Abstract
Although infection is one of the preventable causes of human infertility, it is always missed or neglected. History of urethral discharge has been reported in about 45% of the black men attending the outpatient clinic with infertility complaint.
Keywords
- Infections
- Urinary tract infections
- Infertility in males
- Sexually transmitted diseases
- Chlamydia
- Gonorrhea
1. Introduction
Infertility can be defined as a failure to conceive in a couple trying to reproduce for a period of 2 years of constant unprotected sex [1]. Of all sexually active couples, 12–15% is infertile [2]. Male component represents around 50% of the time either in isolation or in combination with a female factor [1, 3]. Infertility can be attributed to many causes. Infectious agents can interfere with the reproductive function in both sexes. Infections of male genital urinary tract account for about 15% of the case of male infertility. Different sites can be affected in the male reproductive system, such as the testis, epididymis, and male accessory sex glands. Spermatogenesis itself can be affected by urogenital infections at different levels of development, maturation, and transport of spermatozoa. These infections can be both sexually transmitted and non-sexually transmitted. Among the most common microorganisms involved in sexually transmitted infections, thus interfering with male fertility, are the
2. Types of genital tract infections that may cause infertility
Epididymitis usually caused by gonorrhea, tuberculosis, chlamydia, urea plasmas,
Many infectious organisms can affect fertility. These organisms include bacteria, viruses, yeasts, parasites, tropical infections, and other rare conditions.
2.1. Bacterial infections
Urethritis caused by
2.2. Viral infections
Adverse semen analysis parameters (poor sperm count and reduced motility) have been reported in infertile patients with positive herpes simplex virus (HSV) in semen. These adverse parameters were reversed after initiation of antiviral treatment [15].
Human papilloma virus (HPV) was found in testicular biopsies of azoospermic men, and when present inside sperm cells, they may be related to impaired sperm motility and asthenozoospermia [16]. It was found that there is an association between HPV and infertility, particularly between the presence of these agents and tubal factor infertility that cause a sort of infertility [16]. HIV may impair semen production by itself and certainly deteriorates the outcome of concomitant genital infections; in addition, the specific anti-HIV therapies can cause serious effects on the male reproductive system [17].
2.3. Fungal infections
2.4. Protozoa infections
3. Prevalence of infection in infertile males.
Infections of male genital urinary tract account for about 15% of the case of male infertility. Different sites can be affected in the male reproductive system, such as the testis, epididymis, and male accessory sex glands. Spermatogenesis itself can be affected by urogenital infections at different levels of development, maturation, and transport of spermatozoa [3].
Leucocytospermia has been reported among 10–20% of infertile male patients. Twenty-five percent of patients with abnormal semen function have been proved to have antibodies to
4. Mechanism by which genital tract infection can cause infertility
Infection may affect male fertility in different ways, including impairment of spermatogenesis, induction of autoimmune mechanisms, obstruction of the ejaculatory ducts, dysfunction of the ejaculated sperms, decrease in the motility of the spermatozoa, and induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [4–12].
5. Fertility preservation by early diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted disease
The organisms involved in sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) can be diagnosed nowadays with accuracy by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique using the primer pairs that are specific for each organism. This gene amplification technology can amplify the DNA of the organism in any sample up to 1 million fold in few hours. The traditional approaches like the in vitro culture system or the DNA hybridization techniques are less accurate than the gene amplification technique [21].
6. Future perspectives
The preventative screening campaign can be effective in reducing the incidence of infection-related infertility. On the horizon, chlamydial and gonococcal vaccines may be seen in the near future [21].
7. Conclusion
Infectious agents can affect fertility in male. This can be done through different mechanisms. They can cause inflammation in different parts of male genital tract and affect sperm count, motility, and quality.
References
- 1.
Poongothai J, Gopenath TS, Manonayaki S. Genetics of human male infertility. Singapore Med J 2009; 50(4):336–347. - 2.
Mosher WE. Reproductive impairments in the United States, 1965–1982. Demography 1985; 22:415–430. - 3.
Tielemans E, Burdorf A, te Velde E, Weber R, van Kooij R, Heederik D. Sources of bias in studies among infertility clients. Am J Epidemiol 2002; 156:86–92. - 4.
Wiser HJ, Sandlow J, Köhler TS. Causes of male infertility. In: Parekattil SJ, Agarwal A, editors. Male Infertility: Contemporary Clinical Approaches, Andrology, ART and Antioxidants. New York: Springer Science+Bussiness Media; 2012; 12–15.5. - 5.
Hughes G, Fenton KA. Recent trends in gonorrhea an emerging public health issue? Eur Surveill 2000; 5:1–2. - 6.
Wong T, Singh A, Mann J, Hansen L, McMahon S. Gender differences in bacterial STIs in Canada. BMC Womens Health 2004; 4:S26. - 7.
Motrich RD, Cuffini C, Mackern Oberti JP, et al. Chlamydia trachomatis occurrence and its impact on sperm quality in chronic prostatitis patients. J Infect 2006; 53:175–183. - 8.
Eley A, Passey AA, Galdiero M, Galdiero M, Galdiero F. Can Chlamydia trachomatis directly damage your sperm? Lancet Infect Dis 2005; 5:53–57. - 9.
Witkin SS, Klingman I, Bongiovanni AM. Relationship between anasymptomatic exposure to Chlamydia trachomatis and an autoimmune response to spermatozoa. Hum Reprod 1995; 10:2952–2955. - 10.
Eggert-Kruse W, Neuer A, Clussmann C, et al. Seminal antibodies to human 60 kDa heat shock protein (HSP60) in male partners of sub fertile couples. Hum Reprod 2002; 17:726–735. - 11.
Taylor-Robinson D. Infections due to species of Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma: an update. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 23:671–684. - 12.
Rose BI, Scott B. Sperm motility, morphology, hyperactivation, andionophore-induced acrosome reactions after overnight incubation with mycoplasmas. Fertil Steril, 1994; 61:341–348. - 13.
Taylor-Robinson D. Mycoplasma genitalium—an update. Int J STD AIDS 2002; 13:145–151. - 14.
Weidner W, Krause W, Ludwig M. Relevance of male accessory gland infection for subsequent fertility with special focus on prostatitis. Hum Reprod Update 1999; 5:421–432. - 15.
Kapranos N, Petrakou E, Anastasiadou C, Kotronias D. Detection of herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, and Epstein-Barr virus in the semen of men attending an infertility clinic. Fertil Steril 2003; 79:1566–1570. - 16.
Martorell M, Gil-Salom M, Perez-Valles A, Garcia JA, Rausell N, Senpere A. Presence of human papillomavirus DNA in testicular biopsies from nonobstructive azoospermic men. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2005; 129:1132–1136. - 17.
Gray GE, McIntyre JA. Effect of HIV on women.AIDS Read 2006; 16:365–368; 373–377. - 18.
Tian Y-H, Xiong J-W, Hu L, Huang D-H, Xiong C-H. Candida albicans and filtrates interfere with human spermatozoal motility and alter the ultrastructure of spermatozoa: an in vitro study. Int J Androl 2007; 30:421–429. - 19.
Schwebke JR, Burgess D, Trichomoniasis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004 ; 17:794–803. - 20.
Wolff H: The biologic significance of white blood cells in semen. Fertil Steril 1995; 63: 1143–1157. - 21.
Oh MK, Richey CM, Pate MS et al: High prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis infections in adolescent females not having pelvic examinations: utility of PCR-based urine screening in urban adolescent clinic setting. J Adolesc Health 1997; 21: 80.