Laboratory results of oil recovery applications by nanosurfactant.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7609",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes - New Technologies",title:"Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes",subtitle:"New Technologies",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Concerned with production decline, shortages of new oil reserves, and increasing world energy demand, the oil sector continues to search for economic and efficient techniques to enhance their oil recovery from the existing oil field using several enhanced oil recovery techniques (EOR)methods. Despite its highefficiency, widely acclaimed potentials, and limitations, the Low Salinity Water Flooding (LSWF), hybrid, and nanotechnology applications have gained vast interest with promising future to increase ultimate oil recovery, tackle operational challenges, reduce environmental damage, and allow the highest feasible recoveries with lower production costs. This synergistic combination has opened new routes for novel materials with fascinating properties. This book aims to provide an overview of EOR technology such as LSWF, hybrid, and nanotechnology applications in EOR processes.",isbn:"978-1-78985-108-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-107-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-153-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77411",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"enhanced-oil-recovery-processes-new-technologies",numberOfPages:160,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"62359d9c21b76f899be04fa0f8b46668",bookSignature:"Ariffin Samsuri",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7609.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3280,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:26,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 9th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 8th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 7th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 26th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 24th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"120519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ariffin",middleName:null,surname:"Samsuri",slug:"ariffin-samsuri",fullName:"Ariffin Samsuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/120519/images/system/120519.jfif",biography:"Professor Dr. Ariffin Samsuri is a Senior Professor of the Petroleum Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) with vast experience in managing R&D projects, faculty and department. He had more than 36 years teaching and supervising experiences in petroleum engineering including academic program development, staffing, faculty, and facilities establishment. He also had been appointed as a visiting professor at Universiti Teknologi Petronas, peer reviewers, external examiners, expert and academic advisory panels. He has published 142 technical papers for conferences/seminars and journals, authored 6 books, 3 book chapters, translated 4 books, edited 11 books and 5 research monographs. He also involved in more than 30 research projects in production optimization, rock mechanics, wellbore stability, well stimulation, cement and cementing, drilling and drilling fluid, biofuel and nanotechnology application in oil & gas.",institutionString:"University of Technology Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"768",title:"Petroleum Engineering",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-petroleum-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"68009",title:"Hybrid EOR Methods Utilizing Low-Salinity Water",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88056",slug:"hybrid-eor-methods-utilizing-low-salinity-water",totalDownloads:723,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,signatures:"Peyman Pourafshary and Nikoo Moradpour",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68009",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68009",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69126",title:"Nanotechnology Application in Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery: Current Opinion and Recent Advances",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88140",slug:"nanotechnology-application-in-chemical-enhanced-oil-recovery-current-opinion-and-recent-advances",totalDownloads:600,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,signatures:"Afeez Gbadamosi, Radzuan Junin, Muhammad Manan, Augustine Agi and Jeffrey Oseh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69126",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69126",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68749",title:"Surfactant Flooding for EOR Using Sodium Lignosulfonate Synthesized from Bagasse",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88689",slug:"surfactant-flooding-for-eor-using-sodium-lignosulfonate-synthesized-from-bagasse",totalDownloads:336,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Rini Setiati, Septoratno Siregar, Taufan Marhaendrajana and Deana Wahyuningrum",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68749",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68749",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69162",title:"Direct Gas Thickener",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88083",slug:"direct-gas-thickener",totalDownloads:257,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Nasser Mohammed Al Hinai, Matthews Myers, Colin D. Wood and Ali Saeedi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69162",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69162",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69025",title:"Potential of Low-Salinity Waterflooding Technology to Improve Oil Recovery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88082",slug:"potential-of-low-salinity-waterflooding-technology-to-improve-oil-recovery",totalDownloads:569,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Hisham Ben Mahmud, Shattia Arumugam and Walid Mahmud",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69025",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69025",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68839",title:"Development and Application of Chemical EOR Technologies in China Offshore Oil Fields",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88942",slug:"development-and-application-of-chemical-eor-technologies-in-china-offshore-oil-fields",totalDownloads:318,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Jian Zhang, Fengjiu Zhang, Xiaodong Kang and Baozhen Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68839",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68839",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69763",title:"CO2-EOR/Sequestration: Current Trends and Future Horizons",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89540",slug:"co-sub-2-sub-eor-sequestration-current-trends-and-future-horizons",totalDownloads:479,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Erfan Mohammadian, Badrul Mohamed Jan, Amin Azdarpour, Hossein Hamidi, Nur Hidayati Binti Othman, Aqilah Dollah, Siti Nurliyana Binti Che Mohamed Hussein and Rozana Azrina Binti Sazali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69763",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69763",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6532",title:"Drilling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3bb91a4e4eb17b4395091940cf1c36fe",slug:"drilling",bookSignature:"Ariffin Samsuri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6532.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"120519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ariffin",surname:"Samsuri",slug:"ariffin-samsuri",fullName:"Ariffin Samsuri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5811",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33b7777178f4a179ba475e3e15405427",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",bookSignature:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5811.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4751",title:"Storage Stability of Fuels",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc73beb5dc74410e15c8ee19ee4de722",slug:"storage-stability-of-fuels",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Biernat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4751.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"6466",title:"Shale Gas",subtitle:"New Aspects and Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"02763c6398f049c222acf6a774dd38ee",slug:"shale-gas-new-aspects-and-technologies",bookSignature:"Ali Al-Juboury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6466.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58570",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",surname:"Al-Juboury",slug:"ali-al-juboury",fullName:"Ali Al-Juboury"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7314",title:"Exploitation of Unconventional Oil and Gas Resources",subtitle:"Hydraulic Fracturing and Other Recovery and Assessment Techniques",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2eba15587cac74206f978e72a0cef2f9",slug:"exploitation-of-unconventional-oil-and-gas-resources-hydraulic-fracturing-and-other-recovery-and-assessment-techniques",bookSignature:"Kenneth Imo-Imo Eshiet",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195037",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenneth Imo-Imo Israel",surname:"Eshiet",slug:"kenneth-imo-imo-israel-eshiet",fullName:"Kenneth Imo-Imo Israel Eshiet"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"68990",slug:"erratum-application-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-development-of-a-multifeedstock-biodies",title:"Erratum - Application of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly: Development of a Multifeedstock Biodiesel Processor",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68990.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68990",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68990",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68990",chapter:{id:"63204",slug:"application-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-development-of-a-multifeedstock-biodiesel-proce",signatures:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan and Khumbulani Mpofu",dateSubmitted:"March 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 9th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"January 3rd 2019",book:{id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"11921",title:"Prof.",name:"Khumbulani",middleName:null,surname:"Mpofu",fullName:"Khumbulani Mpofu",slug:"khumbulani-mpofu",email:"mpofuk@tut.ac.za",position:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"260269",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilesanmi Afolabi",middleName:null,surname:"Daniyan",fullName:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan",slug:"ilesanmi-afolabi-daniyan",email:"afolabiilesanmi@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"63204",slug:"application-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-development-of-a-multifeedstock-biodiesel-proce",signatures:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan and Khumbulani Mpofu",dateSubmitted:"March 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 9th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"January 3rd 2019",book:{id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"11921",title:"Prof.",name:"Khumbulani",middleName:null,surname:"Mpofu",fullName:"Khumbulani Mpofu",slug:"khumbulani-mpofu",email:"mpofuk@tut.ac.za",position:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"260269",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilesanmi Afolabi",middleName:null,surname:"Daniyan",fullName:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan",slug:"ilesanmi-afolabi-daniyan",email:"afolabiilesanmi@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8710",leadTitle:null,title:"Eosinophils",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tEosinophils as white blood cell, help fight off parasite infections and play a role in immune response especially in allergic diseases. It can also cause inflammation. Eosinophils are a normal cellular component of the blood and also of certain tissues, including spleen, lymph nodes, thymus, and the submucosal areas of the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and genitourinary tracts. This can happen in many different parts of the body, including the esophagus, heart, lungs, blood, and intestines. This cell has main role in allergic diseases such as Allergic asthma, food allergy, eczema, urticaria, anaphylaxy, allergic rhinitis and other diseases such as Eosinophilic esophagitis, Eosinophilic gastritis, Eosinophilic gastroenteritis, Eosinophilic enteritis, Eosinophilic colitis, Hypereosinophilic syndrome and etc.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"310c9d9e1510937f3bec11533ead88be",bookSignature:"Dr. Seyyed Shamsadin Athari and Dr. Entezar Mehrabi Nasab",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8710.jpg",keywords:"Eosinophil, Eosinophilic diseases, Eosinophilia, Eosinopenia, Eosinophilic toxicity, Allergic Disorders, Allergy, Atopic diseases, Eosinophilic immunology, Parasite immunology, Allergic asthma, Hyper IgE",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 10th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 8th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 7th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 25th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 25th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",middleName:null,surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/139889/images/system/139889.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Seyyed Shamsadin Athari is an Assistant Professor of immunology at the Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran. He has an allergy and asthma toxicology postdoctorate degree and asthma management and controlling network fellowship. He has published more than 90 manuscripts in international journals on immunology, allergy and asthma and more than 28 books. He is also on the editorial board of more than 65 international journals in medical sciences and has more than 12 inventions in medical sciences and has recorded 12 gene sequences in the gene bank. Dr. Athari has been invited as top speaker for more than 40 international congresses and symposiums and has received several scientific awards from different scientific societies as a young top researcher and young scientist.",institutionString:"Zanjan University of Medical Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Zanjan University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"288617",title:"Dr.",name:"Entezar Mehrabi",middleName:null,surname:"Nasab",slug:"entezar-mehrabi-nasab",fullName:"Entezar Mehrabi Nasab",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/288617/images/system/288617.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Entezar Mehrabi Nasab is a medical doctor (MD), cardiologist (specialist in cardiovascular diseases) and she passed residency in Tehran Heart Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. She published more than 10 scientific articles on the international journals and also she has been invited as a speaker in more than 15 international congresses. She has received some scientific awards from different scientific society.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5776",title:"Allergen",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"20e406e7a94419ea2beba834a8030a79",slug:"allergen",bookSignature:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5776.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6617",title:"Immunoregulatory Aspects of Immunotherapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a2f42aa78dd846d4a1679066e72a7285",slug:"immunoregulatory-aspects-of-immunotherapy",bookSignature:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6617.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"69126",title:"Nanotechnology Application in Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery: Current Opinion and Recent Advances",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88140",slug:"nanotechnology-application-in-chemical-enhanced-oil-recovery-current-opinion-and-recent-advances",body:'Crude oil has remained the major source of world energy supply despite considerable efforts on other sources of energy [1]. Due to rapid industrialization, there is an increase in world energy demand leading the need to produce increasing volume of crude oil to support this demand. Meanwhile, the oil and gas industry is concerned with the shortage of new conventional oil reserves and low production from existing conventional reservoirs. On average, one-third of conventional reservoirs can be recovered through primary and secondary (i.e. waterflooding) oil recovery processes. The remaining oil-in-place is the target for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). Several EOR methods have been developed to recover bypassed and residual oil in the reservoir. These are majorly categorized into thermal and non-thermal EOR methods. Thermal EOR are unsuitable for reservoirs with great depth or thin pay zones. Hence, non-thermal EOR methods such as gas flooding, chemical flooding and microbial methods have received important attention over the last decades for oil recovery processes [2, 3, 4].
Of the numerous EOR methods, chemical EOR has been considered as the most promising because of its high efficiency, technical and economic feasibilities. Chemical EOR methods increase the efficiency of oil production by increasing the volumetric sweep efficiency of the injected waterflood. By tuning the efficiency of the injected chemical floods, the microscopic (pore scale) displacement efficiency and/or macroscopic (sweep) efficiency of the reservoir is increased leading to an increase in oil production. Chemicals for injection include alkali, surfactants, and polymers. Alkali and surfactants increase oil recovery by improving microscopic displacement at the pore scale; while polymers enhance the volumetric sweep efficiency of the reservoir [5].
Despite its highly reported efficiency and widely acclaimed potentials, chemical EOR has several limitations. The chemicals injected degrade and/or precipitate in the presence of resident reservoir brines and elevated temperature conditions. Besides, retention of the chemicals occurs during their flow in porous media which decreases it process efficiency and may lead to formation damage. To overcome this shortcoming, new salt and temperature-tolerant chemicals of various kinds have been developed and tested for their EOR potentials. Nonetheless, most of the newly developed chemicals have been jettisoned as they were found to increase the cost of the overall EOR process.
Nanotechnology is the application of nanoparticles characterized by a size ranging from 1 to 100 nm (see Figure 1) [6, 7]. In the oil and gas industry, applications of nanotechnology ranges from drilling processes, flow assurance, hydraulic fracturing, cementing, to EOR [8]. For EOR process, the engineered nanomaterials are mixed with fluids that are injected into the reservoir to boost oil production [9].
Schematic of increasing surface area of nanoparticle with decreasing particle size [
Nanoparticles and conventional EOR chemicals blends have been reported to possess important properties that are not observed in the individual chemical or nanoparticle [10]. For example, surfactant nanofluids (or nanosurfactant), a blend of nanoparticle and surfactant were reported to improve the efficiency of the surfactant at lowering the interfacial tension (IFT) of oil/water (o/w) interface and lower their adsorption during their transport in porous media [11]. Besides, emulsions and foams stabilized by nanoparticles are found to be thermodynamically stable and easily transported in reservoirs [12]. Meanwhile, polymeric nanofluids demonstrated to have improved rheological behavior and stability at characteristic reservoir temperature and salinity conditions [4]. This chapter presents an overview of nanotechnology applications in chemical EOR. First, the challenges of chemical EOR are briefly discussed. Subsequently, the mechanism and efficiency of nanotechnology application in chemical EOR is discussed. Finally, the experimental and laboratory studies of the newly devised EOR technique are outlined.
An oil reservoir exists at a specific temperature, salinity, and pH. The prevailing conditions of the reservoir influence the efficiency of the injected chemicals and consequently of the EOR process [13]. Most injected chemicals degrade and become unstable at high salinity, elevated temperature, and low pH conditions [14]. For polymers, under saline conditions, screening of the charged polymer molecules by cations contained in the reservoir brine occurs. This reduces the hydrodynamic radius and polymer chain entanglement causing the contraction of the macromolecules that ultimately results in the loss of polymer solution viscosity [15, 16]. Meanwhile, high temperature causes hydrolysis of the polymer and its precipitation in the presence of divalent ions [17]. In the case of surfactant and alkali solutions, depending on the rock type, precipitation of the chemicals occurs in the presence of divalent cations [18]. Low pH reservoir conditions might interact and acidify injected chemical solutions [15].
Depending on the type of chemical injected into the reservoir, adsorption and retention of chemical occur during flow through porous media, which negatively affects the efficiency of the EOR process [19]. Chemicals react with the rock surface through electrostatic attraction, steric interaction, and van der Waal forces that reduces the concentration of the injected chemical solutions. Adsorption is prevalent for surfactant and alkali chemicals, while polymer is mainly retained due to mechanical entrapment because of the size of the polymer macromolecules [3, 18, 20]. The adsorption process occurs when the interface is energetically favored by the surfactant and/or alkali in comparison to the bulk phase. Thus, the adsorption at the solid–liquid interface takes place by the transfer of the molecule of the chemical to the solid–liquid interface from the bulk solution phase [21]. Meanwhile, polymer retention and inaccessible pore volume dictates the propagation of polymer flow in the reservoir [22]. Retention of polymer is alluded to any mechanism that leads to reduction or removal of polymer molecules from transported aqueous phase. The nature of polymer retention in reservoir rock is depicted in Figure 2. Overall, adsorption and/or retention of chemicals in porous media governs the efficiency and economic viability of the EOR process. Several factors affecting adsorption or retention of chemical EOR includes; electrolyte concentration (salinity), temperature, pH, composition of reservoir fluids, and the presence of clay mineral content [21, 23].
Retention of polymers in porous media. Sourced from [
Nanotechnology application in chemical EOR is used to overcome the shortcomings and improve the process efficiency of chemical EOR methods. Though most works are still at the laboratory scale, the synergic application of nanoparticles and chemicals have led to the formation of novel nanomaterials with exceptional qualities [6]. Recently, field trials have been reported in Columbia oilfield [24]. Depending on the nanoparticle type and chemical used, the formulated nanomaterials have demonstrated better stability and superior quality which enhances their performance during simulated reservoir conditions. So far, the most common nano-chemical studies are polymeric nanofluids and surfactant nanofluids.
Surfactant nanofluid, a combination of nanoparticle and surfactant, increases the microscopic displacement efficiency through the mechanisms of IFT reduction and wettability alteration [11, 25, 26]. This nanofluid could be used for the generation or formation of stable foams and emulsions in the reservoir. Stable foams ensure fluid diversion from thief zones to lower permeability regions in the reservoir, while emulsions ensure conformance efficiency of the injectant [27, 28]. Furthermore, surfactant nanofluids have been reported to have lower adsorption onto rock surface compared to ordinary surfactant solutions [29, 30].
IFT and wettability are major parameters for quantifying fluids distribution and movement in the reservoir [31]. After secondary oil recovery, a portion of the oil is trapped in the reservoir due to capillary forces. This capillary force is measured by a dimensionless capillary number defined as [32]:
Where
Driven primarily by electrostatic interaction, the surfactant adsorbs on the nanoparticles surface forming surfactant-coated nanoparticles [11]. Nonetheless, the relative concentration of nanoparticles and surfactant in the solution determines the properties of the mixture. A lower concentration ratio of surfactant to nanoparticle in the mixture means that only a small fraction of the nanoparticle surface will be coated by surfactant. Conversely, a higher concentration ratio of surfactant to nanoparticles implies the surfactant molecules will form a bilayer on the particle surface [11, 34]. A single-chain surfactant on nanoparticle is required to form maximum nanoparticle flocculation and hydrophobic nature required for an optimal performance.
To quantify the performance of surfactant nanofluid on IFT of o/w interface, Le et al. evaluated the impact of silica (SiO2) nanoparticles and anionic surfactant for IFT reduction using a spinning drop tensiometer. Their results indicated that at a total concentration of 1000 ppm and at a surfactant to SiO2 ratio of 8:2, a four-fold IFT reduction was achieved by the nanosurfactant. Hence, they proposed the application of surfactant nanofluids for EOR in high temperature and high salinity (HTHS) conditions [35]. Mohajeri et al. evaluated the effect of zirconium oxide (ZrO2) nanoparticles on anionic sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) surfactant and cationic cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) surfactant [25]. They reported that the contribution of ZrO2/SDS yielded an IFT reduction of 81% while ZrO2/CTAB decreased the IFT of o/w interface by 70%. Zargartalebi et al. probed the effect of SiO2 nanoparticles and anionic SDS to quantify the effect of the nanoparticle on IFT, adsorption and oil recovery potential of the surfactant molecules. They observed that nanoparticles effectively improve surfactant performance by enhancing the governing mechanism. Furthermore, flooding results shows that oil recovery increased significantly due to the inclusion of nanoparticles in the surfactant solution [26].
The mechanisms of nanosurfactant for reducing IFT at o/w interface has been explored. Researchers noted that the adsorption of the surfactant on the nanoparticle surface occurs as a result of the mix, leading to a hydrophobic character of the nanoparticle surface. Due to their Brownian motion, the nanoparticle acts as carriers for the surfactant molecules from the bulk of the fluid to the interface. At the interface, the minimization of the interfacial energy by the nanosurfactant leads to IFT reduction. As compared to ordinary surfactant whose molecule desorbs from the interface after some time, the nanoparticle prevents desorption of surfactant molecules from the interface, hence, better IFT reduction [11].
The reduction of interfacial energy at the rock/oil/brine interface by nanosurfactant also results in higher wettability alteration. Besides, the relative permeability curves of oil and water also changes after contact with the surfactant nanofluid; the relative permeability to water and oil decreases and increases respectively [34]. Mohajeri et al. studied the effect of ZrO2/surfactants on wettability alteration in a fractured micromodel. The sessile drop experiments and wettability alteration measurements showed that coating the micromodel with heavy oil makes an oil-wet surface. Moreover, coating of the oil-wet micromodel with surfactant or nanoparticle altered the wettability of the surface to water-wet condition, while coating the surface with the blend ZrO2/surfactant altered the wettability to strongly water-wet condition [25].
Additionally, the use of nanosurfactants as wettability alteration agents have proved useful for improving oil recovery from carbonates reservoir, which are characterized by poor oil recovery owing to its inherent natural fractures and hydrophobic nature that makes water imbibition into its rock matrix difficult, because of capillary pressure effects. Nwidee et al. assessed the effect of nanosurfactant formulation for wettability alteration of oil-wet limestone over a wide range of temperatures (0–70
Surfactant nanofluids have also been used to improve wettability alteration of sandstone cores to boost oil recovery. Giraldo et al. tested alumina-surfactant nanofluid to improve oil recovery in sandstone cores via wettability alteration using contact angle and imbibition tests. Their results show that the effectiveness of surfactant as wettability modifier was improved with the addition of 100 ppm of alumina nanoparticles. Additionally, the effective oil permeability increased by 33%, and consequently, a higher oil recovery was recorded [37]. Huibers et al. measured changes in wettability of sandstone cores of saturated with light and heavy crude oil using surfactant nanofluid composed of SiO2 nanoparticle and Tween 20 nonionic surfactant in Berea and Boise sandstone cores. Using direct imaging and contact angle measurements, 0.001 wt.% SiO2 nanoparticles yielded an increase in contact angle of 101.6% for light oil saturated cores, while the optimum concentration for heavy oil was not ascertained at the nanoparticle concentration range investigated [38].
One of the major challenges of surfactant EOR is the loss of surfactant molecules to adsorption onto the formation rock during the flooding process. Surfactant adsorption can make the chemical EOR process economically unfeasible. Therefore, reducing the surfactant adsorption improves the oil recovery process. Previous studies have investigated the use of polymers such as sodium polyacrylate as sacrificial agent to reduce surfactant adsorption during flow in porous media [39]. Recently, the adsorption reduction effect of nanoparticles has been investigated during the co-injection of nanoparticles with surfactant for oil recovery. Nanoparticles showed good potential for inhibiting surfactant adsorption via competitive adsorption mechanism by blocking the active site of the porous media while the surfactant flows through the porous media contacting the resident fluids in the reservoir. Yekeen et al. observed that the presence of SiO2 and Al2O3 nanoparticles decreased surfactant adsorption on kaolinite in the presence of reservoir brines. The addition of Al2O3 nanoparticles reduced the SDS adsorption on kaolinite by 38%, while the addition of SiO2 nanoparticles reduced the SDS adsorption by 75% [40].
Wu et al. conducted static and dynamic adsorption experiments to investigate the inhibition mechanism of SiO2 nanoparticle during co-injection with surfactant. An optimum aging time, solid–liquid ratio, nanoparticle concentration, and surfactant concentration were determined for the adsorption process. Static adsorption experiments showed that 0.5 wt.% of SiO2 nanoparticle concentration reduced the adsorption of SDS from 2.84 to 1.61 mg/g. Dynamic adsorption experiments conducted at 20
Foams used for oil recovery are generated by co-injecting a gas (e.g., carbon dioxide, nitrogen or air) and a foaming agent containing liquid into the reservoir [41]. In the porous media, foams act as a dispersion of gas in liquid separated by a lamella, with the gas phase residing in the upper side while the bulk liquid is located at the bottom of the foam structure [42]. They perform two diverse roles in the reservoir namely; (1) mobility control, (2) fluid diversion. These mechanisms aid foam to overcome the challenges of gas EOR such as gravity override and viscous fingering phenomena. The liquids used as conventional foaming agents includes surfactants, polymers, and proteins. When used with polymers, foams are used to plug high permeability areas, while the polymer is diverted to lower permeability regions, thus, improving the volumetric sweep efficiency of the reservoir. In the case of surfactant-stabilized foams, a stable foam is formed due to a decrease in the required energy to form the gas–liquid interface [43]. Moreover, the synergic combination with surfactant lowers the interfacial tension of the capillary trapped oil, hence, facilitates oil displacement [44, 45]. Conventional foams have been shown to be thermodynamically unstable in the presence of oil and resident reservoir brines. This implies that the foam coalesces leading to of the reduced efficacy of the process. The addition of nanoparticles to the surfactant solution seems to generate more stable foams with longer half-life and ability to withstand harsh reservoir conditions [43]. Due to the solid nature of nanoparticles, the foams they stabilize are highly resistant to unfavorable reservoir conditions. Nanoparticles adsorb at the lamellae interface of the foam with a strong adhesion energy that makes their attachment irreversible (see Figure 3) [41, 46].
Foams stabilized (a) without nanoparticles showing signs of foam drainage, (b) with nanoparticles stabilizing the lamellae [
Sun et al. studied the influence of nanoparticles on the generation, propagation, and stability of SiO2/SDS-stabilized foam in micromodels and sandpack porous media [47]. In the case of the SDS-stabilized foam, the shape of the oil droplet could not be changed by the foam because the microforce acting on the oil droplet was small. This subsequently leads to bubbles rupture and coalescence leaving a substantial amount of oil trapped in the porous media. In the case of SiO2/SDS foam, a large amount of oil was displaced by the foam due to the higher microforce acting on the oil droplet. The higher microforce was attributed to the enhanced viscoelasticity of the bubble surface by the attached nanoparticles. Yekeen et al. studied the influence of SiO2 and Al2O3 nanoparticles on surfactant-foam stability and propagation in the presence of oil. They noted that the presence of nanoparticle increases foam half-life. Additionally, the SiO2-SDS and Al2O3-SDS foam achieved nearly 100% microscopic efficiency even in the presence of oil. Finally, they identified mechanisms of foam flow as lamellae division and bubble-to-multiple bubble lamellae division, while the dominant mechanism of oil displacement and residual oil saturation are direct displacement and emulsification of oil [40]. Tables 1 and 2 summarizes laboratory and experimental results of nanoparticles-stabilized and nanoparticle-surfactant stabilized foams.
Nanoparticle | Surfactant | NP conc. (wt.%) | Surfactant conc. | Base fluid | Oil type | Porous media type | Mechanism of recovery | RF | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SiO2 | SDS | 0.1–0.5 | 0.2 wt.% | Deionized water | Crude oil | Quartz sand | IFT, competitive adsorption | 4.68% IO | [29] |
SiO2 | Alfoterra, Soloterra | 0.1–0.8 | 0.005–0.2 wt.% | Brine | Crude oil | Dolomite, Limestone | IFT, WA | 37–45% OOIP | [48] |
SiO2 | TX-100 | 0.1 | 0.1 wt.% | Brine | Crude oil + kerosene | Sandstone | IFT, WA | 8% IO | [49] |
SiO2 | CTAB | 0.05–0.5 | 0.1 wt.% | Brine | Heavy oil | Micromodel | ES | 17.4–38% OOIP | [50] |
SiO2 | SDS | 0.25 | 1 wt.% | Brine | Heavy oil | Mircomodel | IFT, ES | 5% IO | [51] |
SiO2 | Non-ionic Tween 20 | 2–4 | 0.74 wt.% | Deionized water | Heavy oil | Micromodel | IFT, ES | 18–39% | [52] |
SiO2 | CTAB | 0–5 | 0.09 mM | Distilled water | Heptane | — | IFT | — | [53] |
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic SiO2 | SDS | 0.1 | 0.01–0.6 wt.% | Deionized water | — | Sandstone | IFT, Adsorption reduction | — | [54] |
Non-ferrous metal | Sulphanole | 0.001 | 0.0078–0.05 wt.% | — | Heavy oil | — | IFT, WA | 12–22% IO | [55] |
Al2O3 | PRNS | 0.001–1 | Distilled water | Heavy oil | Sandstone | WA | 33% IO | [37] | |
Fumed SiO2 Hydrophobic SiO2 | Zyziphus Spina Christi | 0.05–0.2 | 0.1–8 wt.% | Deionized water | — | Shale sandstone | Adsorption reduction | — | [56] |
ZrO2 | SDS, CTAB | 0.01 | 0.1–0.4 wt.% | Distilled water | Heavy oil | Micromodel | IFT, WA | — | [25] |
ZrO2, NiO | TX-100, CTAB | 0.004–0.05 | 0.1–3.2 wt.% | Deionized water | — | Limestone | WA | — | [36] |
SiO2 | SDS, PAM | 0.5–2.0 | 0.14 wt.% | Deionized water | Medium oil | Sandstone | IFT, WA | 60% OOIP | [57] |
Laboratory results of oil recovery applications by nanosurfactant.
Ref. | NP type | NP size (nm) | NP Conc. | Surfactant | Temperature | Pressure | Salinity | Foam generator | Oil recovery |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[58] | SiO2, Al2O3, CuO, TiO2 | 10–40 | 0.002–0.1 wt.% | — | 27 | — | NaCl (0.3 wt%) | Sandpack | 5.1–17.4% OOIPa |
[59] | PEG coated-SiO2 | 5 | 0.01–0.1 wt.% | — | 21.1–90 | 1350–1400 psia | NaCl (2–4 wt.%) | Glass beads pack, Capillary tube | — |
[60] | SiO2 | 100–150 | 0 – 5 wt.% | — | 25 | 1200 – 2000psia | NaCl (0.5, 2.0, 5.0%) | Sapphire observation tube | — |
[61] | AlOOH | 10–100 | 1 wt.% | SC (0–100 mM) | 60 | 6 mPa | NaCl (10–600 mM), CaCl2 (10–200 mM) | Sanpack | |
[62] | SiO2 | 17 | 0.01–0.5 wt.% | — | 25 | 1200 psig, 1500 psig | NaCl (2.0%) | Berea sandstone core | — |
[63] | SiO2 | 100–200 | 0.05–3.0% w/v | PEG, Tergitol 15-S-20, DCDMS | 35 | 1200–3000 psia | — | Glassbead pack | — |
[64] | APTES – SiO2 | 20–30 | 0.01 wt.% | SDS (0.4 wt.%) | 25 | 14.7 psi | — | Glassbead pack | 18% OOIPa |
[65] | PECNP | — | 1.0 wt.% | Surfonic N120 | 40 | 1300 psi, 1800 psi | KCl (2.0 wt.%) | Indiana limestone | 10.71% OOIPb |
[66] | TTFA | 80 | 0.5 wt.% | Cationic, anionic and non-ionic surfactant (0.2 wt.%) | 25 | 1300 psi (backpressure) | NaCl (1.0 wt.%) | Berea sandstone | — |
[67] | PEG coatedSiO2 | 10 (20) | 0.5 wt.% | AOS (0–0.5 wt.%) | 25 | 100 psi (backpressure) | NaCl (1–10 wt.%), API Brine | Berea sandstone | 10% OOIPa |
[68] | SiO2, Al2O3, CuO, TiO2 | 10–40 | 0.1–1.0 wt.% | AOS (O.5 wt.%) | Room temperature | — | NaCl (2 wt.%) | Sandpack models | 5–14% OOIPa |
[69] | FA | 100–200 | < 0.05 wt.% | AOS (0.0315 wt.%) | — | — | NaCl (1.0–5.0 wt.%), CaCl2 (0–9.5 wt.%) | Bentheimer sandstone | — |
[70] | SiO2 | 5, 12, 25, 80 | 0.5–10 wt.% | — | 70 | 2200 psi | NaCl (8.0 wt.%), CaCl2 (2.0 wt.%) | Biose sandstone, Sandpack | — |
[71] | Al2O3 – coated SiO2 | 20 | 1–5 wt.% | Triton CG-110 AOS, PG (0.1–0.5 wt.% | Room temperature | 100 psi (backpressure) | — | Berea sandstone | 14.8–20.6% OOIPa |
[72] | MWCNT | 10 | 0.01 wt.% | Tergitol 15-s-40, AOS | 25 | — | NaCl (2.4 wt.%), CaCl2 (0.6 wt.%) | Ottawa sandpack | — |
[73] | PEG coated SiO2 | 5 (10) | 0.3 wt.% | AOS (0.5 wt.% | 55, 75 | 110 psi (backpressure) | NaCl (1–8 wt.%) | Heterogeneous sandpack | 34.4% OOIPa 9% OOIPb |
[46] | SiO2 Al2O3 | 12–20 | 0.05–5.0 wt% | SDS (0.03 wt.%) | 25 | — | NaCl (0.5 wt.%) | Hele-shaw cell | — |
[74] | PEG-SiO2, GLYMO-SiO2 | 12, 20 | 0.5 wt.% | AOS | 25, 60, 80 | 110 psi (backpressure) | NaCl (8 wt.%), CaCl2 (2 wt.%) | Sandpack | 29.0–43.3% OOIPa |
Laboratory and experimental investigation of nanoparticle/nanoparticle-surfactant stabilized foams.
aIncremental oil recovery over waterflood.
bIncremental oil recovery over surfactant-stabilized foam.
On the other hand, the interactions of surfactants with oil during flow through porous media may generate emulsions. Emulsions generated
Pei et al. investigated the synergetic effect of SiO2 nanoparticle and CTAB for o/w emulsions applications. Phase behavior testing, rheology evaluation, and micro-visualization studies showed that nano-surfactant-stabilized emulsion demonstrated a high bulk viscosity and desirable mobility for recovering heavy oil [50]. Kumar et al. synthesized a Pickering emulsion stabilized by SiO2 nanoparticle and sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) surfactant. The synthesized Pickering emulsion displayed better thermal stability at the high pressure (0–5 MPa) and high temperature (30–100
Depending on the method of preparation, polymeric nanofluids are categorized into two types; polymer-coated nanoparticles and polymer nanoparticles. Polymer-coated nanoparticles were developed due to overcome the aggregation and agglomeration problems of nanoparticles at reservoir conditions. It involves grafting polymers onto the surface of nanoparticles to improve dispersibility. In addition, their properties can be customized for particular applications [34]. Meanwhile, polymer nanoparticles are prepared by the hybrid dispersion of nanoparticles in polymer solutions. These polymer nanoparticles emerged as a means of inhibiting polymer degradation in typical reservoir conditions [4]. The mechanisms of polymeric nanofluids performance during EOR applications include improved rheology and stability, wettability alteration, and lower polymer adsorption [6].
Rheology is defined as the study of flow and deformation behaviors of fluids under stress [76]. For EOR applications, an improved rheological behavior of injectant is required to inhibit viscous fingering phenomena and maintain a suitable mobility ratio in the reservoir; which requires that the displacing fluid maintain its viscosity and chemical integrity in the presence of resident reservoir brines [77]. Polymer and nanoparticles undergo degradation in the presence of reservoir brines. The cations present in the brine interact with the carboxylate and amide groups in the polymer molecule resulting in viscosity loss [78]. In the case of nanoparticles, the electrostatic attraction among nanoparticles are increased in the presence of brine fostering their aggregation and agglomeration; which implies the loss of surface functionality that is required for EOR [79]. However, the combination of polymer and nanoparticles results in a synergistic effect that improves the rheology of the polymer and the stability of the nanoparticle [4].
The preparation of polymer-nanoparticles blends involves the mixing of the nanoparticle and the polymer solution or grafting of the polymer on the nanoparticle [80, 81]. Subsequently, interactions occur between the nanoparticle and the carboxylate and amide group in the polymer molecules. Therefore, nanoparticles act as physical crosslinkers among the polymer chains forming three-dimensional network of stable flocs that increases the viscosity of the suspension [82]. At high temperature, polymer-nanoparticles blends exhibit better rheological performance due to the enhanced bridging induced flocculation [82, 83]. Furthermore, in the presence of reservoir brines, nanoparticles shield the polymer backbone from the cations of the brine by inducing ion-dipole interactions that inhibit the degradation of the polymer molecules [81].
Lai et al. noted that the shear and mechanical resistance of acrylamide polymer solution can be increased by adding modified nano-SiO2, because the presence of SiO2-NP caused a reduction of the hydrodynamic radius of the polymer molecules [84]. Hu et al. studied the rheological properties on an oilfield polyacrylamide (HPAM) -SiO2 NP under different aging times, salinity, and temperature conditions. The results demonstrated that the presence of the SiO2-NP significantly improved the viscosity and viscoelastic properties of the HPAM under high temperature and high salinity (HTHS) conditions [80]. Haruna et al. grafted HPAM molecules with graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets and evaluated the rheological and stability properties of the formulated polymeric nanofluid. They reported enhancement of the suspension viscosity behavior, as well as high-temperature stability and improved elastic properties of the dispersion [85].
As for polymer-coated nanoparticles, depending on the grafting method, the polymeric chains protrude from the nanoparticle surface. Hence, hydrodynamic interactions occur between the grafted nanoparticle when subjected to shear. Besides, polymeric chains grafted on the surface of the nanoparticle overlap with another polymer chain adsorbed on another nanoparticle. The overlapping of several grafted nanoparticles results in the strengthening of the network structure of the polymer -nanoparticle system. Consequently, hydro clusters are formed, which results in an increase of stability and viscosity [86]. Liu et al. grafted a layer of amphiphilic-polymeric chains on nano-SiO2 core shell via a facile water-free radical polymerization and evaluated its rheological properties and oil recovery performance. The synthesized polymer-coated nanoparticle formed a three-dimensional microstructure and intermolecular associations characterized by long-term stability and better rheological properties than the individual polymer or nanoparticles. Furthermore, a 20% incremental oil recovery was recorded after flooding the polymer-coated nanoparticle solution at a concentration of 1500 mg/L in sandstone cores [87]. Table 3 summarizes some laboratory and experimental studies of improved rheological properties and oil displacement properties of polymeric nanofluids.
References | NP type | Polymer/copolymer type | PNF conc. (ppm) | Brine/conc. | Temp. (°C) | Porous media type | Incremental oil recovery (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[88] | SiO2 | PEOMA | 10,000 | 1.0 wt.% NaCl | 30 | Berea sandstone | 19.5 |
[89] | SiO2 | AMPS | 50,000 | — | 80 | Quartz sand | 23.22 |
[90] | SiO2 | PEG | 10,000 | — | 80 | Glass micromodel | 20.0 |
[87] | SiO2 | MeDiC8AM | 1500 | 12 wt.% (NaCl & CaCl2) | 82.3 | Sandstone | 20.0 |
[91] | SiO2 | AMC12S | 1100 | 18 wt.% | 110 | Sandstone | 24.0 |
[92] | SiO2 | AA/AM | 2000 | 2 wt.% NaCl, 0.18 wt.% CaCl2 | 65 | Sandstone | 20.1 |
[93] | SiO2 | AM/AA | 1500 | — | — | — | 18.84 |
[94] | SiO2 | HPAM | 1000 | 2.4 wt.% (NaCl, CaCl2, MgCl2) | 25 | Glass micromodel | 10.0 |
[95] | SiO2 | HPAM | 800 | 3 wt.% NaCl | — | Glass micromodel | 10.0 |
[76] | MMT clay | HPAM | 1000 | 10 wt.% (NaCl, CaCl2, MgCl2) | 90 | Quartz sand | 33.0 |
Laboratory results of oil recovery applications by polymeric nanofluid [6].
Polymeric nanofluids also show reduced adsorption onto porous media due to the synergic interaction between the polymer and nanoparticles. Foster et al. used the grafting through approach to tether tuneable quantities of poly(2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid) (PAMPS) and poly([3-(methacryloxylamino)propyl]dimethyl(3-sulfopropyl)ammoniumhydroxide)(PMPDSA) homopolymer (PMPDSA) onto iron oxide nanoparticle surfaces. Steric stabilization of the synthesized polymer-coated nanoparticle was observed which remained stable at HTHS conditions. Moreover, adsorption experiments on crushed Berea sandstone cores showed that the adsorption of polymer-coated iron oxide nanoparticles was infinitesimal and almost negligible [96]. Cheraghian et al. performed static adsorption experiments to investigate the impact of nano-SiO2 and nanoclay on the adsorption inhibition of polyacrylamide onto sandstone rocks. Polymer nanoparticles containing SiO2 nanoparticle showed lower adsorption onto sandstone rock surface compared to the polymer containing nanoclay [97].
Wettability alteration plays a vital role in enhancing the microscopic displacement efficiency. In the case of polymeric nanofluids, an interplay of electrostatic repulsive forces occur at the interface of the nanoparticles., Two-dimension layered structure of nanoparticles occur due to Brownian motion when brought into contact with an oil-wet solid surface, creating a wedge film because of the ordering of nanoparticles at the three-phase (solid-oil–water) contact region. This results in an increase of the disjoining pressure,which causes the spreading of the nanofluid phase at the wedge of the vertex, altering the wettability of the surface [6]. Maurya et al. grafted polyacrylamide on the surface of SiO2 using the free radical polymerization approach and investigated its wettability potential on an oil-wet sandstone rock surface. They indicated that the polymer grafted nanoparticle altered the wettability of the sandstone surface to a more water-wet condition [86]. Maghzi et al. performed wettability alteration studies employing polymer nanoparticles consisting of SiO2 nanoparticle and polyacrylamide polymer solution in a five-spot glass micromodel. The polymer nanoparticle altered the surface of the micromodel from an average contact angle of 112
This chapter summarizes some of the recent advances in the application of nanotechnology in chemical EOR processes to boost oil production. The mechanisms of oil recovery through nanotechnology were reviewed. Several experimental studies were summarized and discussed. Results of various experiments shows that the incorporation of nanotechnology with chemical EOR shows good potential to improve pore scale mechanisms in the case of surfactant. Adsorption of surfactant on rock pores is inhibited while greater IFT reduction and better wettability alteration were achieved. Furthermore, nanotechnology improved the rheological properties of polymer and stability of emulsions and foams indicating the good potentials of improving sweep efficiency of injected chemicals especially in the presence of harsh reservoir conditions. Finally, future research should focus on modeling the flow behavior of nanomaterials through porous media, which is required for the designing and field implementation of nano-chemicals EOR.
AA | acrylic acid |
AlOOH | aluminum hydroxide |
AM | acrylamide |
AMPS | 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid |
AMC12S | 2-acrylamido-dodecylsulfonate |
APTES | (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane |
AOS | alpha olefin sulfonate |
CaCl2 | calcium chloride |
CuO | copper oxide |
DCDMS | dichlorodimethylsilane |
ES | emulsion stability |
FA | fly ash |
GLYMO | (3-glycidyloxypropyl)trimethoxysilane |
HPAM | hydrolysed polyacrylamide |
IO | incremental oil |
KCl | potassium chloride |
PAM | polyacrylamide |
PECNP | polyelectrolyte composite nanoparticle |
PEG | polyethylene glycol |
PEOMA | poly(oligo(ethylene oxide) mono methyl ether methacrylate) |
MeDiC8AM | 2-methyl-N,N-dioctyl-acrylamide |
MWCNT | multiwall carbon nanotube |
MgCl2 | magnesium chloride |
MMT | montmorillonite |
NaCl | sodium chloride |
NiO | nickel oxide |
NP | nanoparticle |
OOIP | original-oil-in-place |
RF | recovery factor |
SC | sodium cumenesulfonate |
TTFA | thermally treated fly ash |
WA | wettability alteration |
Inside the human body, cells produce hundreds of biochemical reactions at extremely precise and controlled moments. Cells can be thought of as a factory, regulating what enters or leaves its barrier. From a metabolism point of view, any “error” in biochemical processes (temporary or permanent) leads to abnormal concentrations of metabolites and/or presence of “abnormal” metabolites. Consequently, a wealth of metabolites with low molecular weight as well as high molecular weight can be exploited as a “precious” source of information revealing the metabolic state of the body. Metabolites can be excreted via the urine, feces, saliva, blood, breath, or sweat. Among these metabolites, researchers are actively trying to find biomarkers, identifying the presence of different diseases (cancers, infections and so on). Especially in the instance of different cancers, the lack of specific syndromes with limited understanding of etiology make it difficult to diagnose at an early stage. Nevertheless, biomarkers can turn out to be powerful tool in predicting the development of these cancer and other diseases.
\nAmong all biological samples, exhaled breath has many advantages compared to bio-fluids. First, breath sampling is pain-free, non-invasive, and most important is almost “unlimited”. Secondly, breath Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) are collected from the airways which is directly connected to the entire body via the bloodstream. Blood continuously circulates around body periodically reaching the air-blood barrier of the alveoli within lungs, VOCs from the whole body can cross this barrier from the blood and be released into the exhaled breath. Conversely, exhaled breath is a very complex matrix and can be challenging to investigate being influenced by a patient’s habits, diet, and the environment [1].
\nThe human airways emits a gigantic number (>3000) of VOCs of different origin [2]. VOCs can either be endogenous (arise from the body) or exogenous (environmental source) as shown in Figure 1(A). While it is rather easy to monitor exogenous VOCs, endogenous VOCs can be produced from various sources: normal metabolism of nutrient, inflammatory processes, metabolic processes (diseased and normal), cancerous cells, and microbiome of the oral cavity, airways and gastrointestinal tract. In addition to multiplicity of compounds originating from the different endogenous sources, exhaled breath is saturated with water vapor leading to relative humidity close to 100%, which may impact the collection and analysis of VOCs. In spite of these challenges in exhaled breath research, it continues to attract the interest of scientists worldwide. For the past fifty years, publications on VOCs and exhaled breath have grown exponentially with great effort being devoted to discover VOCs biomarkers related different diseases (Figure 1(B)).
\n(A) Pathway of exhaled molecules in the human body, (B) number of research publications involving VOCs and breath field (data from PubMed database).
A typical workflow for breath collection and analysis in a clinical setting is shown in Figure 2. The breath analysis starts with the study design and sample collection. Once collected samples must be properly transported and stored until analysis. After the analysis on an analytical instrument important for the specific study design, data would undergo statistical testing and biological interpretation. Finally, results require validation before being directed to the Point-of-Care (POC) development stage.
\nA schematic of breath analysis pipeline and recommendation. TDT: Thermal desorption tubes; SPME: Solid phase microextraction; SIFT MS: Selected-ion flow-tube mass spectrometry; GC- MS: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry; GCxGC TOF: Two-dimensional gas chromatography and time-of-flight mass spectrometry; GC SAW: Gas chromatography surface acoustic wave.
This book chapter addresses the efforts of many researchers to identify and validate VOCs resulting from various diseases and summarize important technological advancements used to pre-concentrate and analyze VOCs.
\nThe concept of “off-line” breath analysis can be broadly fragmented into breath sample collection, sample analysis, and data analysis. In this section, a summary of principal methods used to “catch” and to “focus” breath samples is exposed whilst advantages, disadvantages, and practical suggestions are systemically reported.
\nThe major objective of sampling is to take a representative “sample” from a matrix. Usually, a pump or vacuum are used to achieve this process. Decisions to be made must balance between cost including the duration of the sampling period, the size of each sample, and the number of samples.
\nSampling bags are low-cost, whole-air sampling devices for VOCs and permanent gases. Several EPA, NIOSH, and OSHA methods exist for bag sampling for a variety of applications: sources emissions; indoor air quality, workplace atmospheres, and breath analysis [3]. Bags remain popular among researchers, principally due to their low cost and reusability. However, they are known to contain several artifacts, and a tradeoff between competitive pricing and performance is rapidly pointed.
\nTedlar® bags are the most commonly used polymer-based bags in air and breath research. Their main disadvantages to the use of Tedlar® bags are largely due to the interaction of air or breath constituents with the polymer which bags are fabricated with. This interaction results in contamination through emission, adsorption, and diffusion. Other polymers were developed to overcome the above-cited disadvantages, such as Mylar (polyethylene terephthalate) and Altef (polyvinylidene difluoride). Table 1 presents a brief comparison of different type of sampling bags.
\n\n | Tedlar bags | \nMulti-layer foil bags | \nAltef bags | \n
---|---|---|---|
PVF | \n4 layers: Nylon, 2 × polyethylene, aluminum foil | \nPVDF | \n|
\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n|
\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
DMAC: Dimethylacetamide, PVF: Polyvinyl fluoride, PVDF: Polyvinylidene fluoride.
Sorbent name | \nMaterial | \nApplications | \n
---|---|---|
Tenax TA | \n2,6-diphenylene-oxide porous polymer | \nC7-C26 | \n
Tenax GR | \nMixture between graphite (30%) and (70%) 2,6-diphenylene-oxide | \nC7-C26 | \n
Carbotrap | \nGraphitized carbon black | \n\n |
\n
| \nC3-C9 | \n|
C5-C12 | \n||
C12-C20 | \n||
>C20 | \n||
Carboxen | \nCarbon molecular sieve | \n\n |
\n
| \nC3-C5 | \n|
C2-C5 | \n||
Carbosieve | \nCarbon molecular sieve | \nC2-C5 | \n
\n
| \n
Various sorbent materials used for thermal desorption applications.
C: Number of carbon atoms.
Some practical considerations must be taken to avoid sample loos or degradation. Moreover, it is preferable to not reuse bags.
\nPractical considerations:
Clean bags before use to minimize the background signal associated with the plastic interior (several times).
Bag cleaning should be performed as close to the time of sampling (flushing nitrogen for example).
Analyze or pre-concentrate samples already filled in the bag as fast as possible to avoid losses, interaction with the plastic of the bag, photodegradation, and adsorption.
Protect the bag from direct sunlight and store it in a rigid container to prevent photodegradation and bag puncture respectively.
Do not fill the bag more than 80% of its volume
Despite their price that is expensive compared to sampling bags, canisters are known to be robust, relatively inert, and non-permeable (example of breath air [4, 5]). They are made with stainless steel and their inner surface interaction with the samples (adsorption, desorption) is of paramount importance especially when lower and lower concentrations exist. The chemical composition of the metal obviously will affect the type of chemical or physical reactions with the sample. To enhance their inertness vis-à-vis sulfur-based samples (for example), canisters are passivated, electropolished, or coated. Canisters are known to be reusable and the sample can be stored until 30 days without loss or degradation.
\nPractical considerations:
Canisters are less useful, is some cases, to the storage of semi-volatile and polar compounds DUE to condensation and/or dissolution into water at higher pressure.
Choose inner surface-deactivated to avoid adsorption and interaction with samples.
Canisters must be cleaned prior to use. In fact, canisters should be pressurized and evacuated (to be cleaned), and evacuated once more to create vacuum.
An alternative to metal canisters, glass containers have been used for sampling breath [6]. Despite their fragility, they can be more performant than Tedlar bags as reporter by Scott-Thomas et al. [7].
\nDirect sample introduction by syringe or rotary valves is only suitable for small volumes of “relatively” concentrated samples. In the field of metabolomics, the discovery of diseases biomarkers for example (from urine, feces, breath, tumor and cells) requires analysis of trace and ultra-trace levels of targeted compounds.
\nTraces analysis methods involve analyte accumulation by sorbent (solid, film) followed by thermal vaporization in the presence of a flow of gas to transport them to the analyzers.
\nThermal desorption tubes (TD) are the most commonly used medium for the collection and pre-concentration of human breath samples for cancer diagnosis, infections, and bacteria recognition [13, 14]. In thermal desorption technique, sample is swept into the gas chromatograph using heating and a flow of the carrier gas. The desorbed “plug” or “band” of the sample should be as a narrow as possible (chromatographic considerations). However, due to low mass transfer, commonly, sample is first heated slowly letting the desorbed material to be cold-trapped at the head of the column (cold trap or a cryogenic oven). Secondly, the re-condensed sample is then desorbed as the temperature program proceeds.
\nTo trap the VOCs, thermal desorption tubes comprise various sorbent materials (Table 2). The sorbent materials can be synthesized (polymer such as Tenax TA) or obtained by graphitizing carbon, which adsorbs a large molecular range of VOCs.
\nThe small size of the tubes (~7 cm length), and their suitability to be used both for active and passive sampling (with or without pump) make them attractive for various applications even standardized methods (EPA—TO-17, ASTM—D6196, NIOSH—2549).
\nSupelco reported a tool for selecting adsorbent for thermal desorption applications [15]. The goal is to select the “proper” adsorbent that can retains a specific or groups of analytes for a specified sample volume.
\nSolid-phase Microextraction (SPME) technic uses a polymer-coated fiber housed in a modified syringe as a sampling device. When SPME is used for analysis, first, the syringe needle is placed into the analyte, and the coated fiber is then exposed. Once the system is brought to equilibrium, the coated fiber is retracted into the syringe needle and removed from the sample (bag filled with breath for example). The needle is then transferred to a heated inlet of the GC, and the analytes are thermally desorbed.
\nAlthough SPME is well established, accepted, and validated for various fields (air quality, environment, and food analysis), having yet to gain acceptance as a standard method in biotechnological industries. Figure 3 highlights exemplary applications of SPME toward health monitoring and biomedical research.
\nCommon applications of SPM in biology and medical researches.
The volatilome of the healthy human body comprises over 1840 VOCs (breath, blood, sweat, urine, and feces) [16]. In this line, SPME-GC–MS was used by Garcia et al. [17] to compare breath issuing from smokers, non-smokers, and patients with laryngeal cancer. Authors have found seven unique VOCs discriminating non-healthy and healthy controls. In the same line, SPME was applied in vitro to demonstrate that particular VOCs are present in exhaled breath of lung cancer patients at significantly different levels than those found in healthy controls [11].
\nBean et al. [18], with the help of SPME-GCxGC-TOF-MS, identified 70 compounds indicating presence of
Type of SPME fiber significantly affect the number and the type of volatile compounds that can be detected, and hence introduces another source of variability to the results [17]. Common type of SPME fibers used to extract compounds are listed in Table 3.
\nType of coating | \nFilm thickness (μm) | \nPolarity | \nMaximum temperature (°C) | \nCore type | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PDMS | \n30, 100 | \nNon-polar | \n300 | \nFused Silica | \nMetal | \n
PA | \n85 | \nPolar | \n320 | \nFused Silica | \n|
PEG (Carbowax) | \n60 | \nPolar | \n250 | \nMetal | \n|
Carbopack Z/PDMS | \n15 | \nBipolar | \n340 | \nMetal | \n|
PDMS/DVB | \n65 | \nBipolar | \n270 | \nStableflex | \nMetal | \n
Carboxen-PDMS | \n85 | \nBipolar | \n320 | \nStableflex | \nMetal | \n
Type of commercially available SPME fiber adapted from Ref. [20].
PDMS: Polydimethylsiloxane, DVB: Divinylbenzene, PA: Polyacrylate, PEG: Polyethylene glycol.
PDMS is the coating of choice to extract many classes of non-polar and less polar compounds. At the opposite, polyacrylate coating is the best to extract polar compounds. For example, mixed phase coatings (polar and non-polar) based on PDMS-PEG are used to extract both polar and non-polar compounds.
\nIn addition to the above-cited applications of SPME fibers, their ability to extract semi-volatile or non-volatile compounds was demonstrated [21, 22]. In fact, biofluids including urine, saliva or blood, might comprise many organic compounds which are not present in the vapor phase and hence could not been achieved by headspace analysis [23, 24]. For additional information, a recent review compiling the most recent applications of SPME in biotechnology and clinical studies was written by Filipiak et al. [25].
\nHeadspace takes advantage of the closed-vessel equilibrium between either a solid or a liquid and a gas (urine, blood, feces). In the headspace analysis, an aliquot of the equilibrated gas phase is removed from the vessel and GC analyzes the aliquot. This technic is often coupled to SPME (exposing the fiber to the headspace of the sample). Zhang and Raftery reported metabolic profiling of urinary VOCs using SPME-GC–MS [26].
\nVOCs present in exhaled breath may also originate from external environment (exogenous VOCs). The goal of sampling breath is to minimize the concentration of exogenous substances. Additionally, dead space air (oral and nasal cavities, gut) acts to dilute and may contaminate VOCs from blood gas exchange. To subtract VOCs levels from contaminant sources, measurement follow specific pathway. Using a capnometer, Miekich et al. [27] found that the end-tidal portion of breath showed the highest concentrations of endogenous and the lowest concentration of exogenous substances. In addition to end-tidal, other terms as Mixed respiratory or late expiratory are found to describe the rest of breath fractions [28].
\nR-tube is well known as exhaled breath condensate portable collector. The sampler includes a cooling sleeve (frozen until needed), a one-way valve, and a plunger. A modified version or R-tube was used by Martin et al. [29] to sample breath volatile compounds by SPME.
\nBio-VOC is a commercially available system marketed by Markes International. It consists of a hard plastic cylinder connected on one side to a disposable mouthpiece and to sorbent tube on the other side. Poli et al. [30] have used Bio-VOC with SPME fiber to determine aldehydes in exhaled breath of patients with lung cancer.
\nReciva sampler (marketed by Owlstone Medical) is a commercially available sampler. Its uses pressure-modulation (two pumps) breath sampling onto four adsorbent tube. A disposable silicon mask coupled to bacterial filter are also present to prevent cross-contamination (contamination between subjects).
\nA pressurized clean air supply is however needed to minimize the concentration of exogenous VOCs.
\n“On-line analyses” of exhaled breath, sometimes called “direct” or “real-time” breath analyses are mass spectrometry based methods which needs no sample preparation or collection. At the opposite to off-line methods which requires two-step processes (collection and analysis), on-line analyses are one-pot analysis method. The three main online methods for breath analyses are SIFT-MS, PTR-MS, and SESI-MS.
\nSIFT-MS is more suitable for targeted analyses however their limiting factor is low mass resolution. Recently, new enhancement is introduced to this method including the use of time-of-flight (TOF) mass analyzers and the use of the electric fields in the drift tube (SIFDT).
\nPTR-MS had been first established in the field of environmental analyses and recently in the field of breath analyses. Its limitation is set by the principle that only VOCs having a higher proton affinity than that of water can be detected. New enhancement including the use of TOF and more recently a quadrupole boosts this method to detect higher than m/Δm 10 000.
\nSESI-MS has been found to be the most sensitive for polar compounds reaching sub ppqv. The use of SESI-MS in analyses of the breath condensate is well established by high-performance gas chromatography (HPLC). However, the main disadvantage of this method is that use to analyze gas phase is not yet possible.
\nUndoubtedly, Mass Spectrometric methods are the most sensitive and the most appropriate for compounds discovery and identification. However, their use in clinic studies remain limited due to practical considerations. Bruderer et al. [31] reviewed extensively on-line methods for exhaled breath analyses.
\nIn the early 90’s, two-dimensional gas chromatography has become available for the separation and the identification of complex mixtures. This section demonstrates the versatility and applicability of 2D-GC and an analytical tool for breath analyses.
\nIn GC, higher the resolving power, the better the performance. It is understandable that, if the column becomes longer, they could resolve more analyte. There are multiple examples of a very long (>100 m) column used on a very complex sample separation in a 1D GC experiment [32]. Other than the length of the column, there are few more approaches have been taken to improve the resolving power of the samples. One, forwarding a part of the sample to a second column to be better resolved based on another separation mechanism. This process is known as the Classical Multidimensional Gas Chromatography or MDGC [33]. The second approach transfers effluent of the first column to a second column for a comprehensive separation of the samples by a modulation device that forwards a very narrow band from the first to the second column. This process is named as GC × GC or Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography [34].
\nThe GC × GC system is operated as two different stationary phases that have different separation mechanisms are connected to each other so result in an orthogonal separation of the sample [34]. But to achieve this, there is a special device called “modulator” is connected in between the two phases, so it can sample and re-inject the first column effluent to the second phase for a complete independent separation [35].
\nThe heart of GC × GC is the modulator. There are extensive reviews that already exist on the fundamental of the GC × GC modulator [36, 37]. There are different types of modulators that have been introduced in the field, such as thermal modulator, valve-based modulator and, flow modulator. The main task of all these modulators are to sample the primary column effluents to the second column (a sharp pulse of 1D peak). One main difference is the requirement of the focusing steps. The cryogen-free modulator such as the flow modulator, Peltier modulator does not have any focusing effect where the cryogenic modulator like longitudinally modulated cryogenic system (LMCS) has focusing steps, hence requires liquid N2 or CO2 to cold trap the analyte from 1D before eluting to the 2D column. Although it is a compensation of the peak capacity, the consumable-free modulator is getting more popular due to low set-up fees, less consumable and maintenance free and lowest safety issue. Figure 4 gives an example of 2D-GC configuration.
\nThe capillary flow technology (CFT) based flow modulator design. The arrows show the flow direction. The injector (1) is connected to the primary column (2) that passes through a channel (3) that is mounted inside of CFT device (5). A modulation valve (4) is connected to supply ancillary flow of carrier gas supply to divert the flow in a downward direction as seen in (a): Load position, or upward as in (b): Inject position toward to a 2D column (6) to detector (7). With permission from [
This is vital for the detector of GC × GC to have certain characteristics. This is because the second dimension separation occurs quickly, demanding a fast acquisition detector with at-least 50 scans/second. The Flame Ionization Detector (FID), Electron capture detector (ECD) or Flame photometric detector (FPD) also acquire fast data and are able to collect enough data points for even 300 ms width GC × GC peak. The high-speed MS detector time of flight (TOF) is often used as a detector for the GC × GC. Using MS with GC × GC separation adds massive benefits for compound identification through the deconvolution of the mass/charge ratio (m/z) and results presented in a two dimensional contour plot. There are few software package available to do this deconvolution and identification of compounds with spectral matching to known compound libraries.
\nThe primary benefit of using GC × GC for VOCs analysis is the enhanced selectivity that helps complete separation of the complex VOCs matrix. A number of literature has been reported to utilize the GC × GC for this purpose, and discussed more detail in the next section. The typical column configuration that are used with GC × GC for the breath analysis are a non-polar long column (30 to 60 meters) such as (5%-phenyl)-methylpolysiloxane phase as first dimension and a short (1–2 meters) polar column such as Wax phase as second dimension [13, 14, 18]. An interesting optimization study also recommend the same non-polar and polar column set for VOCs analysis [38]. The study compares a number of commercially available column such as 1%-phenyl, 5%-phenyl, and WAX phase as 1D column and WAX, 5%-phenyl and ionic liquid column as 2D phase. Based on the observed chromatogram and tradeoff between column maintenance and separation efficiency, the orthogonal non-polar and polar set was recommended.
\nNevertheless, the 1D GC is long been used for the VOCs analysis as they are the most robust and reliable tools for the VOC analysis and available in many labs around the world. The benefits of using 1D classical GC for VOCs include the reproducibility, simple operation, presence of the comprehensive library and ease of data management. There are a number of mass analyzer technologies such as quadrupole, TOF and Ion trap that also makes 1D GC as a strong tool for the VOCs analysis. The 1D GC–MS systems is reported to analyze VOC “propofol”, a drug that is used as anesthesia during surgery [39]. These results indicated a precise and sensitive determination of propofol in breath and blood by the GC–MS analysis. Ulanowska et al., determined the VOCs from the
Breath analysis is traditionally used for the signature of the disease. There is a disease-specific chemical signature that can be differentiated based on the breath sample. Numerous example has been published where the breath samples were analyzed and compared with the healthy person breath to determine the VOCs that express differently from the diseased person. A good example is Tuberculosis, this is a disease caused by a bacteria called “
The VOCs from the NHP and humane identified by similar GC × GC TOF MS. The VOCs signature compounds from the different pathway (prepared from the data published on [
In addition to breath, GC × GC TOF MS has become an essential tool for metabolomics. This process tries to look at the volatile, semi-volatile, and heavy boiler compounds from the biological fluid such as serum or plasma, cell, urine, and other biofluids [44]. Mishra et al. reported an interesting comparison study between the GC × GC and 1D GC for the serum sample. According to the author, the GC × GC can detect about 5,000 metabolites whereas the 1D GC could only detect about 500 metabolites. It might seems overwhelming as the 1D GC was equipped with high-resolution Orbitrap MS which is high resolution but less sensitive than the QTOF used with the GC × GC system [45]. Yu et al. optimized the GC × GC parameters to identify the maximum number of metabolites including the VOCs from the biofluids [46]. Urinary aromatic amine is an indicator of cigarette smoking. SPME of urine volatiles of smokers and analysis by GC × GC MS has revealed more than 150 aromatic amine compounds which is a much higher number from the previous 1D GC analysis [47]. VOCs analysis of biological fluid using the GC × GC techniques is still raising and within the next couple of years, this process will become a more prominent and established process for the VOC analysis.
\nThere are several methods currently utilized by dozens of research groups to analyses the breath VOCs. The essential question here to ask which type of method might be a stronger candidate for the breath volatiles. There are many well-documented reviews summarized the analytical methods used for the breath VOCs analysis [48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53]. Essentially the basic method for analysis breath biomarkers is classified based on the objective of the study. For instance, the chromatography separation and mass spectroscopy for the purpose of identification (untargeted) or quantification (targeted) analysis. A comparison table between the instrumental platform used for the VOCs analysis is provided in Table 4 with the advantages and disadvantages of each method. The critical comparison of these techniques is not intended to describe here but it can easily see the high solving power of the GC × GC method put it as the highest sensitive device currently available for the VOCs analysis. To sum up this discussion, all analytical platforms used for VOCs analysis could be classified into few subcategories (a) sensor array for detecting any specific analytes (b) separating a mixture of analytes from the matrix, and (c) the high-resolution mass spectroscopy for identification. Reader are referred to Sethi et al. [54] for more detail comparison.
\nIntrumental platform | \nAdvantages | \nDisadvantages | \n
---|---|---|
Comprehensive two dimentional GC × GC | \nHigh sensetive identificationReproducible quatificationMaximum number of VOCs | \nRequired special tools and software | \n
Gas chromatography with mass spectroscopy | \nSensitive at ppb levelUseful to identify unknownRobust and reproducible | \nHigh temperature operationKnown standard requiresNot cost effective | \n
Ion mobility spectrometry | \nSensitive at ppm levelPortableCost effective | \nChemical fingerprint and identification are not possibleOffline analysisLow sensitive | \n
Selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry | \nSensitive at ppb levelRapid and cost effectivePortable and online | \nChemical fingerprint and identification are not possible | \n
Proton transfer spectrometry | \nSensitive at ppb levelDirect injection of VOCsOnline measurement and monitoring | \nVOC chemical identification and complete profiling not possible | \n
Various chemical sensor matrix platforms/e-noses | \nSensitive at ppb levelCost effective and portableFast and easyPoint of care compatible | \nVOC chemical identification and complete profiling not possible | \n
Advantages and disadvantages of some of the methods currently used for VOC analysis in clinical matrices.
Clinical VOCs may have potential for noninvasive pathological diagnosis. However, discovering biomarkers associated with specific disease requires standardization methods for both sampling and analyzing. The present contribution discusses recent advances in analyses of exhaled breath VOCs and focuses on chromatographic technics for off-line analyses. Mass spectrometric technics for on-line analyses were illustrated and their potential for VOCs discovering were demonstrated. The last part of this chapter discussed the comprehensive GC × GC technic and its ability in bio-VOCs analyzing. This technic has been proven as effective due to enhanced peak capacity and sensitivity.
\nThere are several research centers working on the two competitive technics (on-line and off-line) and significant amount of resources are dedicated. We believe that breath analyses will become the method of choice for diagnosis of several pathologies such as Asthma and other infections. As discussed above, standardization is crucial to go further in the process of validation with a sufficient cohort size.
\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
",metaTitle:"Access policy",metaDescription:"IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All IntechOpen published chapters are available OPEN ACCESS can be read without the requirement for registration of any kind, immediately upon publication, without any barrier.
\\n\\nThe HTML version, as well as the PDF version of publications dated before 2012 that are accessible through a reader, are available to readers with no restriction.
\\n\\nThe full content of chapters can be read, copied and printed from the link location of the chapter and these actions are not limited or restricted in any way.
\\n\\nRegistration is requested only to download the PDF of the chapter. There are no subscription fees and there is no charge to user groups.
\\n\\nIntechOpen chapters are distributed under CC BY 3.0 licences allowing users to “copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship...” and there is no non-commercial restriction.
\\n\\nAuthors may post published works to any repository or website with no delay, and Authors and Editors of IntechOpen books have direct access to the PDF of the full book.
\\n\\nAll published content can be crawled for indexing. Full text and metadata may be accessed with instructions publicly posted.
\\n\\nAll IntechOpen books are indexed in CLOCKSS and preservation of access to published content is clearly indicated.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2021-02-26
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"All IntechOpen published chapters are available OPEN ACCESS can be read without the requirement for registration of any kind, immediately upon publication, without any barrier.
\n\nThe HTML version, as well as the PDF version of publications dated before 2012 that are accessible through a reader, are available to readers with no restriction.
\n\nThe full content of chapters can be read, copied and printed from the link location of the chapter and these actions are not limited or restricted in any way.
\n\nRegistration is requested only to download the PDF of the chapter. There are no subscription fees and there is no charge to user groups.
\n\nIntechOpen chapters are distributed under CC BY 3.0 licences allowing users to “copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship...” and there is no non-commercial restriction.
\n\nAuthors may post published works to any repository or website with no delay, and Authors and Editors of IntechOpen books have direct access to the PDF of the full book.
\n\nAll published content can be crawled for indexing. Full text and metadata may be accessed with instructions publicly posted.
\n\nAll IntechOpen books are indexed in CLOCKSS and preservation of access to published content is clearly indicated.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2021-02-26
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5818},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5287},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1757},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10539},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:909},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15929}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119317},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"9"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10519",title:"Middleware Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c326d436ae0f4c508849d2336dbdfb48",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mehdia Ajana El Khaddar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10519.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"26677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehdia",surname:"Ajana El Khaddar",slug:"mehdia-ajana-el-khaddar",fullName:"Mehdia Ajana El Khaddar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10695",title:"Computational Fluid Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f8fd29e4b72dbfe632f47840b369b11",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Suvanjan Bhattacharyya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10695.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"233630",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvanjan",surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"suvanjan-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Suvanjan Bhattacharyya"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10651",title:"Machine Learning - Algorithms, Models and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6208156401c496e0a4ca5ff4265324cc",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jaydip Sen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10651.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10692",title:"Critical Systems - Towards Antifragility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"78d284ad921e9677830ef0335b1f1276",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Darrell Mann",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10692.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"297423",title:"Prof.",name:"Darrell",surname:"Mann",slug:"darrell-mann",fullName:"Darrell Mann"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10691",title:"Intelligent and Futuristic Computer Animation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5496e567e838f1eaeafba5f9a776b13a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ahmad Hoirul Basori and Dr. Andi Besse Firdausiah Mansur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10691.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"13394",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad Hoirul",surname:"Basori",slug:"ahmad-hoirul-basori",fullName:"Ahmad Hoirul Basori"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10859",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"63a4e514e537d3962cf53ef1c6b9d5eb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ciza Thomas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10859.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10857",title:"Augmented Reality",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5d66e2c09cddac7cc377ffb103aa7ef9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Dragan Mladen Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10857.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10653",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3cf7194a8c120e74db9dd632b9affb83",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nodari Vakhania",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10653.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"202585",title:"Prof.",name:"Nodari",surname:"Vakhania",slug:"nodari-vakhania",fullName:"Nodari Vakhania"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Dragan Mladen Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:47},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:9},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5319},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9021",title:"Novel Perspectives of Stem Cell Manufacturing and Therapies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"522c6db871783d2a11c17b83f1fd4e18",slug:"novel-perspectives-of-stem-cell-manufacturing-and-therapies",bookSignature:"Diana Kitala and Ana Colette Maurício",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9021.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8148",title:"Investment Strategies in Emerging New Trends in Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b714d96a68d2acdfbd7b50aba6504ca",slug:"investment-strategies-in-emerging-new-trends-in-finance",bookSignature:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar and Asma Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8148.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91081",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Gharoie Ahangar",slug:"reza-gharoie-ahangar",fullName:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10201",title:"Post-Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc7f53ff5269916e3ce29f65a51a87ae",slug:"post-transition-metals",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Anish Khan, Inamuddin and Thamer Tabbakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10201.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"455",title:"Industrial Economy",slug:"industrial-economy",parent:{title:"Economic Development",slug:"economic-development"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:47,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"industrial-economy",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8150",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f5a930b0695ff23259fe96f219ff9a15",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Biernat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5819",title:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices",subtitle:"Towards Human, Institutional and Economic Sectors Growth",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7e551ea4bdbca2454d3f7abb2837814d",slug:"research-and-development-evolving-trends-and-practices-towards-human-institutional-and-economic-sectors-growth",bookSignature:"Soha Maad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5819.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7692",title:"Dr.",name:"Soha",middleName:null,surname:"Maad",slug:"soha-maad",fullName:"Soha Maad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"68007",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85036",title:"Overview of the Process of Enzymatic Transformation of Biomass",slug:"overview-of-the-process-of-enzymatic-transformation-of-biomass",totalDownloads:826,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Namita Singh, Anita Devi, Manju Bala Bishnoi, Rajneesh Jaryal, Avni Dahiya, Oleksandr Tashyrev and Vira Hovorukha",authors:[{id:"278205",title:"Prof.",name:"Namita",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"namita-singh",fullName:"Namita Singh"},{id:"282352",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Devi",slug:"anita-devi",fullName:"Anita Devi"},{id:"282353",title:"MSc.",name:"Avni",middleName:null,surname:"Dahiya",slug:"avni-dahiya",fullName:"Avni Dahiya"},{id:"282354",title:"MSc.",name:"Manju Bala",middleName:null,surname:"Bishnoi",slug:"manju-bala-bishnoi",fullName:"Manju Bala Bishnoi"},{id:"282355",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksandr",middleName:null,surname:"Tashyrev",slug:"oleksandr-tashyrev",fullName:"Oleksandr Tashyrev"},{id:"282356",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Jaryal",slug:"rajneesh-jaryal",fullName:"Rajneesh Jaryal"},{id:"282939",title:"Dr.",name:"Vira",middleName:null,surname:"Hovorukha",slug:"vira-hovorukha",fullName:"Vira Hovorukha"}]},{id:"66110",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84770",title:"Gold Recovery Process from Primary and Secondary Resources Using Bioadsorbents",slug:"gold-recovery-process-from-primary-and-secondary-resources-using-bioadsorbents",totalDownloads:1229,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Katsutoshi Inoue, Durga Parajuli, Manju Gurung, Bimala Pangeni, Kanjana Khunathai, Keisuke Ohto and Hidetaka Kawakita",authors:[{id:"198951",title:"Prof.",name:"Keisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Ohto",slug:"keisuke-ohto",fullName:"Keisuke Ohto"},{id:"259238",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetaka",middleName:null,surname:"Kawakita",slug:"hidetaka-kawakita",fullName:"Hidetaka Kawakita"},{id:"289372",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",slug:"katsutoshi-inoue",fullName:"Katsutoshi Inoue"},{id:"298633",title:"Dr.",name:"Bimala",middleName:null,surname:"Pangeni",slug:"bimala-pangeni",fullName:"Bimala Pangeni"},{id:"298634",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Gurung",slug:"manju-gurung",fullName:"Manju Gurung"},{id:"298635",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanjana",middleName:null,surname:"Khunathai",slug:"kanjana-khunathai",fullName:"Kanjana Khunathai"},{id:"298636",title:"Dr.",name:"Durga",middleName:null,surname:"Parajuli",slug:"durga-parajuli",fullName:"Durga Parajuli"}]},{id:"55744",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69369",title:"Smart Microgrids: Optimizing Local Resources toward Increased Efficiency and a More Sustainable Growth",slug:"smart-microgrids-optimizing-local-resources-toward-increased-efficiency-and-a-more-sustainable-growt",totalDownloads:825,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"research-and-development-evolving-trends-and-practices-towards-human-institutional-and-economic-sectors-growth",title:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices",fullTitle:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices - Towards Human, Institutional and Economic Sectors Growth"},signatures:"Wilfried Elmenreich, Tamer Khatib and Andrea Monacchi",authors:[{id:"163771",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilfried",middleName:null,surname:"Elmenreich",slug:"wilfried-elmenreich",fullName:"Wilfried Elmenreich"},{id:"197214",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Monacchi",slug:"andrea-monacchi",fullName:"Andrea Monacchi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66110",title:"Gold Recovery Process from Primary and Secondary Resources Using Bioadsorbents",slug:"gold-recovery-process-from-primary-and-secondary-resources-using-bioadsorbents",totalDownloads:1229,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Katsutoshi Inoue, Durga Parajuli, Manju Gurung, Bimala Pangeni, Kanjana Khunathai, Keisuke Ohto and Hidetaka Kawakita",authors:[{id:"198951",title:"Prof.",name:"Keisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Ohto",slug:"keisuke-ohto",fullName:"Keisuke Ohto"},{id:"259238",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetaka",middleName:null,surname:"Kawakita",slug:"hidetaka-kawakita",fullName:"Hidetaka Kawakita"},{id:"289372",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",slug:"katsutoshi-inoue",fullName:"Katsutoshi Inoue"},{id:"298633",title:"Dr.",name:"Bimala",middleName:null,surname:"Pangeni",slug:"bimala-pangeni",fullName:"Bimala Pangeni"},{id:"298634",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Gurung",slug:"manju-gurung",fullName:"Manju Gurung"},{id:"298635",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanjana",middleName:null,surname:"Khunathai",slug:"kanjana-khunathai",fullName:"Kanjana Khunathai"},{id:"298636",title:"Dr.",name:"Durga",middleName:null,surname:"Parajuli",slug:"durga-parajuli",fullName:"Durga Parajuli"}]},{id:"66376",title:"Biotechnology in Agricultural Policies of Sub-Saharan Africa",slug:"biotechnology-in-agricultural-policies-of-sub-saharan-africa",totalDownloads:601,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Joel W. Ochieng and Anthony Ananga",authors:[{id:"74792",title:"Dr.",name:"Joel W.",middleName:null,surname:"Ochieng",slug:"joel-w.-ochieng",fullName:"Joel W. Ochieng"},{id:"299783",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Ananga",slug:"anthony-ananga",fullName:"Anthony Ananga"}]},{id:"65966",title:"Life Cycle Assessment as a Tool to Implement Sustainable Development in the Bioeconomy and Circular Economy",slug:"life-cycle-assessment-as-a-tool-to-implement-sustainable-development-in-the-bioeconomy-and-circular-",totalDownloads:780,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Izabela Samson-Bręk, Marta Gabryszewska, Justyna Wrzosek and Barbara Gworek",authors:[{id:"281239",title:"Dr.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Samson-Brek",slug:"izabela-samson-brek",fullName:"Izabela Samson-Brek"},{id:"290299",title:"Mrs.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Gabryszewska",slug:"marta-gabryszewska",fullName:"Marta Gabryszewska"},{id:"290300",title:"Dr.",name:"Justyna",middleName:null,surname:"Wrzosek",slug:"justyna-wrzosek",fullName:"Justyna Wrzosek"},{id:"290301",title:"Prof.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Gworek",slug:"barbara-gworek",fullName:"Barbara Gworek"}]},{id:"56727",title:"Research and Devolopment about Metallurgical Industry of Romania",slug:"research-and-devolopment-about-metallurgical-industry-of-romania",totalDownloads:1586,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"research-and-development-evolving-trends-and-practices-towards-human-institutional-and-economic-sectors-growth",title:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices",fullTitle:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices - Towards Human, Institutional and Economic Sectors Growth"},signatures:"Adrian Ioana, Augustin Semenescu and Mihnea Costoiu",authors:[{id:"177153",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Ioana",slug:"adrian-ioana",fullName:"Adrian Ioana"},{id:"193573",title:"Prof.",name:"Augustin",middleName:null,surname:"Semenescu",slug:"augustin-semenescu",fullName:"Augustin Semenescu"},{id:"199412",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihnea",middleName:null,surname:"Costoiu",slug:"mihnea-costoiu",fullName:"Mihnea Costoiu"}]},{id:"68851",title:"Introductory Chapter: Objectives and Scope of Bioeconomy",slug:"introductory-chapter-objectives-and-scope-of-bioeconomy",totalDownloads:434,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Krzysztof Biernat",authors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}]},{id:"66428",title:"Review of Biofuel Technologies in WtL and WtE",slug:"review-of-biofuel-technologies-in-wtl-and-wte",totalDownloads:638,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Bruno B. Garcia, Gonçalo Lourinho, Paulo Brito and Pedro Romano",authors:[{id:"261653",title:"Prof.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Brito",slug:"paulo-brito",fullName:"Paulo Brito"},{id:"261654",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Romano",slug:"pedro-romano",fullName:"Pedro Romano"},{id:"291751",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Bruno B.",middleName:"B",surname:"Garcia",slug:"bruno-b.-garcia",fullName:"Bruno B. Garcia"},{id:"291752",title:"MSc.",name:"Gonçalo",middleName:null,surname:"Lourinho",slug:"goncalo-lourinho",fullName:"Gonçalo Lourinho"}]},{id:"68007",title:"Overview of the Process of Enzymatic Transformation of Biomass",slug:"overview-of-the-process-of-enzymatic-transformation-of-biomass",totalDownloads:826,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Namita Singh, Anita Devi, Manju Bala Bishnoi, Rajneesh Jaryal, Avni Dahiya, Oleksandr Tashyrev and Vira Hovorukha",authors:[{id:"278205",title:"Prof.",name:"Namita",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"namita-singh",fullName:"Namita Singh"},{id:"282352",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Devi",slug:"anita-devi",fullName:"Anita Devi"},{id:"282353",title:"MSc.",name:"Avni",middleName:null,surname:"Dahiya",slug:"avni-dahiya",fullName:"Avni Dahiya"},{id:"282354",title:"MSc.",name:"Manju Bala",middleName:null,surname:"Bishnoi",slug:"manju-bala-bishnoi",fullName:"Manju Bala Bishnoi"},{id:"282355",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksandr",middleName:null,surname:"Tashyrev",slug:"oleksandr-tashyrev",fullName:"Oleksandr Tashyrev"},{id:"282356",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Jaryal",slug:"rajneesh-jaryal",fullName:"Rajneesh Jaryal"},{id:"282939",title:"Dr.",name:"Vira",middleName:null,surname:"Hovorukha",slug:"vira-hovorukha",fullName:"Vira Hovorukha"}]},{id:"67691",title:"The Use of Waste Management Techniques to Enhance Household Income and Reduce Urban Water Pollution",slug:"the-use-of-waste-management-techniques-to-enhance-household-income-and-reduce-urban-water-pollution",totalDownloads:538,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Olayiwola A. Akintola, Olufunmilayo O. Idowu, Suraju A. Lateef, Gbenga A. Adebayo, Adekemi O. Shokalu and Omolara I. Akinyoola",authors:[{id:"293178",title:"Dr.",name:"Olayiwola A.",middleName:null,surname:"Akintola",slug:"olayiwola-a.-akintola",fullName:"Olayiwola A. Akintola"},{id:"297217",title:"Dr.",name:"Olufunmilayo O.",middleName:null,surname:"Idowu",slug:"olufunmilayo-o.-idowu",fullName:"Olufunmilayo O. Idowu"},{id:"297218",title:"Dr.",name:"Suraju A.",middleName:null,surname:"Lateef",slug:"suraju-a.-lateef",fullName:"Suraju A. Lateef"},{id:"297219",title:"Dr.",name:"Gbenga A.",middleName:null,surname:"Adebayo",slug:"gbenga-a.-adebayo",fullName:"Gbenga A. Adebayo"},{id:"297221",title:"Dr.",name:"Adekemi O.",middleName:null,surname:"Shokalu",slug:"adekemi-o.-shokalu",fullName:"Adekemi O. Shokalu"},{id:"297222",title:"Mrs.",name:"Omolara I.",middleName:null,surname:"Akinyoola",slug:"omolara-i.-akinyoola",fullName:"Omolara I. Akinyoola"}]},{id:"65827",title:"The Bioeconomy: An Opportunity for the Spanish Economy",slug:"the-bioeconomy-an-opportunity-for-the-spanish-economy",totalDownloads:447,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Manuel Laínez and María Jesús Periago",authors:[{id:"139716",title:"Dr.",name:"María Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Periago",slug:"maria-jesus-periago",fullName:"María Jesús Periago"},{id:"280580",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Laínez",slug:"manuel-lainez",fullName:"Manuel Laínez"}]},{id:"65855",title:"Digital Solutions in the Forest-Based Bioeconomy",slug:"digital-solutions-in-the-forest-based-bioeconomy",totalDownloads:520,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Chihiro Watanabe and Nasir Naveed",authors:[{id:"128853",title:"Prof.",name:"Chihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Watanabe",slug:"chihiro-watanabe",fullName:"Chihiro Watanabe"},{id:"281610",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nasir",middleName:null,surname:"Naveed",slug:"nasir-naveed",fullName:"Nasir Naveed"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"industrial-economy",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/enhanced-oil-recovery-processes-new-technologies/nanotechnology-application-in-chemical-enhanced-oil-recovery-current-opinion-and-recent-advances",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"enhanced-oil-recovery-processes-new-technologies",chapter:"nanotechnology-application-in-chemical-enhanced-oil-recovery-current-opinion-and-recent-advances"},fullPath:"/books/enhanced-oil-recovery-processes-new-technologies/nanotechnology-application-in-chemical-enhanced-oil-recovery-current-opinion-and-recent-advances",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()