with a thin layer of vermicast and rest of pile has not fully decomposed. The vermicast on top of the pile are simply gathered by hand/trowel and transferred directly into a container. This method is recommended if there is need of organic soil amendment in preparing a fertile potting mix. With time, as vermicompost is collected at the bottom of the pile it is further collected by hand.
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6.2 Vermicompost harvesting by pyramidal heap
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The vermicompost is first gathered to form a pyramid like heap within the composting enclosure provided that the heap is exposed to light or it is transferred on to a flat surface elsewhere in open sun on a plastic sheet or a sack. This method of harvesting vermicompost takes the advantage of the earthworm’s sensitivity towards light as they will tend to move deep into the pyramid. Vermicompost from the bottom, sides, and top surface of the heap is then collected by hand or with a trowel. After the first cycle of vermicompost collection, a few minutes are passed to provide sufficient time for the earthworms to move deeper and another cycle is commenced. For faster rate of harvesting vermicompost, the original heap is divided into several smaller heaps.
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6.3 Screening or sieving of vermicompost
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This method of vermicompost harvesting is done manually with tool consists of mesh wire nailed on wood called sieve. A small portion from vermicompost pile spread on flat floor is transferred into a sieve and it is shaken so that fine vermicompost falls on the ground. Any undecomposed subtrates and earthworms are retained in the screener and the worms are separated manually.
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6.4 Vermicompost harvesting by inducing the migration of earthworms
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This method of harvesting vermicompost is based on earthworms’ ability to detect sources of food. Earthworms have the habit of abandoning the pile exhausted of food and moving towards fresher palatable source. Despite many modifications in this technique, but the basic principle is the same to provide fresh or more palatable food to cause the migration of earthworms from the exhausted pile to the new food source.
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7. Storing and packing of vermicompost
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The harvested vermicompost should be stored in dark and cool place as sunlight will lead to loss of moisture and nutrient content. Moreover, harvested vermicompost material should be stored in open rather than packed in sacs. Packing should be done at the time of selling and laminated sac is always advisable. During compost storage in open place, periodical sprinkling of water should be done to maintain moisture level and beneficial microbial population. Vermicompost can be stored for longer periods of one year without loss of its quality, if its moisture is maintained at 40% level.
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8. Role of vermicompost on soil fertility
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The key role of vermicompost is change in physical, chemical and biological properties of soil by earthworm activities and they thus called as soil managers [59]. It substantially improves soil structure, texture, aeration and prevents soil erosion. It increases the macropore space ranging from 50 to 500 μm, resulting in improved air-water relationship in the soil thereby favorably affecting plant growth [76]. It also favorably affects soil pH, its microbial population and soil enzyme activities [77]. Moreover, vermicompost is rich source of nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates and exchangeable calcium and soluble potassium [30]. Apart from adding mineralogical nutrients, vermicompost is also rich in beneficial micro flora such as N-fixers, P-solubilizers, cellulose decomposing micro-flora, etc. It also reduces the proportion of water soluble chemical, which causes possible environmental contamination [78]. Mucus excreted by earthworm’s digestive canal produces some antibiotics and hormone-like biochemicals thereby boosting plant growth [70] and enhancing the decomposition of organic matter in soil [79]. Vermicompost has been reported to have favorable influence on the growth and yield parameters of several crops like paddy, sugarcane, brinjal, tomato, and okra [59]. Thus, vermicompost acts a soil conditioner [80] and a slow-release fertilizer [81] that ultimately improves soil structure, soil fertility, plant growth and suppresses diseases caused by soil-borne plant pathogens, increases crop yield [82, 83, 84].
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9. Conclusion
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Chemical fertilizers are produced from “vanishing resources” of earth and crops grown on chemical fertilizers have low and contaminated nutrient value in comparison to grown naturally or organic way. To preserve the agro-ecosystem and protect human health from the harmful chemical fertilizers ‘Ecological Agriculture and Organic Farming’ has to be promoted as the new emerging concept of “Organic Farming” focuses mainly on production of chemical free foods. Organic farming with use of organic fertilizers like “vermicompost” could substitute the chemical fertilizers and can reduce the economic cost and may also lead to organic products which fetches higher price in the market.
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\nConflict of interest
No conflict of interest is indulged.
\n',keywords:"organic waste, earthworms, vermicompost, nutrients, sustainable organic agriculture",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71592.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71592.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71592",totalDownloads:586,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 21st 2019",dateReviewed:"February 25th 2020",datePrePublished:"March 30th 2020",datePublished:"December 2nd 2020",dateFinished:"March 29th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Urbanization and industrialization resulted in rapid increase in volume of solid waste; its management has become one of the biggest problems today. Solid wastes can be disposed off by methods like land filling, incineration, conversion into biogas, recycling, and composting, but its overproduction has led to inappropriate disposal practices such as their indiscriminate and inappropriately timed application to agricultural fields that ultimately leads to water and soil pollution. However, if handled properly, these organic wastes can be used for vermicomposting; it is an effective recycling technology that improves the quality of the products which is disinfected, detoxified, and highly nutritive. It is a low cost, eco-biotechnological process of waste management in which earthworms are used to cooperate with microorganisms in order to convert biodegradable wastes into organic fertilizer. Earthworms excreta (vermicast) is a nutritive organic fertilizer rich in humus, NPK, micronutrients, beneficial soil microbes; nitrogen-fixing, phosphate solubilizing bacteria, actinomycets, and growth hormones auxins, gibberlins and cytokinins, is a suitable alternative to chemical fertilizers, being an excellent growth promoter and protector for crop plants. Thus, vermiculture not only results in management of soild waste but also produces excellent nutrient enriched vermicompost. Vermicompost is beneficial for sustainable organic agriculture and maintaining balanced ecosystem.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71592",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71592",signatures:"Tamanreet Kaur",book:{id:"10134",title:"Organic Agriculture",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Organic Agriculture",slug:"organic-agriculture",publishedDate:"December 2nd 2020",bookSignature:"Shaon Kumar Das",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10134.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182210",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaon Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"shaon-kumar-das",fullName:"Shaon Kumar Das"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"317164",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamanreet",middleName:null,surname:"Kaur",fullName:"Tamanreet Kaur",slug:"tamanreet-kaur",email:"tamanreetkaur@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Kanya Maha Vidyalaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Vermicomposting- a preferred approach in organic farming",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Role of earthworm in vermicomposting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 Biology of earthworm",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2 Classification of earthworm",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3 How does earthworm facilitate vermicomposting?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.4 Suitable environmental conditions for earthworms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.5 Starter food for multiplication of earthworms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Methods of vermicomposting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Conventional steps involved in vermicomposting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Effect of abiotic factors on vermicomposting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Common methods of vermicompost harvesting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.1 Manual harvesting of Vermicompost",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.2 Vermicompost harvesting by pyramidal heap",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.3 Screening or sieving of vermicompost",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.4 Vermicompost harvesting by inducing the migration of earthworms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. Storing and packing of vermicompost",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"8. Role of vermicompost on soil fertility",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"9. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'[\nHoornweg D, Bhada-Tata P, Kennedy C. Waste production must peak this century. Nature. 2013;502:615-617. DOI: 10.1038/502615a\n]'},{id:"B2",body:'[\nHsu JH, Lo SL. Chemical and spectroscopic analysis of organic matter transformations during composting of pig manure. Environmental Pollution. 1999;104:189-196. 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Nitrogen transformation during organic waste composting by the Rutgers system and its effects on pH, EC and maturity of the composting mixtures. Bioresource Technology. 2001;78:301-308. DOI: 10.1016/s0960-8524(01)00031-1\n]'},{id:"B58",body:'[\nMunnoli PM. Teixeira da Silva JA, Bhosle, S. dynamics of the soil - earthworm – Plant relationship: A review. Dynamic soil. Dynamic Plant. 2010;4:1-21\n]'},{id:"B59",body:'[\nIsmail SA. Vermicology: The Biology of Earthworms. Orient Longman Limited: Chennai; 1997\n]'},{id:"B60",body:'[\nGaddie RE, Donald ED. Earthworms for Ecology and Profit. 1st Vol. Scientific Earthworm Farming. California: Bookworm Publishing Company; 1975. p. 180\n]'},{id:"B61",body:'[\nNair J, Sekiozoic V, Anda M. Effect of pre-composting on vermicomposting of kitchen waste. Bioresource Technology. 2006;97:2091-2095. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2005.09.020\n]'},{id:"B62",body:'[\nFrederickson J, Howell G, Hobson AM. Effect of precomposting and vermicomposting on compost characteristics. European Journal of Soil Biology. 2007;43:S320-S326. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejsobi.2007.08.032\n]'},{id:"B63",body:'[\nMupondi L. Improving Sanitization and Fertiliser Value of Dairy Manure and Waste Paper Mixtures Enriched with Rock Phosphate through Combined Thermophilic Composting and Vermicomposting [Thesis]. South Africa: University of Fort Hare; 2010\n]'},{id:"B64",body:'[\nSoobhany N, Mohee R, Garg VK. Inactivation of bacterial pathogenic load in compost against vermicompost of organic solid waste aiming to achieve sanitation goals: A review. Waste Management. 2017;64:51-62. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2017.03.003\n]'},{id:"B65",body:'[\nRostami R, Najafi SH, Nabaee A, Eslami A. Survey of E. foetida population on pH, C/N ratio process rate in vermicompost. Journal of Environmental Studies. 2010;35:93-98\n]'},{id:"B66",body:'[\nGarg VK, Kaushik P. Vermistabilization of textile mill sludge spiked with poultry droppings by epigeic earthworm Eisenia fetida. Bioresource Technology. 2005;96:1063-1071. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2004.09.003\n]'},{id:"B67",body:'[\nSuthar S. Potential utilization of guargum industrial waste in vermicompost production. Bioresource Technology. 2006;97:2474-2477. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2005.10.018\n]'},{id:"B68",body:'[\nDominguez J, Edwards CA. Effects of stocking rate and moisture content on the growth and maturation of Eisenia andrei (Oligochaeta) in pig manure. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 1997;29:743-746. DOI: 10.1016/S0038-0717(96)00276-3\n]'},{id:"B69",body:'[\nTchobanoglous G, Theisen H, Vigil S. Integrated Solid Waste Management. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1993. p. 4\n]'},{id:"B70",body:'[\nEdwards CA, Bohlen PJ. Biology and Ecology of Earthworm. 3rd ed. London: Chapman and Hall; 1996. p. 426\n]'},{id:"B71",body:'[\nSinha RK, Nair J, Bharambe B, Patil S, Bapat P. Vermiculture revolution: A low-cost and sustainable technology for management of municipal and industrial organic wastes (solid and liquid) by earthworms with significantly low greenhouse gas emissions. In: Daven JI, Klein RN, editors. Progress in Waste Management Research. New York: Nova Science Publishers; 2008. pp. 158-229\n]'},{id:"B72",body:'[\nGeorg. Feasibility of Developing the Organic and Transitional Farm Market for Processing Municipal and Farm Organic Wastes Using Large-Scale Vermicomposting. Good Earth Organic Resources Group, Halifax, Nova Scotia [Internet]. 2004. Available from: http://www.alternativeor-ganic.com [Accessed: 15 February 2020]\n]'},{id:"B73",body:'[\nGajalakshmi S, Abbasi SA. Earthworms and vermicomposting. Indian Journal of Biotechnology. 2004;3:486-494\n]'},{id:"B74",body:'[\nEdwards CA, editor. Earthworm Ecology. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1998. p. 389\n]'},{id:"B75",body:'[\nGunadi B, Blount C, Edwards CA. The growth and fecundity of Eisenia fetida (Savigny) in cattle solids pre-composted for different periods. Pedobiologia. 2002;46:15-23. DOI: 10.1078/0031-4056-00109\n]'},{id:"B76",body:'[\nMarinari S, Masciandaro G, Ceccanti B, Grego S. Influence of organic and mineral fertilisers on soil biological and physical properties. Bioresource Technology. 2000;72:9-17. DOI: 10.1016/S0960-8524(99)00094-2\n]'},{id:"B77",body:'[\nMaheswarappa HP, Nanjappa HV, Hegde MR. Influence of organic manures on yield of arrowroot, soil physico-chemical and biological properties when grown as intercrop in coconut garden. Annals of Agricultural Research. 1999;20:318-323\n]'},{id:"B78",body:'[\nMitchell A. Production of Eisenia fetida and vermicompost from feed-lot cattle manure. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 1997;29:763-766. DOI: 10.1016/S0038-0717(96)00022-3\n]'},{id:"B79",body:'[\nEdwards CA, Arancon NQ . Vermicomposts suppress plant pest and disease attacks. Biocycle. 2004;45:51-53\n]'},{id:"B80",body:'[\nAlbanell E, Plaixats J, Cabrero T. Chemical changes during vermicomposting (Eisenia fetida) of sheep manure mixed with cotton industrial wastes. Biology and Fertility of Soils. 1988;6:266-269. DOI: 10.1007/bf00260823\n]'},{id:"B81",body:'[\nAtiyeh RM, Arancon NQ , Edwards CA, Metzger JD. The influence of earthworm-processed pig manure on the growth and productivity of marigolds. Bioresource Technology. 2001;81:103-108. DOI: 10.1016/s0960-8524(02)00017-2\n]'},{id:"B82",body:'[\nChaoui H, Edwards CA, Brickner M, Lee S, Arancon N. Suppression of the plant diseases, Pythium (damping off), Rhizoctonia (root rot) and Verticillum (wilt) by vermicomposts. Proceedings of Brighton Crop Protection Conference – Pests and Diseases II. 2002;(8B-3):711-716\n]'},{id:"B83",body:'[\nScheuerell SJ, Sullivan DM, Mahaffee WF. Suppression of seedling damping-off caused by Pythium ultimum, and Rhizoctonia solani in container media amended with a diverse range of Pacific northwest compost sources. Phytopathology. 2005;95:306-315. DOI: 10.1094/PHYTO-95-0306\n]'},{id:"B84",body:'[\nSingh R, Sharma RR, Kumar S, Gupta RK, Patil RT. Vermicompost substitution influences growth, physiological disorders, fruit yield and quality of strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.). Bioresource Technology. 2008;99:8507-8511. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2008.03.034\n]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Tamanreet Kaur",address:"tamanreetkaur@gmail.com",affiliation:'- Department of Zoology, Kanya Maha Vidyalaya, Jalandhar, India
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He joined Universiti Sains Malaysia (Penang, Malaysia) where he continued his study in chemical engineering (separation processes), focusing on supercritical technology, thermodynamics, and biotechnology. He was awarded s Ph.D. degree in 2010. So far, he has completed more than 110 publications and research activities. Furthermore, he worked as a process engineer in Shazand Petrochemical Co., a researcher assistant in Universiti Sains Malaysia, and as an invited lecturer in several universities. He had also worked as a university deputy (educational and research) at Mahallat Institute of Higher Education for about one year. He currently conducts research on environmental engineering (wastewater treatment) through advanced oxidation processes such as electro-Fenton and adsorption. He is also a consultant for some industries (local and international ones). He received his Associate Professor position from Arak University in 2016 where he has been working as a head of the chemical engineering department for the last two years.",institutionString:"Arak University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/88069/images/system/88069.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"2",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Arak University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},booksEdited:[{type:"book",slug:"alkenes",title:"Alkenes",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5822.jpg",abstract:"In organic chemistry, Alkenes, also known as olefins, are the unsaturated hydrocarbons with the general formula of CnH2n that contains one or more carbon-carbon double bonds in their chemical structures (RC=CR'). The presence of this double bond allows alkenes to react in ways that alkanes cannot. Hence, alkenes find many diverse applications in industry. These compounds are widely used as initial materials in the synthesis of alcohols, plastics, lacquers, detergents, and fuels. The current book includes all knowledge and novel data according to the structure of alkenes, their novel synthesis methods, and their applications. In addition, manufacture, properties, and the use of polyalkenes are the other important topics that are covered in this book. 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\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\n\nIf this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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