Some investigations performed to investigate the chemical composition of EOs.
Abstract
This chapter will discuss the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of various essential oils on possible shelf-life extension of different seafood products. Furthermore, the effect of antimicrobial coatings incorporated with various essential oils on the shelf-life of seafood products will be investigated. Microbiological and physico-chemical properties such as total count, psychrophilic and lactic acid bacterial count, peroxide test, thiobarbituric acid (TBA) test, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) test, and pH, also sensory evaluations of seafood products will be included. During this chapter the effect of chemical composition of some essential oils on the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities will be discussed briefly.
Keywords
- essential oils
- shelf-life
- algae
- seafood
- antimicrobial
- antioxidant
1. Introduction
The safety and quality of food is one of the most important factors which concerns the related industries as consumers prefer fresh and minimally/not processed products. Using various technical preservation methods have been reported in order to improve the shelf-life extension of seafood. Generally, these techniques are including simple methods like salting and freezing as well as more complicated methods such as chemical preservation and modified atmosphere packaging. Application of chemical and synthetic preservatives in seafood is globally common and convenient. During the last decades, antimicrobial and antioxidant additives, principally synthetic origin, are added to refrigerated seafood products for shelf-life extension. Nonetheless, consumers are interested in the use of natural origin material as alternative preservatives in food, since the safety risks of synthetic preservatives, excess antioxidants added to food might produce toxicities or mutagenicities, has been proved [1, 2].
Essential oils (EOs) are aromatic oily liquids including terpenoids, sesquiterpenes and possibly diterpenes with different groups of aliphatic hydrocarbons, acids, alcohols, aldehydes, acyclic esters or lactones which obtain from plants [3, 4] and algae extract [5, 6]. EOs are also known for their antioxidant, antimicrobial and pharmaceutical properties, thus, they can use as natural additives or preservatives in foods [7, 8, 9]. Moreover, EOs extracted from various plants have shown to possess several biological activities and potential health benefits including antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral activities and antiprotozoal agent [10]. Among various techniques for extending the shelf-life of refrigerated seafood products, the application of biopolymer-based edible coatings and films are regularly the method of choice. Edible coatings from polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids can extend the shelf life of foods by functioning as a solute, gas, and vapor barriers [11]. Thus, essential oil incorporation into edible coatings or packaging can prevent the food spoilage and extend the food shelf life in particular fish products [12].
Therefore, great attention has been arisen to identified and used EOs in the food industry. This chapter provides an overview of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of EOs derived from different sources and their potential organoleptic beneficial and applications in shelf life extension of raw fishes.
2. Chemical composition of EOs
2.1 EOs from algae
Algae extracts are proven to be rich sources of metabolites with a wide range of biological activities such as anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, and pharmaceutical activities [13], thus, several extraction methods have been performed to preparation of algal extract [14] and evaluated their nutritional and pharmacological applications, however, a few number of studies focused on the characterization and composition of EOs from algal extracts. Hence, some scientific efforts have been dedicated to study essential oil composition of algae extracts. The GC-MS analysis of chemical composition shows the presence of different groups of essential oil in micro and macroalgae.
In addition, the brown macroalgae (Phaeophyta) such as
Recently, there is interest in the microalgae as well as macroalgae for development of EOs. For this respect, the 50 total compositions of the EOs from
Furthermore, the other various microalgae such as
2.2 EOs from other plants
So many researches inquired into the chemical composition of the EOs obtained from various sources including
EOs sources | Major components | References |
---|---|---|
Bromine and iodine-containing haloforms | [15] | |
2,6-Dimethyl-4-oxa-endo-tricyclo decane | [16] | |
Crown ether (18-crown-6-ether) | [17] | |
Dihexylsulfide | [17] | |
Octadecanoic acid, methyl ester, hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (Cas) methyl palmitate, 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid, ethyl ester | [18] | |
Acetic acid 3-isopropyl-8,10,14-trimethyl-16-phenyl-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,14- and 2,6-dihydroxybenzoic acid 3TMS | [6] | |
Thyme ( | Carvacrol, thymol, | [19] |
Flowering Thyme ( | Camphor, camphene, α-pinene, 1, 8-cineole, borneol, and β-pinene | [20] |
Thymoquinone, | [21] | |
Turmeric ( | [22] | |
Rosemary ( | 1,8-cineole, α-pinene, camphor, and camphene | [24] |
The EOs obtained by hydrodistillation from flowering Thyme (
In an another research, seven EOs of
Curcumin, the yellowish pigment of turmeric, is generated from turmeric oleoresin. In a study performed in order to investigate the antibacterial activity of turmeric oil extracted by hexane and fractionated by silica gel column chromatography, GC/MS analysis identified 13 major components in turmeric oil, fraction I, and fraction II.
Rosemary (
3. Antioxidant activity of EOs
There are many EOs which have antioxidant activity, and their application as natural antioxidants has been increasingly interested due to harmful effects to human health that some synthetic antioxidants (e.g., BHA and BHT) are faced. The antioxidant activity of EOs is due to their potential ability to cease or suspend the oxidation reaction of organic materials in the presence of oxygen which is a result of some special components including phenols. There are EOs which lack of phenolic compounds also show antioxidant activity. Some constituents including terpenoids and other volatile constituents (such as sulfur-containing components) have special radical chemistry which capable them to express antioxidant activity [25, 26].
As it was discussed earlier (Section 2.2), the major constituents of many EOs can be categorized in two specific structural families: terpenoids (monoterpene, sesquiterpene, and diterpene) and phenylpropanoids, which both comprise phenolic compounds. Some phenolic compounds are demonstrated in Figure 1.
Generally, phenolic compounds can potentially react with peroxyl radicals and transfer the H atom (Figure 2a). Due to the stability of phenoxyl radical, it will not continue the radical chain reactions. Instead it will quench the second peroxyl radical quickly (Figure 2b).
In contrast with phenolic compounds present in EOs, unsaturated non-phenolic terpenoids such as α-pinene (Figure 3) can autoxidize similarly to unsaturated lipids [27].
Many researchers have investigated the antioxidant activity of EOs. A potential antioxidant essential oil was extracted from
The lipid oxidation is one of the most important limiting factors for the shelf-life seafood products. For this purpose the antioxidant activity of the EOs of five Mediterranean spices (
4. Antimicrobial activity of EOs
The antimicrobial effect of essential oils is attributed to actions including alteration of the permeability, and disruption of lipophilic cell membrane. The antimicrobial potential of essential oils can be completely associated with their constituents. Phenolic compounds with their hydrophobicity inherent, breakdown the lipid of cell membrane and mitochondria and enhance the permeability [31, 32]. The inherent of cellular energy generation system (ATP) and damage of proton motive force is a result of changing cell and cytoplasmic membrane permeability [33]. In addition, leakage of internal contents of the cell during the disruption of the membrane is another mechanism which causes cell death [32]. It is generally believed that Gram-negative bacteria are more resistance to essential oils because of their outer hydrophilic cell wall which exhibits inhibitory activity against the penetration of phenolic components [34].
Algae extracts and their components have displayed antimicrobial activity against organisms found in foods. Algae extracts and their components have displayed antimicrobial activity against organisms found in foods. The antibacterial activities of essential oils from two red seaweed
Terpenoids, thymol, carvacrol, β-cubebene, β-eudesmol, β-ionone, dactylol and pachydictol A are the usual volatile compounds in seaweeds and it is known that there is correlation between β-ionone and antibacterial and antifungal activity of seaweeds [17]. However, two known sesquiterpenes (1R*,2S*,3R*,5S*,8S*,9R*)-2,3,5,9-tetramethyltricyclo(6.3.0.01,5)undecan-2-ol and (1S*,2S*,3S*,5S*,8S*,9S*)-2,3,5,9-tetramethyltricyclo-(6.3.0.01,5)undecan-2-ol were isolated from the red macroalgae
5. Shelf-life extension of seafood products
The short shelf-life of fresh seafood is a practical issue in the industries and distribution chain systems. Short shelf-life caused by chemical and microbial spoilage reactions can be stopped by traditional preservation methods but there is increasing interest in natural preservation methods. EOs are natural antioxidants and antimicrobials by which the shelf-life of seafood can be extended alone or in combination with other techniques. However, the reduction of antimicrobial effect of EOs in a food system due to some components of food and also the reverse action of EOs as antioxidant agents in some cases, has slowed down the use of them in practical systems.
Combination of EOs exhibit the synergistic antimicrobial activity. Thus, using of EOs into packaging can be the safe approach for food preservation technology [35]. The antimicrobial activity of gelatin-chitosan films incorporated with organo essential oil exhibited the great inhibitory effect through reducing the
Immersion of salmon in marinade solution containing 1 w/w% essential oil from organo, cinnamon and thyme revealed that the antimicrobial effect, however, organo and cinnamon essential oil caused to enhance the shelf life of salmon and scampi. In addition, reduction of yeast and mold was observed by cinnamon (1%) addition in marinade for 6 days. Moreover, salmon treated with marinade containing 1% essential oil, shoed appropriate sensorial properties and high hedonic score rather than 5% essential oil [38]. Combination of EOs with different types of packaging is another approach for enhancement of shelf life. For instance, the combination of cinnamon essential oil (1 w/w%) and MAP/vacuum packaging extend the shelf life of salmon. However, the MAP+ cinnamon had a better effect on salmon shelf life and the microbial shelf life reach nine or more days. While it was 6 days for vacuum packaged salmon treated with cinnamon. Moreover, cinnamon had no additional antimicrobial effect on LAB, when salmon stored vacuum or MAP [12].
Furthermore, the vacuum packaged common carp (
In another study, the active films accommodated by poly lactic acid enriched with ZnO nanoparticles (1.5%w/w) and
A new edible coating of pectin containing clove essential oil (CEO), was assessed to extension of bream (
The effect of chitosan, thyme essential oil and their combination, on the shelf-life of vacuum packaged smoked eel fillets at 4°C, was investigated and according to sensory odor analysis the shelf-life of chitosan/thyme and chitosan-thyme combination treated samples extended 1 and >2 weeks, respectively, compared with than control sample (35 days for control). The control sample showed a significantly higher thiobarbituric acid value compared chitosan-thyme combination treated sample. Control, thyme, chitosan, and chitosan-thyme combination treated samples showed TVB-N values below the maximum permissible level (35 mg N/100 g) in fish and fishery products which was 31.5, 18.1, 14.9, and 13.1 mg N/100 g in 35 and 42, 49 days of storage, respectively [43]. The maximum permissible level of TVB-N in fish and fishery products is 35 mg N/100 g [44].
6. Conclusions
During the past decades, EOs have achieved great attention due to their food preservation effects, particularly for the antimicrobial and antioxidant effects.
The EOs of different sources from land and the seas, have variety of phenolic and non-phenolic components which the most actives are low molecular weight terpenoids, terpenes, and aliphatic chemicals (obtained data from analysis by GC-MS and GC/FID in literature). These EOs have shown significant antioxidant, antimicrobial activities which can extent the shelf-life of seafood products. However, it is still mandatory to inquire into cytotoxicity and toxicity of these EOs.
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