Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n
1. Introduction
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Industries are constantly turning towards new material alternatives that can provide lighter structures of high strength and customizable stiffness to the needs of the destined application. A polymeric matrix with an appropriate reinforcement comprises composite material solutions for a wide range of industries from the aeronautics and automotive to the battery industry.
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A special case of such composite materials is Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRPs). These composite materials have an epoxy resin matrix and a fibrous high-strength reinforcing phase. As a result, they provide high strength and stiffness, while being much lighter than any metal. Additionally, FRPs are highly corrosion resistant [1]. In a majority of applications FRP layers are laminated into beam like structures. Therefore, they offer the option of being tailored to the desired properties of the destined application. FRP laminates of unidirectional laminae (i.e. long fiber reinforcement) can be optimized to have stacking sequences that will provide an optimum strength and stiffness at low weight.
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The heterogeneous and highly anisotropic nature of composites, and consequently FRPs, is due to the fact that composite materials are made of two or more constituents that are insoluble in each other. As a result, the anisotropic nature of FRPs should always be considered when evaluating or predicting their failure mechanisms.
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Failure in composite materials is defined as the point when the component seizes to perform adequately for the application it is designed for. At that point, failure may be described as catastrophic or simply degradation of the material properties. Understanding the mechanisms that lead to any type of undesired failure is very important when designing a component against failure.
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In laminated FRPs there are ways to predict when failure will first occur in the laminate. First ply failure, will not always mean catastrophic or not failure of the composite, however, it will denote when failure is first observed in the laminate, and at which specific ply. It is possible that the FRP laminate will still function properly, as the load will be carried by the remaining plies. As a result, the design and choice of stacking sequence specify the maximum acceptable load for an application, and in the case of cyclic loading applications, can even specify which maximum applied load will cause first ply failure [2, 3, 4, 5].
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This chapter is divided into two sections; the first section discusses the heterogeneous and anisotropic nature of composites, and how Classical Lamination Theory (CLT) is used to determine the state of stress in unidirectional FRP laminates. Furthermore, two interactive failure criteria, the Tsai-Hill and Tsai-Wu, are discussed as the criteria of predicting first ply failure in FRP laminates. The above failure criteria are useful in conjunction with experiments in determining first ply failure in unidirectional FRP laminates. In the case a laminate contains a geometric discontinuity, such as a hole or tapered edge, the unidirectionality of the fibers is interrupted at the region of the discontinuity. As a result, the above failure criteria seize to accurately predict failure at the discontinuity, which additionally becomes a stress concentration region. The second section of this chapter, discusses the inadequacy of the above methods in designing against failure in laminated FRP components with such geometric discontinuities, and suggests additional analysis combining the Tsai-Wu failure criterion with fracture mechanics to better evaluate and predict failure in such regions.
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2. Predicting failure in unidirectional laminated FRPs
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2.1 Laminate stress distribution and classical lamination theory
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The combination of the matrix and reinforcing phases (i.e. fibers in FRPs), which remain insoluble in each other, offer the composite material its anisotropic and heterogeneous nature, while at the same time a combination of the properties of both constituents. The volume percent of the total material occupied by the individual constituents (matrix and fibers) regulate the properties of the composite. As a result, the properties of FRPs may be tailored to the needs of an application by selecting the appropriate volume percent of fibers and matrix.
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The anisotropic nature of the FRPs is mainly due to their reinforcing phase, the fibers, as the matrix phase is assumed to be homogenous and isotropic. The reinforcing phase may take the form of long unidirectional fibers, woven fibers, short, or chopped fibers that are scattered in the matrix. The theories and criteria considered in this chapter only concern long unidirectional fibers.
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Laminated FRPs are structures composed of two or more FRP layers. These layers are also referred to as plies or laminae. Each lamina has its reinforcing phase oriented in a specified way and the fibers occupy a given volumetric fraction of the lamina. As a result, the properties of the laminate are determined by each lamina. The laminae are stacked together to create the laminate. The order of stacking is very important as the different orientations of the fibers in the individual laminae, as well as their volume percentage, affect the mechanical properties of the whole laminate. The selection of the order of laminae stacking is called the stacking sequence of the laminate.
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Although it is often the case to view a FRP laminate as a homogeneous structure of isotropic bulk mechanical properties, this approach should only be followed for macroscopic analysis, when geometry and loading conditions are investigated rather than the specific effect of the material properties. When investigating the strength, stiffness, and designing against failure, the anisotropic and heterogeneous nature of the FRP laminate should be considered. In such cases, the analysis is in the lamina level or even a microscopic level of the individual constituents of the composite: the matrix, reinforcement, and their interface. The discussion that follows concerns the lamina level.
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The FRP mechanical properties, although affected by the mechanical properties of its constituents, differ greatly from them and depend additionally on the volume fraction that each phase occupies. Rules of mixtures is the set of equations that calculate the elastic properties of a composite material taking into account the individual properties of its constituents and their volume fractions. The Young’s moduli (Ei), shear moduli (Gij), and Poisson’s ratios (vij) are determined using Rules of Mixtures and the Halpin-Tsai equations. There exist therefore, three Young’s moduli, one for each material direction (Eqs. (1) and (2)) and four shear moduli (Eq. (3)). To calculate Poisson’s ratios the bulk moduli (K) are used (Eqs. (5)–(9)) [6].
where the subscripts m and f, refer to matrix and fiber, respectively, and 1,2,3, to the directionality of the material. The constant f is the volume fraction of fibers in the composite such that \n\n0\n≤\nf\n≤\n1\n\n, \n\nξ\n≈\n1\n\n, and
To design against failure the FRP laminae should be built with an optimizable strength, and a desirable stiffness, while maintaining a low weight. The strength of the FRP laminate depends on that of the individual laminae, and can be optimized by choosing an appropriate stacking sequence. Therefore, although the above equations play an important role in determining the mechanical properties in different directions, it is important to start accounting for the orientation of the fibers in each lamina.
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The constitutive relationships for FRPs use the generalized Hooke’s Law (Eq. (10)). A total of 81 elastic constant would be required to fully characterize the FRP behavior. However, by assuming symmetric stresses and strains, the required elastic constants become 36. The lamina level contains two sets of axes that express the material direction; a set of local and a set of global axes. The local axes, also referred to as principal axes, have the longitudinal axis parallel to the longitudinal fibers. The global axes, are a reference frame of the laminate, where the horizontal, transverse, and normal directions coincide with the dimensional directions of the laminate. As a result, the longitudinal axis of the local reference system makes an angle with the global horizontal direction, thus allowing measuring the angle of the fiber orientation in each lamina. Consequently, each lamina has three mutually orthogonal axes of rotational symmetry, which further reduce the 36 elastic constant to 12. Only 9 of these constant are independent.
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\n\n\nσ\nij\n\n=\n\nE\nijkl\n\n\nε\nkl\n\n\nE10
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As seen from Eq. (2) of the Rules of Mixtures, the properties of the lamina in directions 2 and 3, the directions normal to the longitudinal fibers, are the same. As a result, the plane 23 of the lamina is an isotropy plane. Therefore, the FRP lamina characterized as transversely isotropic, a special case of orthotropic materials, requires just 5 independent elastic constants to fully determine its behavior. Classical Lamination Theory (CLT) used with orthotropic continuous laminated composite materials builds a set of equations that lead to the development of constitutive relationships that determine the state of stress in each layer [7, 8, 9]. CLT accounts for both the lamina orientations and its position in the laminate, showing therefore, the significance of the stacking sequence to the strength and performance of the laminate. To determine the position of a lamina in the laminate a common starting reference point of lamina numbering is the bottom layer. This bottom lamina, becomes lamina 1. There also exists a fictitious plane dividing the laminate in two equal half portions, called the mid-surface plane. This plane serves as a position datum for the laminae (\nFigure 1\n).
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Figure 1.
Stacking sequence and nomenclature.
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CLT builds constitutive relationships using elastic properties, which can be determined by Rules of Mixtures and the Halpin-Tsai equations or experimental data, as well as thermal expansion properties at each material direction. Depending on the nature of the fibers and the destined application of the structure, hygroscopic coefficients may also be considered. In the case of a transversely isotropic material, only two sets of material properties are required: one set in direction 1 and one set in either direction 2 or 3. CLT first evaluates a stiffness matrix (Q and \n\n\nQ\n¯\n\n\n) for each lamina accounting for the elastic properties in the required directions and the orientation of the fibers. The overbar above Q denotes all off-axis laminae, i.e. those whose fibers make an angle with the global horizontal laminate direction, while the absence of a bar above Q refers to the stiffness matrix of on-axis laminae, i.e. those whose fibers are parallel to the global horizontal direction, having a 0° orientation. To distinguish between the different lamina stiffness matrices a subscript (k) is used, denoting the kth lamina in the laminate.
As mentioned above, CLT focuses on each lamina individually. The constitutive equation of the kth lamina (Eq. (12)) relates the stress distribution in the lamina to the lamina strain through the stiffness matrix. The strain distributions is a function of the mid-surface strains (\n\n\n\nε\nij\n\no\n\n\n) and curvatures (\n\n\nκ\nij\n\n)\n\n, which are common to all laminae of the laminate and depend on loading conditions. The effect of thermal (\n\n\nα\nij\n\n\n) and hygral effects (\n\n\nβ\nij\n\n\n) is also included in the strain calculation as they are responsible for residual strains in the laminate that may be induced during the manufacturing and curing process or service life of the composite.
The above relationship is the stress–strain relationship of the kth lamina. In order to build relationships for the stress and strain distributions in the laminate, which can then be used to determine first ply failure and the strength of the whole laminate, the loading conditions of the laminate should be considered. Three matrices in CLT: the Extension Stiffness Matrix, (Aij), the Extension-Bending Coupling Matrix, (Bij), and the Bending Stiffness Matrix, (Dij), bring together the stiffness effects from each lamina, and consequently fiber orientation, accounting for the position (z) of each lamina in the laminate (Eqs. (13)–(15)). These matrices account for the lamina thickness (t) and calculate the stress distribution based on the different loading conditions applied. Aij considers the tension-compression effects of longitudinal and transverse loading, matrix Dij considers the effects of bending moments, while matrix Bij couples the effects of both types of loading. A relationship calculating normal forces and moments includes the above matrices as well as mid-surface strains and curvatures (Eq. (16)\n1) [10].
There are three major failure modes in the microscopic level of the FRP, i.e. the constituent materials and their interface:
Failure of the matrix phase through crack initiation and propagation.
Failure at the reinforcing phase, which is the fracture of one or more fibers.
Failure at the interface of the two constituents, referred to as debonding, where the fibers detach form the matrix phase.
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In each of the above degrade, the mechanical properties of the composite and affect the strength and the performance of the material in a different way. The fibers in FRPs, holding the load carrying capacity of the composite, constitute the phase that determines to a large degree the strength and stiffness of the material. The orientation of the fibers is crucial in stress and strain calculations, as has been previously shown through the discussion on CLT. As a result, the second failure mode, which concerns failure at the reinforcing phase, becomes of special interest, as is the one that interrupts the load carrying capacity of the fibers. It is also among the main concepts of this chapter, and will be given further attention in Section 3. Fractured fibers cannot be replaced or repaired and therefore, this failure mode permanently degrades the strength of the material.
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The fracture of fibers becomes especially important when the load carrying capacity of the FRP structure is expected to be along one of the axis of the structure. Typically, fibers are chosen along or off this axis. Take for example a plate under bending. Such a plate may represent a flat beam spring (e.g. leaf springs in suspension systems) which is loaded and deflected under a bending moment. As this bending moment creates a stress distribution along the longitudinal axis of the beam, if the choice of material is FRP, the fibers are chosen parallel or at an angle to this longitudinal direction. This way the fibers hold the load carrying capacity of the beam, and the stacking sequence choice regulates the stress distribution and desired stiffness of the structure, as followed by the CLT equations. If due to failure, one or more of these fibers fracture, a discontinuity along the load carrying capacity in this longitudinal direction is generated. The specific lamina(e) with the fractured fibers become(s) responsible for the degradation of the mechanical properties of the composites, as it can no longer participate in the aforementioned CLT equations, which are exclusive to longitudinal continuous fibers.
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There also exist other failure modes, such as delamination (i.e. the deboning at the lamina interface), or failure due to environmental factors (such as high moisture absorption [11, 12] or UV degradation of the matrix). In such cases, examining the failure mechanism to determine the extent to which the strength of the composite has been affected, requires investigation at the material level and its chemical composition.
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Failure criteria, on the other hand, allow us to determine the effect of loading to the strength of the material. Such criteria may be used in conjunction with CLT to determine optimum stacking sequences that can guarantee a long life performance of the FRP structure at specific loading conditions before the occurrence of first ply failure.
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The anisotropic nature of FRPs requires failure criteria that account for the interaction of stresses, and consequently material properties, in different directions. Such criteria are referred to as interactive failure criteria, as opposed to non-interactive ones, which focus on parameters in each direction separately (e.g. Tresca and von Mises) [6, 10, 13]. The interactive failure criteria may give a prediction of the onset of failure irrespective of the failure mode or any other conditions responsible for it (environment, thermal, etc.).
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The two criteria discussed in this chapter are the Tsai-Hill and Tsai Wu. They both operate on a comparison of the stress state in each lamina to the failure stress under stress plane conditions in order to determine the failure or not of a lamina. They concern therefore, similar to CLT, the lamina level. As the majority of failure criteria, they are polynomial expansions treating the stress tensor (\n\n\nσ\nij\n\n\n) as the sole parameter to characterize the onset of failure. As polynomial expansions, they may be tailored to the case of transversely isotropic materials, thus reducing significantly the number of required material parameters [6]. However, because they are mere criteria, they should always be verified by experimental data, as they can only give a prediction for the onset of failure.
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The stress tensor (\n\n\nσ\nij\n\n\n) in these criteria is calculated using CLT. As a result, it refers to the stress distribution of the FRP structure along one of the directions of the lamina. Such a lamina is considered to contain as its reinforcing phase continuous longitudinal fibers. If this is not the case, and the fibers are either discontinued or fractured, the lamina is degraded and not included in the CLT calculations, which results, in its exclusion from the following criteria (Eqs. (17) and (18)). As a result, similar to CLT the criteria presented below may provide a prediction for the onset of failure in a lamina, provided that the lamina maintains its continuous unidirectional fibers. Therefore, they would not be appropriate for failure predictions in laminae with discontinuities due to which fibers are interrupted.
In the Tsai-Hill criterion (Eq. (17)) the longitudinal (\n\n\nσ\n11\n\n\n), transverse (\n\n\nσ\n22\n\n\n), and shear stresses (\n\n\nσ\n12\n\n\n) in each lamina are compared to the longitudinal tensile and compressive (X and X′), transverse tensile and compressive (Y and Y′), and shear (S) ultimate strengths. These latter strength parameters are all material parameters that may be obtained from experimental results or material databases. From the total of 5 parameters required, only 3 are involved in the equation, i.e. the above criterion becomes specific to the type of loading. If the loading results in compressive stresses, Eq. (17) will be rewritten to include the longitudinal and transverse compressive ultimate strength (X′ and Y′), as well as the shear ultimate strength. In the format presented above, it addresses failure due to tensile stresses. In either case failure has occurred when the equation on the left hand side of the criterion equals to or is greater than 1.
The Tsai-Wu criterion also investigates failure at the lamina level and states that failure occurs when Eq. (18) is equal to 1. The equation contains 6 constants involving the material parameters of tensile and compressive ultimate strengths in the longitudinal and transverse directions, as well as shear ultimate strengths. The Tsai-Wu criterion does not address failure separately due to either tensile or compressive stresses, as it includes all ultimate strengths of the material irrespective of their directionality. Additionally, it addresses stresses in direction 3, as well as shear stresses in planes including direction 3. As a result, the Tsai-Wu criterion is not exclusive to the transversely isotropic materials examined using CLT. Therefore, this criterion requires a total of 7 material parameters. The Tsai-Wu criterion terms can be evaluated by the assumption of uniaxial tension and compression results, which is based on experimental data [6, 10]. The interaction parameter (F12) due to its interactive nature is an approximation that depends on the product of the products of tensile and compressive longitudinal ultimate strengths and tensile and compressive transverse ultimate strengths (Eq. (19)). It is often estimated from multiaxial stress data [6, 10].
The above strength data is obtained from experimental results on unidirectional FRPs with continuous fibers. This is one more reason, why the above criteria would fall short in accurately predicting failure in laminae with discontinuous fibers.
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As mentioned above, failure criteria should be used in conjunction with experimental data for better understanding the onset of failure. Research has shown that the Tsai-Hill criterion tends to overestimate failure, while Tsai-Wu tends to underestimate failure [3, 4, 5, 14].
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3. Accounting for geometric discontinuities in FRP laminates
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The above discussion shows the importance of laminae fiber orientation and therefore, the stacking sequence of laminates. However, the tools discussed in Section 2, CLT and the interactive failure theories, take into account unidirectional uninterrupted fibers in the laminae. Fiber fracture is considered as one of the failure modes in FRP composites, and is one of the most detrimental ones to the material. To approach therefore, a similar analysis on structures with geometric discontinuities the above methods should be combined with further analysis tools to address the high stresses in the area of the discontinuity and avoid working with interrupted fibers.
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3.1 Orienting fibers around a circular hole
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To predict failure and evaluate critical stresses around geometric discontinuities in FRP laminates, different approaches and models have been developed and presented in literature. Some of these models and theories focus on fiber failure, as is for example Hashin’s theory [15], while other newer approaches look into the prediction of fiber and interfiber failure [16]. In the case of geometric discontinuities, such as notches, there exist the Waddoups-Eisenmann-Kamiski (WEK) model [17, 18] that evaluates the strength of notched composite specimens using the stress intensity factor. However, the above models only evaluate failure and do not address any predictions of its onset, which is important when designing against failure.
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As previously mentioned an optimum stacking sequence can improve the onset of first-ply failure in FRP laminates. As a result, the importance of an appropriate stacking sequence around a geometric discontinuity becomes even more significant. CLT has been used by Goteti and Reddy in conjunction with the stress intensity around a circular hole to examine the effect of fiber orientation, hole size, and fiber volume fraction on the stress concentration around the hole [19]. A different approach using Muskhelishvili’s complex variable method and fiber orientation as input was attempted by Sharma in determining the stress concentration around circular/elliptical/triangular cutouts [20]. On the other hand, other researchers, such as Huang and Haftka, instead of focusing on the stress intensity and concentration in the discontinuity region, attempted to determine the fiber orientation around it, while keeping the fiber orientation in the remaining lamina unidirectional [21].
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The aforementioned work agrees that fiber orientation around a discontinuity is affected by the following parameters:
Size of the discontinuity (eg. diameter of a hole).
Load type and direction
Volume fraction of the fibers, which has already been shown to affect the mechanical properties of the FRP material as determined by Rules of Mixtures.
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This chapter discusses a case study of a slightly different approach to determine fiber orientation around circular discontinuities [22]. The approach focuses on the immediate vicinity of the discontinuity, where it attempts to determine an optimum fiber orientation. It will be shown that the approach is concerned only with the plastic region around the discontinuity, where the fibers will not be interrupted, and as a result will maintain their load carrying capacity from one end of the lamina to the other. Additionally, the fiber orientation outside the plastic region of the discontinuity will remain unidirectional, based on the orientation of the lamina in the stacking sequence.
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The majority of the works in literature discussing approaches to optimum fiber orientation around discontinuities or the evaluation of stress intensity in such regions use axial loading conditions. The case study presented below will assume a three point bending loading condition on the FRP laminate. In such loading cases, the majority of the aforementioned work becomes non-applicable, as the fibers in order to maintain their longitudinal load carrying capacity in the structure should remain continuous and uninterrupted. The meaning of continuous fibers, disregards the concept of fibers starting at the rim of a central to the structure discontinuity, as this considers a lamina of two sets of continuous fibers, one on each side of the discontinuity but interrupted by it.
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This case study examines first CLT and the Tsai-Hill failure criterion to determine a minimum moment required to cause first ply failure in a given FRP laminate in the absence of a discontinuity, and second, the geometric stress concentration factor under bending, to determine the moment to cause failure in the presence of a circular hole. The optimum fiber orientation in the area of the hole will be determined when this minimum moment is applied. The above approach therefore, uses the aforementioned theories and criteria solely for a unidirectional lamina, and introduces linear fracture mechanics to account for the discontinuity effect.
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3.1.1 Laminate beam model and discontinuity region
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A six layer GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforce Plastic) laminate with no discontinuities is being considered, at first. The laminate has a symmetric, general stacking sequence ([0/45/0]s), where laminae 1 and 6 both have fibers parallel to the global horizontal dimension of the laminate (i.e. at 0°). For simplicity each layer is designed to have a thickness of 1 mm.2\n
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A medium to high stiffness GFRP laminate material, S2 glass/fiber epoxy (\nTable 1\n), is selected with the fibers occupying 55% of the composite material volume. Each lamina is transversely isotropic, with direction 1 along the fibers and plane 23 as the isotropy plane. Therefore, information only in the 1 and 2 directions is required for CLT and Tsai-Hill calculations.
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\n\n
\n
E1\n
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34 GPa
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E2\n
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8.9 GPa
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\n
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G12\n
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4.5 GPa
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v12\n
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0.27
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X (Longitudinal tensile strength)
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2000 MPa
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X′ (Longitudinal compressive strength)
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1240 MPa
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Y (Transverse tensile strength)
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49 MPa
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Y′ (Transverse compressive strength)
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158 MPa
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S (Shear strength)
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63 MPa
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Table 1.
Mechanical properties of S2 glass fiber/epoxy.
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The above laminate will be compared to an identical laminate of the exact same dimensions (6 layers each at 1 mm thickness), same stacking sequence, and a central circular hole of 1 cm diameter. This second laminate will constitute the structure with the discontinuity (\nFigure 2\n). The loading moment M, will be determined using the Tsai-Hill failure criterion.
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Figure 2.
Laminate with circular discontinuity of 1 cm diameter loaded by at the three point bending [22].
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A plastic zone approach is used to approximate the region surrounding the geometric discontinuity that is affected by a maximum stress concentration. To determine the radius of the plastic zone (ry) a very small crack is assumed to exist on the verge of the hole. This crack could potentially propagate in the matrix of the GFRP and lead to catastrophic failure of the matrix (one of the FRP failure modes mentioned in Section 2.2). The assumption of a very small crack allows the crack length (α) to the hole radius (r) ratio approach zero. As a result, Eq. (20) is used to estimate the Mode I (opening mode) stress intensity factor (KI). If the stress intensity factor becomes equal to the critical stress intensity factor (KC), the crack will begin to propagate with a radius of the plastic zone given by Eq. (21).
The radius of the plastic zone, as calculated in Eq. (21), begins at the crack tip. Based on the previous assumption of a very small crack length, this radius will begin on the rim of the hole, and therefore, the distance of the critical region around the discontinuity may be determined. This is the region of high stress concentration, where the reinforcement of the stacking sequence should be modified in order to strengthen the laminate. Equations (20) and (21) clearly show the effect that the size of the discontinuity has on the selection of this region.
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\nEquation (12) in Section 2.1 calculates the stress distribution in the kth lamina of a laminate. This stress refers to a lamina of unidirectional fibers and no geometric discontinuity. Therefore, the stress concentration factor (Kt) is used to multiply this stress in order to maximize it and account for the presence and effect of a discontinuity (Eq. (22)).
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\n\n\nσ\nmax\n\n=\n\nK\nt\n\n\nσ\nk\n\n\nE22
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The magnitude of the stress concentration factor depends on the dimensions of the laminate, discontinuity, and loading condition. In this case study Kt = 2.7. It should be noted that the size of the hole and laminate dimensions directly affect this value.
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3.1.2 Optimizing the stacking sequence around the discontinuity
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Using CLT on a semi-infinite beam with no discontinuity, as the one described above, and following the analysis with the Tsai-Hill failure criterion, the minimum moment to cause first ply failure is determined. \nTable 2\n shows the minimum moment to cause failure in each lamina of the laminate. It can be observed from the values shown that the symmetry of the laminate and the three point bending loading conditions give a symmetry of the absolute minimum moments to cause failure in each lamina. The laminae at 0° fiber orientation are the strongest layers of the structure.
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Lamina/fiber orientation
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Moment (Nm/m) Tsai-Hill = 1
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\n\n\n
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1/0°
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269
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2/45°
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72
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3/0°
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808
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4/0°
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808
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5/45°
\n
72
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6/0°
\n
269
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Table 2.
Absolute values of minimum moment to cause failure in individual lamina.
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As shown in \nFigure 2\n, the discontinuity is at the center of the laminate and consequently each lamina, which for CLT purposes is modeled as a semi-infinite plate. Therefore, each lamina may be further modeled as symmetric in both the x and y directions of its plane, and a single quadrant of the hole may be considered for analysis. Around the quadrant of the hole a number of points are selected about which the optimum fiber orientations will be determined. The selection of these points is made based on the finite element concept of seeds around geometric discontinuities. A minimum of 16 seeds around a circular hole is recommended, and as a result, a total of 4 seeds is selected around the quadrant considered here. The analysis follows Huang and Haftka’s [21] model of fiber orientation prediction, where the orientation of the fibers outside the plastic zone remains the same as the one originally prescribed to the lamina. In this study, the orientation of the fibers outside the plastic zone remains the same as that originally prescribed for the lamina in question (i.e. 0 or 45°). Depending on the accuracy required, the number of seeds around the hole may be increased. Additionally, the optimization process followed should be repeated for all laminae in the laminate, in order to provide a stacking sequence around the hole. In this case study analysis is performed for Lamina 3 at 0° fiber orientation.
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Away from the plastic zone the load is carried along the unidirectional orientation of the fibers, which remains unchanged based on the given stacking sequence. However, within the plastic zone around the hole, the fiber `orientation will be constantly changing and will be following the four new orientations prescribed by the number of seeds selected. It was previously mentioned that based on symmetry, one quadrant of the plate will be considered. Therefore, the possible orientations will vary between 0 and 90°. The results obtained from the analysis may then be mirrored to the remaining quadrants in order to obtain a complete image of the fiber orientations around the hole.
The Tsai-Hill failure criterion is used in its polynomial form with a positive load factor (ρ) calculated as the root of the polynomial at the onset of failure, i.e. when Tsai-Hill is equal to 1 (Eq. (23)). The load factor accounts for the effect of the constantly changing fiber orientations.
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A range of possible orientations near the hole for Lamina 3 are given in \nTable 3\n. All values are in the range from 0 to 90°. To narrow the selection of possible orientations a genetic algorithm may be applied to determine the appropriate orientations based on more specific information of the lamina and its loading. Repeating the analysis for the remaining laminae at 0° fiber orientation (laminae 1,4, and 6), is observed that that similar results are obtained, which are explained by the symmetric nature of the laminate.
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\n
\n
\n\n
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Possible angle values in the area of the discontinuity
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8°
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\n
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14°
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\n
\n
40°
\n
\n
\n
71°
\n
\n
\n
72°
\n
\n
\n
81°
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Possible fiber orientations near the hole for lamina 3 at 0o fiber orientation.
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4. Conclusion
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FRP laminates have entered the industry world as strong and lighter material alternatives to metals, while they offer the option of an excellent material solution to many emerging technologies.
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FRP laminates fail due to degradation of their mechanical properties through a range of failure modes. When designing FRPs against failure care should be taken which of the many traditional and newer approaches in predicting first-ply failure is chosen.
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The stacking sequence of an FRP laminate is of great significance in determining the stress distribution in the laminate as well as predicting first ply failure. Using CLT and interactive failure criteria an optimum stacking sequence may be determined for specified loading conditions, or the loads to cause first ply failure can be calculated when the stacking sequence of the laminate is known. However, the above theories and criteria are limited to addressing unidirectional and continuous laminates with no geometric discontinuities.
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To perform a similar analysis on FRP laminate structures with holes or other geometric discontinuities, the above methods should be combined with other techniques or models that account for the presence of a discontinuity. In this chapter a case study is used to show such an approach in an attempt to determine the stacking sequence around a circular hole. The limitations of CLT and the interactive failure criteria are overcome with the use of fracture mechanics and more specifically the concepts of stress intensity and stress concentration factors. The approach uses CLT and the Tsai-Hill criterion to predict the loads and lamina of first ply failure, and then fracture mechanics to determine a plastic zone around the discontinuity and maximize the stresses in this region. As a result, a multitude of new possible fiber orientations are calculated, which can be used as the extension of the lamina fiber orientation around the hole to strengthen the lamina in that region and prevent or delay failure, without interrupting the fibers and consequently the load carrying capacity of the FRP.
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Appendices and nomenclature
\nEijkl\n\n
Young’s Modulus
Gij\n
shear modulus
K
bulk modulus
f
volume fraction
vij\n
Poisson’s ratio
\nσij\n\n
stress tensor
\nεkl\n\n
strain tensor
\n\n\n\nκ\nij\n\n\n\n
curvature
\n\n\n\n\nε\nij\n\no\n\n\n\n
mid-surface strains
\n\n\n\nα\nij\n\n\n\n
coefficient of thermal expansion
\n\n\n\nβ\nij\n\n\n\n
hygroscopic coefficient
\n\n\n\nQ\n¯\n\n\n\n
stiffness matrix.
\nAij\n\n
extension stiffness matrix
\nBij\n\n
extension-bending coupling matrix
\nDij\n\n
bending stiffness matrix
\nz\n
position of layer in laminate
X and X′
longitudinal tensile and compressive strength
Y and Y′
transverse tensile and compressive strength
S
shear strength
KI\n
mode I stress intensity factor
KC\n
critical stress intensity factor
Kt\n
stress concentration factor
α
crack length
r
hole radius
ry\n
plastic zone radius
σy\n
applied yield stress
ρ
function of the orientations around the discontinuity
\n',keywords:"fiber reinforced plastics, classical lamination theory (CLT), interactive failure criteria, linear fracture mechanics, stacking sequence, fiber orientations, fist ply failure, unidirectional fibers",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69584.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69584.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69584",totalDownloads:397,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 13th 2019",dateReviewed:"September 14th 2019",datePrePublished:"October 15th 2019",datePublished:"May 6th 2020",dateFinished:"October 15th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The strength of Fiber Reinforced Plastic laminated structures is strongly dependent on the stacking sequence of the laminate, and consequently the fiber orientations of the individual laminae (also referred to as layers or plies). Classical Lamination Theory (CLT) is a theoretical tool providing the strain and stress distribution in a laminate based on its stacking sequence and material properties. On the other hand, first ply, and consequent ply failure can be approximated with interactive failure criteria, such as the Tsai-Hill and Tsai-Wu. Technological advances often require material alternatives to metallic structures, and FRPs constitute optimum solutions to such selections. However, these structures are no longer just plain laminates with unidirectional fibers in their laminae, they include geometric discontinuities allowing ease of assembly. Such discontinuities become stress concentration regions, which require extra attention upon design against failure. This chapter discusses the extent to which the traditional analysis of FRP failure, using CLT and interactive failure criteria is adequate in structures with discontinuities, and suggests extra analysis steps to be considered when designing against failure in the area of the discontinuity.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69584",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69584",book:{slug:"engineering-failure-analysis"},signatures:"Roselita Fragoudakis",authors:[{id:"220155",title:"Dr.",name:"Roselita",middleName:null,surname:"Fragoudakis",fullName:"Roselita Fragoudakis",slug:"roselita-fragoudakis",email:"fragoudakisr@merrimack.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"Merrimack College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Predicting failure in unidirectional laminated FRPs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Laminate stress distribution and classical lamination theory",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Failure criteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Accounting for geometric discontinuities in FRP laminates",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Orienting fibers around a circular hole",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Appendices and nomenclature",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nGürdal Z, Haftka RT, Hajela P. Design and Optimization of Laminated Composite Materials. 1st ed. New York, NY: Wiley-Interscience; 1999\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nSuresh S. Fatigue of Materials. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1998\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nFragoudakis R, Saigal A. Predicting the fatigue life in steel and glass fibre reinforced plastics using damage models. Journal of Materials Science and Applications. 2011;2:596-604\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nFragoudakis R, Saigal A. Using damage models to predict fatigue in steel and glass fibre reinforced plastics. Journal of Materials Science and Engineering With Advanced Technologies. 2011;3:53-65\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nFragoudakis R. In: Aly A, editor. Failure Concepts in Fiber Reinforced Plastics, Failure Analysis and Prevention. Croatia: Intech; 2018. ISBN: 978-953-51-5230-9\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nChristensen RM. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Mineola, NY: Dover; 2005\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nBarbero EJ. Introduction to Composite Materials Design. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2010\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nDvorak G. Micromechanics of Composite Materials. New York: Springer; 2013\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nVasiliev V, Morozov EV. Advanced Mechanics of Composite Materials and Structural Elements. 3rd ed. UK: Elsevier; 2013\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nStaab GH. Laminar Composites. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1999\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nDhakal HN et al. Effect of water absorption on the mechanical properties of hemp fibre reinforced unsaturated polyester composites. Composites Science and Technology. 2007;67:1674-1683\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nWang W. Study of moisture absorption in natural fiber plastic composites. Composites Science and Technology. 2006;66:379-386\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nJones RM. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, Inc.; 1999\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nFragoudakis R. Predicting the optimum stacking sequence of fiber reinforced plastic laminated beams under bending. In: SAMPE Seattle 2017; 22–24 May 2017; Seattle, WA; 2017\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nHashin Z. Failure for unidirectional fiber composites. Journal of Applied Mechanics. 1980;47:329-334\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nRibeiro MC et al. Finite element analysis of low velocity impact on thin composite disks. International Journal of Composite Materials. 2013;3:59-70\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nWaddoups ME, Eisenmann JR, Kaminski BE. Macroscopic fracture mechanics of advanced composite materials. Journal of Composite Materials. 1971;5:446-451\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nKannan VK, Rajadurai A, Nageswara Rao BN. Residual strength of laminated composite after impact. Journal of Composite Materials. 2010;45:1031-1043\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nGoteti C, Reddy S. Influence of fiber volume fraction, fiber angle and hole size in the stress concentration around the circular hole of an orthotropic lamina under unidirectional in plane loading. International Journal of Applied Science & Engineering. 2014;2:1-12\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nSharma D. Stress concentration around circular/elliptical/triangular cutouts in infinite composite plate. In: Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering, III; 2011\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nHuang J, Haftka RT. Optimization of fiber orientations near a hole for increased load- carrying capacity of composite laminates. Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization. 2005;30:335-341\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nFragoudakis R. A numerical approach to determine fiber orientations around geometric discontinuities in designing against failure of GFRP laminates. International Journal of Structural Integrity. 2019;10:371-379. DOI: 10.1108/IJSI-10-2018-0064\n'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"All loading conditions, including thermal and hygral effects, are accounted for in \n\n\nN\n̂\n\n\n and \n\n\nM\n̂\n\n\n."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"GFRP laminae tend to be thinner than 1 mm. However, to simplify calculations this exaggerated thickness is chosen here."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Roselita Fragoudakis",address:"fragoudakisr@merrimack.edu",affiliation:'
Merrimack College, North Andover, USA
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9373",title:"Engineering Failure Analysis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineering Failure Analysis",slug:"engineering-failure-analysis",publishedDate:"May 6th 2020",bookSignature:"Kary Thanapalan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219186",title:"Dr.",name:"Kary",middleName:null,surname:"Thanapalan",slug:"kary-thanapalan",fullName:"Kary Thanapalan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"69584",title:"Strengths and Limitations of Traditional Theoretical Approaches to FRP Laminate Design against Failure",slug:"strengths-and-limitations-of-traditional-theoretical-approaches-to-frp-laminate-design-against-failu",totalDownloads:397,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Roselita Fragoudakis",authors:[{id:"220155",title:"Dr.",name:"Roselita",middleName:null,surname:"Fragoudakis",fullName:"Roselita Fragoudakis",slug:"roselita-fragoudakis"}]},{id:"70508",title:"Propagating Stress-Strain Curve Variability in Multi-Material Problems: Temperature-Dependent Material Tests to Plasticity Models to Structural Failure Predictions",slug:"propagating-stress-strain-curve-variability-in-multi-material-problems-temperature-dependent-materia",totalDownloads:239,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Vicente Romero, Amalia Black, George Orient and Bonnie Antoun",authors:[{id:"312069",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",middleName:null,surname:"Romero",fullName:"Vicente Romero",slug:"vicente-romero"},{id:"312072",title:"Dr.",name:"Amalia",middleName:null,surname:"Black",fullName:"Amalia Black",slug:"amalia-black"},{id:"312073",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Orient",fullName:"George Orient",slug:"george-orient"},{id:"312074",title:"Dr.",name:"Bonnie",middleName:null,surname:"Antoun",fullName:"Bonnie Antoun",slug:"bonnie-antoun"}]},{id:"70962",title:"Stress Corrosion Cracking Behavior of Materials",slug:"stress-corrosion-cracking-behavior-of-materials",totalDownloads:479,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Alireza Khalifeh",authors:[{id:"251415",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Alireza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalifeh",fullName:"Alireza Khalifeh",slug:"alireza-khalifeh"}]},{id:"69147",title:"The Position and Function of Macroscopic Analysis in the Failure Analysis of Railway Fasteners",slug:"the-position-and-function-of-macroscopic-analysis-in-the-failure-analysis-of-railway-fasteners",totalDownloads:346,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Guodong Cui, Shuaijiang Yan, Chengsong Zhang, Dazhi Chen and Chuan Yang",authors:[{id:"300022",title:"Dr.",name:"Guodong",middleName:null,surname:"Cui",fullName:"Guodong Cui",slug:"guodong-cui"},{id:"302915",title:"Mr.",name:"Shuaijiang",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",fullName:"Shuaijiang Yan",slug:"shuaijiang-yan"},{id:"302917",title:"Dr.",name:"Chengsong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Chengsong Zhang",slug:"chengsong-zhang"},{id:"302919",title:"Prof.",name:"Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Chuan Yang",slug:"chuan-yang"},{id:"309194",title:"Dr.",name:"Dazhi",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Dazhi Chen",slug:"dazhi-chen"}]},{id:"70888",title:"Fracture Behavior of Solid-State Welded Joints",slug:"fracture-behavior-of-solid-state-welded-joints",totalDownloads:226,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Dattaguru Ananthapadmanaban and K. 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Raji",authors:[{id:"179159",title:"Dr.",name:"Atanda",middleName:null,surname:"Raji",fullName:"Atanda Raji",slug:"atanda-raji"}]},{id:"55986",title:"Resource Planning to Service Restoration in Power Distribution Systems",slug:"resource-planning-to-service-restoration-in-power-distribution-systems",signatures:"Magdiel Schmitz, Maria Clara Ferreira Almeida da Silva, Vinícius\nJacques Garcia, Daniel Bernardon, Lynceo Favigna Braghirolli and\nJúlio Fonini",authors:[{id:"180154",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"P",surname:"Bernardon",fullName:"Daniel Bernardon",slug:"daniel-bernardon"},{id:"180657",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinicius Jacques",middleName:"Jacques",surname:"Garcia",fullName:"Vinicius Jacques Garcia",slug:"vinicius-jacques-garcia"},{id:"206560",title:"Mr.",name:"Magdiel",middleName:null,surname:"Schmitz",fullName:"Magdiel Schmitz",slug:"magdiel-schmitz"},{id:"206572",title:"Prof.",name:"Lynceo Falavigna",middleName:null,surname:"Braghirolli",fullName:"Lynceo Falavigna Braghirolli",slug:"lynceo-falavigna-braghirolli"},{id:"206573",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Clara",middleName:"Ferreira Almeida",surname:"Da Silva",fullName:"Maria Clara Da Silva",slug:"maria-clara-da-silva"},{id:"207305",title:"BSc.",name:"Júlio",middleName:null,surname:"Schenato Fonini",fullName:"Júlio Schenato Fonini",slug:"julio-schenato-fonini"}]},{id:"55938",title:"Imperfect Maintenance Models, from Theory to Practice",slug:"imperfect-maintenance-models-from-theory-to-practice",signatures:"Filippo De Carlo and Maria Antonietta Arleo",authors:[{id:"161657",title:"Dr.",name:"Filippo",middleName:null,surname:"De Carlo",fullName:"Filippo De Carlo",slug:"filippo-de-carlo"},{id:"171361",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Antonietta",middleName:null,surname:"Arleo",fullName:"Maria Antonietta Arleo",slug:"maria-antonietta-arleo"}]},{id:"56062",title:"A Decision Support System for Planning and Operation of Maintenance and Customer Services in Electric Power Distribution Systems",slug:"a-decision-support-system-for-planning-and-operation-of-maintenance-and-customer-services-in-electri",signatures:"Carlos Henrique Barriquello, Vinícius Jacques Garcia, Magdiel\nSchmitz, Daniel Pinheiro Bernardon and Júlio Schenato Fonini",authors:[{id:"180154",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"P",surname:"Bernardon",fullName:"Daniel Bernardon",slug:"daniel-bernardon"},{id:"180657",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinicius Jacques",middleName:"Jacques",surname:"Garcia",fullName:"Vinicius Jacques Garcia",slug:"vinicius-jacques-garcia"},{id:"206560",title:"Mr.",name:"Magdiel",middleName:null,surname:"Schmitz",fullName:"Magdiel Schmitz",slug:"magdiel-schmitz"},{id:"203699",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Barriquello",fullName:"Carlos Barriquello",slug:"carlos-barriquello"},{id:"206562",title:"BSc.",name:"Júlio",middleName:null,surname:"Schenato Fonini",fullName:"Júlio Schenato Fonini",slug:"julio-schenato-fonini"}]},{id:"58122",title:"Optimum Maintenance Policy for Equipment over Changing of the Operation Environment",slug:"optimum-maintenance-policy-for-equipment-over-changing-of-the-operation-environment",signatures:"Ibrahima dit Bouran Sidibe and Imene Djelloul",authors:[{id:"220831",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ibrahima Dit Bouran",middleName:null,surname:"Sidibe",fullName:"Ibrahima Dit Bouran Sidibe",slug:"ibrahima-dit-bouran-sidibe"},{id:"222503",title:"Dr.",name:"Djelloul",middleName:null,surname:"Imene",fullName:"Djelloul Imene",slug:"djelloul-imene"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"74497",title:"How Abiotic Stress Conditions Affects Plant Roots",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95286",slug:"how-abiotic-stress-conditions-affects-plant-roots",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Plants encounter different stress conditions during their life (Figure 1). Under stress, the growth, metabolism and yield of plants are significantly adversely affected. Drought, nutrient deficiency, salinity, soil and atmosphere pollution, extreme temperatures, and radiation are abiotic stresses that limit productivity in crop production [1]. Bray et al. [2] reported that these stress factors, as the primary causes of agricultural loss worldwide are estimated to result in an average yield loss of more than 50% for most crops. Impending climate change, as the prospect of higher abiotic stress, jeopardizes the world’s food supply, which even makes global yield hard to stabilize in the future [3, 4].
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Figure 1.
Abiotic stress sources affecting root and shoot growth of plants.
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Since the root system acts as a bridge between soil and the plant regarding its physical, chemical and biological properties, it has a tremendous effect on plant growth and yield. The volume covered by the root system defines the part where the soil can be used by the plant to absorb water and plant nutrients. The development of the root structure can differ according to the physical properties of the soil such as soil depth, the presence of impermeable layers, as well as the moisture level in the growing environment [5].
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The most important characteristics of plants are that their apical meristems at the bud and root tip are constantly active, allowing them to grow throughout their lives. Growth is defined as an irreversible increase in the size of vegetative organs and dry matter accumulation. For growth to occur, the synthesis rate of macromolecules in cells must be faster than the rate of their breakdown. Development is a term used to describe the structural and functional changes that occur in different plant parts during growth and maturation. Development in plants includes such events as cell division, increase in volume and differentiation of tissues and organs [6]. Growth and development events in plants are under the control of internal and external factors. Growth and development can only occur in their normal course under suitable environmental conditions. Every change that occurs in environmental conditions affects plant growth and development to a certain extent and reveals the concept of stress. Stress factors are the factors that not only reduce agricultural productivity, but also restrict or prevents the use of new lands for agricultural activities. The morphological, anatomical and metabolic responses of plant species to stress factors led to the emergence of natural selection in the evolutionary process. In this case, environmental stress factors have an important place among the main factors that enable the plants to be shaped structurally and functionally. Plants are exposed to more than one stress factor simultaneously under natural conditions [7]. The elucidation of how living things respond to environmental factors outside of optimal boundaries constitute the main research area of stress ecology. The study of the stress physiology of plants contributes to understanding the biogeographical extent of the species, studies on increasing the productivity of cultivated plants and knowledge on plant metabolism [8].
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The root is defined by Raven and Edwards [9] as: “roots are axial multicellular structures of sporophytes of vascular plants which usually occurs underground, have strictly apical elongation growth, and generally have gravitropic responses which range from positive gravitropism to diagravitropism, combined with negative phototropism”. Roots have four important functions in plants which are: (i) anchoring the plants to the soil, (ii) uptaking minerals and water from the soil, (iii) ensuring the transportation of water and mineral substances and (iv) synthesizing some plant hormones and organic compounds. Roots also send some hormonal signals to the body under stress conditions such as water and nutrient deficit, salinity, to prevent the plant from being damaged, and ensure that the above-ground part takes the necessary precautions to adapt to these adverse conditions [10].
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Roots perceive almost whole the physiological and chemical parameters of the soil and adjust their development and performance accordingly, so it plays an important role in sustaining the nutritional and growth purposes of the plant under abiotic stresses. Abiotic conditions such as water deficit and quality, limit plant productivity around the world. Roots should grow in an environment where plant requirements heterogeneously provided. Factors affecting the growth of roots; salinity, heavy metals, plant nutrients, soil air, soil moisture, soil temperature, soil texture and foreign materials, physical barriers [11]. Roots are generally subject to more abiotic stress than the shoots do. The root system can be affected by such stresses as much, or even more so, above ground parts of a plant. However, the effect of abiotic stresses on root structure and development has been significantly less studied than above ground parts of plants due to restricted availability for root observations. This book chapter reviews to show how abiotic stress conditions affect growth, physiological, biochemical and molecular characteristics of plant roots.
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2. Salinity stress
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Salinity stress is one of the major environmental abiotic stresses that negatively affect plant yield and product quality [12]. It is estimated that salinity stress affects more than 6% of the world\'s soils (approximately 800 million ha) [13]. Soil salinity is constantly increasing due to insufficient irrigation practices, use of more fertilizers, improper drainage, rising sea level, salt accumulation in desert and semi-desert areas, and increased industrial pollution [14, 15]. Saline soils contain toxic levels of sodium chlorides and sulphates. The problem of soil salinity can vary depending on the response of the plants to salt, the development period of the plant, the salt concentration and the time the salt affects the plant. It may also differ depending on the climate and soil characteristics [16].
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The detrimental effects of high salinity on plants can be observed at the whole plant level as a decrease in productivity or plant death. Salt stress affects physiological functions such as ion toxicity, nutrient defects, increased respiration rate, changes in plant growth, membrane instability resulting in the replacement of calcium ions with sodium ions, changes in membrane permeability and decreased photosynthesis efficiency. On the other hand, salinity negatively affects nitrogen and carbon metabolism [17]. As a result of increasing salt stress, water intake in plants significantly decreases. This affects the intracellular and intercellular water level as well as inhibits cell expansion by reducing stomatal activity. The ionic and imbalance that develops under salinity stress also disrupts the growth and development pattern in the plant [18]. Moreover, the increased accumulation of ROS in the plant inhibits transpiration, mineral uptake and damages vital macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids. As a result of that, membrane integrity can collapse and other vital metabolisms can be adversely affected. Premature aging of leaves, followed by chlorosis or necrosis may occur due to sodium chloride (NaCl) entering protein synthesis, enzyme activity and photosynthesis. In order for plants to cope with salt stress; it should increase ions excretion, osmotic tolerance, redox homeostasis, and photosynthesis efficiency [19].
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Salinity exerts two different consequences on the roots: osmotic stress caused by low water potential in the growing medium; and ionic stress by the excess amount of specific ion concentration in the root environment. Mostly, root growth is inhibited under salinity due to both osmotic and toxic effects [20]. As a result of these negative effects of salt stress, profound changes occur in root architecture. Treatment of tomato with NaCl leads to a more branched root system; roots became shorter and each major root had more lateral roots compared to untreated controls. The alterations of root growth resulted in a greater root system [21]. Rose et al. [22] stated that plants grown in saline conditions have shallower root systems than plants grown under sufficient rainfed. Root development and growth have been reported to reduce by salinity stress in different crop plants [23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. Keser et al. [30] determined that salt, in which root growth is reduced due to increasing salt concentrations in tomato plants, has a toxic effect on root development.
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According to Papadopoulos and Rendig [31], while tomato root development was less at high salt concentrations, root density and water intake increased with the decrease in salt concentration. Salinity in the layers of the plant root restricts the growth of the root. Besides, the dead root length increases in roots that are very sensitive to salinity [32]. Koçer [33] found that increased salt concentrations in corn plants s decreased root dry weight compared to the control group. Cirillo et al. [34] stated that the ratio between root to shoot of Viburnum lucidum L. and Callistemon citrinus plants did not increase under salinity stress, and explained this by the same decrease in both root and shoot weights under stress. Álvarez and Sánchez-Blanco [35] found that the root/stem ratio increased in the C. citrinus plant in salinity condition.
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Formentin et al. [36] pointed out that morphological analyses between Baldo (tolerant) and VN (sensitive) rice varieties displayed opposing root developments in response to salinity. In the salt tolerant variety, no differences in total root length were observed, however, in the sensitive variety, two days after the salt exposure, a significant reduction in root length was detected as compared to control treatments. In the same experiment, they investigated the root structure to classify the root characteristics of these different varieties. They showed that the difference in the topological index was not significant between tolerant and sensitive varieties. Nevertheless, tolerant variety showed significant changes in the root topology four days after salt treatment. The roots of sensitive variety stopped growing and they just maintained the initial structure, salt tolerant plants provided more herringbone topological pattern.
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Furthermore, salt stress affects the plant nutrient content of roots. Previous studies showed that salinity conditions caused to increase in Cl and Na content, but decrease content of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, etc. in the roots of different crops [25, 26, 28].
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Abscisic acid (ABA) as a stress hormone, takes part in the signaling of water deficit under the cases as salinity and drought, it detected at the root level, and plant takes precautions to activate stomatal closure, leaf expansion limitation, and root architecture modulation to save water [37]. Moreover, rapid H2O2 signaling at the root level is also one of the most processes in inducing salt tolerance. In roots, several genes for peroxidases and universal stress proteins were up-regulated. The ABA levels in salt sensitive plants roots were much higher than in the tolerant plants. Ethylene signaling and response categories of genes were also much more represented, demonstrating a possibly lower content of ethylene. Roots of tolerant plants then continued to grow but changed topology. They also stated that in salt sensitive plants, the company of GA4 and the deficit of GA51, along with high ABA and ethylene levels, could be a reason for the initial growth and lateral roots formation. Formentin et al. [36] stated that in salt-sensitive plants, high content of ABA is responsible for stopping the root elongation.
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3. Drought stress
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Considering the rates of affected areas of the world from different stress factors; drought has the highest share at 26%, secondly mineral matter stress with 20%, followed by cold and frost stress with 15%. It is stated that the remaining 29% of the area is under some other stress factors and only 10% of the total usable areas have the optimum agricultural conditions [38]. Plant species and have significant physiological and metabolic differences in response to drought stress [27]. The degree of exposure to drought, which occurs at different severities depends on the metabolic changes that genotype develops as physiological and biochemical reactions [39].
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When the plant cannot provide the water it needs from the root zone and this situation starts to cause stress, the plants try to get rid of it by reducing water losses or increasing water intake [40], and the first effect that occurs in the plant is the loss of turgor [41]. As a result of the plant roots not meeting the water lost by transpiration from the leaves thanks to the loss of turgor, the leaf cells go into plasmolysis and shrivel [42].
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One of the early effects of water deficiency is a decrease in vegetative growth due to a decrease in photosynthesis. Stem growth and especially leaf growth are more sensitive to water deficiency than root growth. In the early periods when drought conditions occur, the plant slows down stem elongation and triggers root development in order to reach more water (Figure 2). In case of prolonged drought conditions, both stem and root stop, leaf area and the number of leaves decrease, and even some leaves shed by yellowing [43]. Liu and Stützel [44] stated that root dry weight increased and leaf area decreased under drought stress in Chinese spinach.
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Figure 2.
Long and short term responses of plants to drought stress.
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Drought stress initiates many physiological, biochemical and molecular responses in plants, and accordingly plants develop adaptation mechanisms that can adapt to changing environmental conditions in response to stress. Responses to water deficiency vary depending on the species, genotype, severity and length of water loss, growth status of the plant, age, organ, and cell type [45]. Plant roots tend to move towards to water source, called hydrotropism, which is also one of the adjustments
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Roots are the first part of the plant detects the soil drought and drought resistance of the plant or a different variety determines the morphological and physiological characteristics of the roots. Roots can maintain the growth and distribution of biomass to adjust to water deficit during the plant development phases. Therefore, the most direct destruction under drought occurs in the plant roots, so when the damage is investigated, it may be directive that the root is morphologically and physiologically adopted, adjusting to absorb nutrition and water effectually. Therefore, studies investigate the response of root morphology and root physiology to drought may better expose the drought resistance of the plant [46, 47, 48]. Shan et al.[49] found that seedlings of Reaumuria soongorica redistribute root biomass and change their internal chemistry to adjust osmotic balance under drought. The ability to adjust physiologically could be the main reason for this plant to remain in arid environments. The cessation of cell division or expansion is directly related to the decrease in photosynthesis rate due to water deficiency [43].
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Plant adjustments under drought stress by regulating the distribution of biomass help them ease from stress by escaping, tolerating or recovering. Many studies prove that root growth is significantly affected by drought stress, plant growth transforms into underground biomass (roots), and root/shoot ratio increase [50]. Eziz et al. [51] stated that biomass allocation under drought occurs more in roots than in shoots, while a greater increase occurs in total root biomass. As the roots are the only source for obtaining nutrients and water from the soil, the increase in root biomass, reproduction and size under drought would be an adaptive response to drought stress. On the contrary, some studies have stated that the diameter of top root becomes thin and its development inhibited, as a result of that the root biomass decreased [52]. Earlier studies reported that drought stress negatively affected the root growth of many crops [27, 39, 53, 54, 55].
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Many researches have revealed the inhibition of lateral roots together with deep rooting under drought [56, 57]. Plants tend to go deeper to take water instead of spreading horizontally in the soil. Comas et al. [58] found the tendency of plants to absorb water from deeper layers through vertical root growth beneficial for crop productivity under water deficiency. Ors and Suarez [57] reported significantly longer root length under drought stress for spinach. Franco et al. [59] reported thinner roots under drought stress earlier for Silene vulgaris. Under drought roots expand a capillary structure and elongate to obtain water from depth. Therefore, under optimum conditions (non water deficit) root structure would be shorter and thicker for the same varieties [57].
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For instance, Arabidopsis thaliana root hairs became short and swollen in response to the water deficiency [56, 60], whereas the presence of very short and hairless root development under drought stress was also reported in soil-grown A. thaliana [61].
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ABA and auxins contribute to a complex signaling system that plays a crucial role in the improvement of the root systems under drought. The hormonal adjustments are assumed intrinsic, and they can modulate under different environmental conditions [62]. ABA, gibberellins and cytokinins are produced in the roots and they transported to other tissues to promote plant growth. Although auxins are the main determinants of root growth [63], cytokinin and especially abscisic acid [64, 65] have been suggested as prospective chemical signals to modulate root system structure in response to drought stress. Previous studies reveals that POD, SOD, and CAT activities increased at mild drought stress [66, 67], but SOD and CAT activity decreased in severe drought stress [68].
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4. Heavy metal stress
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Industrialization in line with both population growth and the requirements of the modern age, as well as environmental pollution, has a significant impact on soil, water and agricultural lands. This pollution is mostly caused by heavy metals released into nature for various reasons. Heavy metal pollution in water and soil, causes negligible negative effects on human health both on plants and through consumption of plants [69]. Although more than seventy elements can be given as examples of heavy metals, the most important heavy metals in this element group are; Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe), Silver (Ag), Cadmium (Cd), Arsenic (As), Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Palladium (Pd), Aluminum (Al), Chromium(Cr), Antimony (Sb), Nickel (Ni), Mercury (Hg), Zinc (Zn) and Lead (Pb). These heavy metals are classified as environmental pollutants due to their toxic effects on plants, animals and humans [70].
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Heavy metals are classified as non-biodegradable. They are persistent inorganic chemical components with a density higher than 5 g cm−3 that have genotoxic, cytotoxic, and mutagenic effects on humans or animals and plants through food chains, soil, water and the surrounding atmosphere [71]. Heavy metals, which can be found in different amounts in the ecosystem, directly affect plant growth and physiology. There are serious yield losses in plants in areas where heavy metal content is high [72]. Higher plants extract biologically usable metal ions from the soil solution through membrane carriers, and different metal cations are transported carried across the plasma membrane in the roots. Metal ions in stem cells are loaded into xylem and are transported to shoots in complexes with chelators such as organic acids and amino acids. The concentration metals, affect plant growth, and root depth, which allows plants to reach the contaminant (Figure 3) [73].
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Figure 3.
Responses of plants to heavy metal stress.
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Besides the direct effect of heavy metals on plants, they can also cause cell toxicity through overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that disrupt antioxidant defense systems and cause oxidative stress [74, 75]. Heavy metals that adversely affect protein synthesis, DNA, RNA, root-water relationship, germination, development and photosynthesis in the plant can cause damage to tissues and organs by forming complex structures in soil, plants and water. Plants exposed to heavy metal toxicity display symptoms such as chlorosis, stunted growth root browning and death [76]. High concentrations of heavy metals (Cd, Ni, Pb, Cu and Zn) in plant production areas cause stress in the plant. By promoting the formation of free radicals in the plant under heavy metal stress, it damages the plant tissues and can lead to oxidative damage [77]. Plants have established various defense mechanisms against damage from heavy metals. For instance, antioxidant enzymes have been reported to have an important role in the development of defense mechanisms against heavy metal toxicity [78].
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The blockage of heavy metals by Casparian strips or their being trapped by the cell walls of roots may result in the accumulation of the heavy metals in the root cells. Accumulation of heavy metals in the root system worsens biochemical, physiological and morphological functions [79]. For example, Cr toxicity leads to chlorosis, wilting of top and injury of roots and growth retardation [80]. Nickel accumulation leads to a reduction of mitotic activity of meristem in maize [76].
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Due to heavy metals accumulation in the soil, plants cannot get the nutrients they need from the soil. It was reported that plants exposed to heavy metal have shorter root and stem lengths less number of leaves and smaller leaf area due to the lack of essential nutrients [81, 82]. The negative effect of heavy metals on root length arises from oxidative damage, disruption of the membrane structures of the cells and damage to the epidermal cells forming the root surface [83]. Suberin compound increase on the root surfaces of plants exposed to heavy metal that has the property of limiting the amount of water results in browning of the plant roots, deterioration of the plant-water relationship [84].
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Copper, which exhibits toxicity with its high amount, disrupts plant physiology, adversely affects protein synthesis, nutrient uptake, membrane stability and respiration [85]. Copper, which causes the structure to change by passing to the chloroplast structure, reduces the amount of chlorophyll [86]. Chlorosis can be seen in the plant with decreasing chlorophyll amount. With copper poisoning, the roots lose their properties and consequently the plant-water balance is negatively affected. High amounts of zinc cause growth retardation and premature aging of the plant [87]. Problems such as a decrease in shoot development in zinc toxicity, adverse effects of chlorophyll synthesis, chlorosis in young leaves [88], and reduction of both root and stem development due to inhibition of mitosis in the roots occur [89]. Iron, which has a toxic effect, causes burns on leaves, stunted roots and stems. In addition, amino acid binding and protein synthesis in plants are negatively affected by iron toxicity [90].
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In addition, in plants exposed to chromium, membrane damages, changes in structure and organs, inhibition of growth and development [91], blockage of nutrient and water supply mechanism through roots, degradation of photosynthetic pigments, and abnormalities in enzyme activity [92]. The toxic levels of chromium prevents cell division and severely restrict water and nutrient absorption processes that lead to shortening of the total length of the roots and/or shoots [93], which can lead to reduced shoot growth. Moreover, the presence of toxic chromium in roots causes the cell cycle to extend [94].
\n
In a study conducted by Verma and Dubey [95], it was reported that applying lead to the soil results in a 40% decrease in plant root growth and decreased to and up to a 25% decrease in shoot growth and they further found that lead accumulation in the roots was almost 3.5 times higher than in shoots. The reason for the accumulation of more lead in the roots can be attributed as a defense mechanism applied by the plant to protect its stem, fruit and shoots against lead toxicity [96]. Many studies showed that heavy metal stress negatively affected root growth of various plant species [97, 98, 99]. Pb worsens root elongation [100]. Cadmium (Cd) has been reported to increase endogenous ABA levels in Typha latifolia and Phragmites australis roots [101], potato tubers [102] as well as rice plants [103]. Lin et al. [104] used a whole genome sequence to perform transcriptomic analysis of rice roots exposed to vanadium (V) and showed that this metal triggers the expression of genes associated with the signaling and biosynthesis of ABA. Rubio et al. [105] reported that exogenous ABA applications have an effect on the transport of Cd and Ni to the shoots, resulting in a higher percentage of metals in the root. Cadmium has been reported to inhibit primary root elongation in Arabidopsis [106, 107]. Under Cd exposure, NAA increases metal accumulation in roots by fixing it to hemicellulose [108].
\n
Kisa [109] reported a decrease in POD activity in tomato roots caused by Cd, Cu and Pb treatments. Furthermore, it is stated that while Cd application significantly increases SOD activity in roots compared to control group, Cu application decreases SOD activity. In addition, a high concentration of Pb application increased SOD activity in plant roots. The reduction in POD activity of Cd, Cu and Pb and copper in APX and SOD activities in tomato roots can be seen as an end of heavy metal-induced excessive free radical production.
\n
Heavy metal mediated disruption of auxin transport in roots appears to be another major cause of root growth inhibition. In Arabidopsis, excessive exposure to Cd inhibits root hair growth, disrupting Ca2C influx and eventually the terminal cytosolic Ca2C gradient required for growth. A genome-wide study of the DNA methylation pattern in response to Pb stress in corn roots revealed increased methylation in CpG [110].
\n
\n
\n
5. Temperature stress
\n
Temperature is a very important determining factor affecting the distribution of plant species around the world. Many plant species and varieties may be faced with boundary degrees in order to maintain their vitality due to the characteristics of their own genetics (Figure 4). Approximately 25% of the terrestrial area in the world consists of regions that do not fall below 15°C and are reliable in case of frost damage. In the remaining regions, it is observed that especially cold-sensitive plants are damaged if the temperature drops below 0° C in certain time periods. The average temperature of the Earth\'s surface near the atmosphere increased by 0.6 (± 0.2) ° C in the 20th century. Heat stress is a major problem in many parts of the world. Among the abiotic stresses, low and high temperature stress is very critical in determining the feasibility of agricultural production [111]. Short-term or continuous high temperatures cause morphological, physiological and biochemical changes that negatively affect the growth and development of plants and result in significant yield decreases. Active growth of plants takes place within a relatively limited temperature which is between 0 °C and 45 °C. Also, while certain temperature conditions are optimum for one plant, they may cause stress for the other plant [112]. At low temperatures, the intake of water and nutrients from the root system is limited [113]. Low soil temperature results in reduced tissue nutrient concentrations and as such decreases root growth Lahti et al. [114]. Lateral root formation is inhibited by low temperature. Root growth and temperature generally increase together up to a point. While growth and development in some plants are restricted at temperatures above 45 °C, in some plants there is tolerance within the framework of visible physiological mechanisms at temperatures below 0 °C [115].
\n
Figure 4.
Responses of plants to temperature stress.
\n
High temperature causes increased respiration in plants, loss of enzyme activity, change in cell structure and function, decrease in protein synthesis, necrotic spots, a decrease in physiological activity and impairment of photosynthetic activity, causing negative effects on plant growth and development [116, 117]. High temperature causes protein denaturation in the cell, changes membrane fluidity, disrupts the entire balance of metabolic processes, and causes oxidative stress in the plant [118]. Reaction to high temperature stress; the intensity of the temperature is related to the duration of action and the species, variety and development stages of the plant.
\n
A key environmental factor regulating root growth is soil temperature [119]. Soil temperature, has been reported to impact the pattern of root growth. Temperature also has an effect on the direction of root growth. Onderdonk and Ketcheson [120] found that the angle of maize root growth (relative to the horizontal) was found to be minimum (10°C) at a constant 17°C. More vertical direction occurred above or below this temperature (10-30°C). Morphological properties such as root length, dry matter amount and branching are determined by soil temperature.
\n
High soil temperatures resulted in decrease root weight and root/shoot ratio in some crops [121, 122, 123]. This may be attributed to inhibition of the formation and elongation of the main root [124], reduced distribution of carbohydrates to root [125] and increased respiration [126]. Soil temperature has a great impact on root and shoots growth [127]. An increase in soil temperature improves root growth because of the increase in metabolic activity of root cells and the development of lateral roots [128].
\n
Shoot and root growth is expected to show similar temperature responses as all meristems are assumed to use identical processes at the cell and tissue level. Plant species that are cold-adapted generally just do not have the optimum low temperature for growth. In warm substrate total root length in three alpine plant species was 83 % longer and total root dry mass was 67 % higher under cold conditions. However, aboveground biomass was barely affected. Average root elongation ratio was 47 % lower under cold substrate conditions [129].
\n
Posmyk et al. [130] investigated the changes in antioxidant enzyme activity and isoflavonoid levels in withered soybean roots and hypocotyls exposed to cold. Prolonged exposure of the seedlings to 1 °C suppressed root elongation and hypocotyl, and seedlings growth was inadequate even after transferring to 25 °C. Root sensitivity to cold was higher than hypocotyls, a gradual increase in MDA concentration in roots at 1 ° C was not observed in hypocotyls. They found an increase in CAT and SOD activity was observed both at 1° C and o 25° C in hypocotyls. It was also reported that in roots, CAT activity starts to after 4 days of cooling, while SOD activity increased after rewarming. Buriro et al. [131] found that low temperature reduced root length, fresh stem and root weight, and root dry weight in wheat. Kumari et al. [132] showed in their study that heat stress will accelerate root and shoot development and root branching in chickpeas compared to plants grown under controlled conditions.
\n
Deep rooting is restricted at low temperatures by reduced top root elongation. The restricted deep rooting coincided with a stimulated branching activity and lateral growth. The relative reduction of the dominance of the top root tip at lower root temperatures would lead to a root system of higher efficiency due to increased placement of active roots in beneficial conditions in maize (Zea mays L.) [133]. Suboptimal root temperature reduces water, nutrient and hormone supply [134, 135].
\n
Each plant has an optimum temperature at which it can grow and develop normally, and temperatures below this temperature are known as cold stress in plants. Low temperature is an environmental factor affecting many events in plants, including germination, growth and development, reproductive organs, and post-harvest storage time [136]. Roots, rhizomes and bulbs are more sensitive to cold than their above-ground organs [137]. Exposing the cold-sensitive seedlings to temperatures below 10 ° C to non-freezing temperatures causes reduction of root development and water uptake, reduction of the root tip and root growth [138]. When cold stress was applied to the lentil plant, a significant increase in MDA content was noted in root and stem tissue and a significant increase in POD activity has been detected in the root tissue [139]. When soybean (Glycine max) was gradually exposed to low temperatures, CAT and POD activity increased in the root and stem of the plant [140]. When they were gradually exposed to low temperatures, growth of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.) were negatively affected [123, 141].
\n
Fading and drying caused by cold stress in sensitive plants is the result of the reduction in the amount of water coming from the root system to the green hitch, in other words, the loss of the hydraulic conductivity of the roots. One of the first signs of low temperature damage is stem dehydration due to the imbalance between transpiration and water uptake from the root zone [142]. Water uptake decreases with low temperature. Therefore soil temperature changes soil water, viscosity, in parallel with nutrient uptake by and root nutrient transport [114, 143].
\n
\n
\n
6. Nutrient deficiency stress
\n
Plant nutrients constitute one of the broadest and most important issues in soil chemistry. Plants, like other living things, need various plant nutrients in different proportions in order to survive. They absorb at least 90 different elements from the air, water and soil. Some of these elements are essential elements that the plant needs in order to grow and develop, and some are useful in the growth and development of the plant. From this point of view, it can be said that the elements varying between 16 and 20 are essential for the growth and development of the plant, and the others are useful elements. Each nutrient helps different plant functions that enable the plant to grow and develop [144]. Nutrient stress might occur in two different ways, which are; (i) nutrient deficiency (Figure 5), (ii) the presence of excess concentrations.
\n
Figure 5.
Responses of plants to nutrient deficiency stress.
\n
Root morphology forms according to external sources such as nutrient availability in soil solution [145, 146, 147]. Nutrient deficiencies can reduce root growth and alter root morphology [148, 149, 150]. Plants distribute a significant portion of biomass to the roots under this stress factor [151]. Plants under nitrogen have a higher root: shoot ratio and shorter lateral branches compared to control. High NO3 levels in soil solution also inhibit root growth, thus, result in a reduction in root: shoot ratio [152]. In Chinese pine seedlings, the decrease in N available in the soil increased the number and length of fine roots and decreased the diameter of the coarse roots [153]. Qin et al.[154] reported that rapeseed roots become longer consisting of denser cells in the meristematic zone and larger cells in the elongation zone of root tips under N deficiency. Root proteome analysis showed that a total of 171 and 755 differentially expressed proteins were identified in short and long-term N-deficient roots, respectively.
\n
Phosphorus deficiency led to a reduction in primary root elongation and increased lateral root formation [155]. In terms of dry matter yield, the root is much less affected than the shoot so that P-deficient plants are typically low in shoot-to-root dry weight ratio [156]. K-deficiency stress caused profoundly reductions in weight, length, surface area, and volume of the root of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)[157]. Sulfur deficiency reduced the hydraulic conductivity of roots and net photosynthesis [158]. Shoot growth in sulfur deficiency is more affected by root growth. Thus, the shoot/root dry weight ratio decreased in plants with sulfur deficiency [159]. Calcium is also required for root elongation. Iron toxicity may cause bronzing, stunted top and root growth. Manganese-deficient plants contained low levels of soluble carbohydrates. The decrease is more in roots and this may be responsible for the reduced growth of roots [160]. Under boron-deficient conditions cytokinins synthesis was depressed in sunflower roots [161].
\n
\n
\n
7. Conclusion
\n
Plants encounter many stress factors that negatively affect their growth and development during their life cycle due to their sessile nature. Damage caused by stressors; varies depending on the type of plant, tolerance and adaptability. Considering that plants encounter many stress factors throughout their lives, it is very important to clarify the stress-related mechanisms and to develop tolerant species and varieties. Roots are generally subject to more abiotic stress than shoots. Therefore, the root system can be affected by such stresses much as, or even more than above ground parts of a plant. However, the effect of abiotic stress factors on root growth and development has been significantly less studied than shoots due to limited availability for root observations. Roots are highly able to perceive the physicochemical constraints of the soil and adjust its development accordingly, so it has an important impact of maintaining the nutritional and signal functions of the plant under abiotic stresses. Understanding the impact of stress conditions on root growth, development, and architecture may offer opportunities for genetic manipulations. The increase in root branching and root hairs in plants can increase yield while reducing the need for heavy fertilizer application by enabling plants to use available soil nutrients more efficiently and increase stress tolerance.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"roots, growth, physiology, biochemistry, abiotic stresses",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74497.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74497.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74497",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74497",totalDownloads:149,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"November 30th 2020",datePrePublished:"December 18th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"December 18th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Roots are generally subject to more abiotic stress than shoots. Therefore, they can be affected by such stresses as much as, or even more, than above ground parts of a plant. However, the effect of abiotic stresses on root structure and development has been significantly less studied than above ground parts of plants due to limited availability for root observations. Roots have functions such as connecting the plant to the environment in which it grows, uptaking water and nutrients and carrying them to the above-ground organs of the plant, secreting certain hormones and organic compounds, and thus ensuring the usefulness of nutrients in the nutrient solution. Roots also send some hormonal signals to the body in stress conditions such as drought, nutrient deficiencies, salinity, to prevent the plant from being damaged, and ensure that the above-ground part takes the necessary precautions to adapt to these adverse conditions. Salinity, drought, radiation, high and low temperatures, heavy metals, flood, and nutrient deficiency are abiotic stress factors and they negatively affect plant growth, productivity and quality. Given the fact that impending climate change increases the frequency, duration, and severity of stress conditions, these negative effects are estimated to increase. This book chapter reviews to show how abiotic stress conditions affect growth, physiological, biochemical and molecular characteristics of plant roots.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74497",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74497",signatures:"Raziye Kul, Melek Ekinci, Metin Turan, Selda Ors and Ertan Yildirim",book:{id:"9716",title:"Plant Roots",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Plant Roots",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ertan Yildirim, Prof. Metin Turan and Prof. Melek Ekinci",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9716.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"186639",title:"Prof.",name:"Ertan",middleName:null,surname:"Yildirim",slug:"ertan-yildirim",fullName:"Ertan Yildirim"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Salinity stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Drought stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Heavy metal stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Temperature stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Nutrient deficiency stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nLawlor DW, Cornic G. Photosynthetic carbon assimilation and associated metabolism in relation to water deficits in higher plants. Plant, Cell and Environment. 2002;25(2):275-294\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nBray EA, Bailey-Serres J, Weretilnyk E. Responses to abiotic stresses. In: Gruissem W, Buchannan B, Jones R, editors. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Plants. 2000; 1158-1249.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nNevo E, Chen G. Drought and salt tolerances in wild relatives for wheat and barley improvement. Plant, Cell and Environment. 2010;33(4):670-685\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nKantar M, Lucas SJ, Budak H. Drought stress: molecular genetics and genomics approaches. 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Development and performance of wheat roots above shallow saline groundwater. Australian Journal of Soil Research. 2010;48:659-667\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nYildirim E, Karlidag H, Turan M. Mitigation of salt stress in strawberry by foliar K, Ca and Mg nutrient supply. Plant Soil and Environment. 2009;55(5):213-221\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nKarlidag H, Yildirim E, Turan M. Role of 24-epibrassinolide in mitigating the adverse effects of salt stress on stomatal conductance, membrane permeability, and leaf water content, ionic composition in salt stressed strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa). Scientia Horticulturae. 2011;130:133-140\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nEkinci M, Yildirim E. Dursun, A, Turan M. Mitigation of salt stress in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. crispa) by seed and foliar 24-epibrassinolide treatments. HortScience. 2012;47(5):631-636\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nYildirim E, Ekinci M, Turan M, Dursun A, Kul R, Parlakova F. Roles of glycine betaine in mitigating deleterious effect of salt stress on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science. 2015;61(12):1673-1689. DOI: 10.1080/03650340.2015.1030611\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nSahin U, Ekinci M, Ors S, Turan M, Yildiz S, Yildirim E. Effects of individual and combined effects of salinity and drought on physiological, nutritional and biochemical properties of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). Scientia Horticulturae. 2018;240:196-204\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nShams M, Ekinci M, Ors S, Turan M, Agar G, Kul R, et al. Nitric oxide mitigates salt stress effects of pepper seedlings by altering nutrient uptake, enzyme activity and osmolyte accumulation. Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants. 2019;25(5):1149-1161. DOI: 10.1007/s12298-019-00692-2\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nOzer S, Ozturk O, Cebi U, Altıntas S, Yurtseven E. The effect of irrigation water of different salinity level on root development of tomato plant in greenhouses conditions. 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Water relations of developing wheat grains. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology. 1980;7:519-525\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nKul R, Esringu A, Dadasoglu E, Sahin U, Turan M, Ors S, et al. Melatonin: Role in increasing plant tolerance in abiotic stress conditions. IntechOpen. 2019. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.82590\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nAnjum SA, Xie X, Wang L, Saleem MF, Man C, Lei W. Morphological, physiological and biochemical responses of plants to drought stress. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 2011;6:2026-2032\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nLiu F, Stützel H. Biomass partitioning, specific leaf area, and water use efficiency of vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) in response to drought stress. Scientia Horticulturae. 2004;102(1):15-27\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nBray EA. Plant responses to water deficit. Trends in Plant Science. 1997;2(2):48-54\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nSharp RE, Poroyko V, Hejlek LG, Spollen WG, Springer GK, Bohnert HJ, et al. Root growth maintenance during water deficits: physiology to functional genomics. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2004;55(407):2343-2351\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nZhang YQ, Miao GY. The biological response of Broomcorn Millet root to drought stress with different fertilization levels. Acta Agronomica Sinica. 2006;32(4):601-606\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nYang YH, Wu JC, Wu PT, Pu-Te W, Zhan-Bin H, Xi-Ning Z, et al. Effects of different application rates of water retaining agent on root physiological characteristics of winter wheat at its different growth stages. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology. 2011;22(1):73-78\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nShan L, Yang C, Li Y, Duan Y, Geng D, Li Z, et al. Effects of drought stress on root physiological traits and root biomass allocation of Reaumuria soongorica. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2015;35(5):155-159. DOI: 10.1016/j.chnaes.2015.06.010\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nWei Q, Ji-wang Z, Kong-jun W, Peng L, Shu-ting D. 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Dell B Low root zone temperature favors shoot B partitioning into young leaves of oilseed rape (Brassica napus). Physiologia Plantarum. 2003;118:213-220\n'},{id:"B136",body:'\nWang CY. Chilling Injury of Horticultural Crops, Boca Raton, FL: CRC. 1990; 313 pp.\n'},{id:"B137",body:'\nFennell A, Markhart AH. Rapid acclimation of root hydraulic conductivity to low temperature. Journal of Experimental Botany. 1998;49:879-884\n'},{id:"B138",body:'\nAroca R, Irıgoyen JJ, Sanchez-diaz M. Photosynthetic characteristics and protective mechanisms against oxidative stress during chilling and subsequent recovery in two maize varieties differing in chilling sensitivity. Plant Science. 2001;161:719-726\n'},{id:"B139",body:'\nÖktem HA, Eyidogan F, Demirba D, Bayrac AT, Oz MT, Ozgur E, et al. Antioxidant responses of lentil to cold and drought stress. Journal of Plant Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 2008;17(1):15-21\n'},{id:"B140",body:'\nYadeghari LZ, Heidari R, Carapetian J. Cold pretreatment-induced changes in antioxidant enzyme activities and relative water content and soluble sugars in shoots and roots of soybean seedlings. Research Journal of Biological Sciences. 2008;3(1):68-73\n'},{id:"B141",body:'\nDu YC, Tachibana S. Effect of supraoptimal root temperature on the growth, root respiration and sugar content of cucumber plants. Scientia Horticulturae. 1994;58:289-301\n'},{id:"B142",body:'\nVernieri P, Lenzi A, Figaro M, Tognoni F, Pardossi A. How the roots contribute to the ability of Phaseolus vulgaris L. to cope with chilling induced water stress. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2001;(52):2199-2206\n'},{id:"B143",body:'\nGrossnickle SC. Ecophysiology of Northern spruce species in the performance of planted seedlings. NRC–CNRC, NRC, Ottawa Ont, Canada: Research press. 2000:325-407\n'},{id:"B144",body:'\nGardiner DT, Miller RW. Soils in Our Environment. 11th ed. Upper Saddle Hill, Ne Jersey, USA: Pearson/Prentice Hall; 2008\n'},{id:"B145",body:'\nZangaro W, Nishidate FR, Camargo FRS, Romagnoli GG, Vandresen J. Relationships among arbuscular mycorrhizas, root morphology and seedling growth of tropical native woody species in southern Brazil. J Trop Ecol. 2005;21:529-540\n'},{id:"B146",body:'\nMarkesteijn L, Poorter L. Seedling root morphology and biomass allocation of 62 tropical tree species in relation to drought- and shade-tolerance. Journal of Ecology. 2009;97:311-325\n'},{id:"B147",body:'\nMcinenly LE, Merrill E, Cahill JF, Juma NG. Festuca campestris alters root morphology and growth in response to simulated grazing and nitrogen form: Defoliation, N-form and fescue roots. Functional Ecology. 2010;24:283-292\n'},{id:"B148",body:'\n Cao X, Chen C, Zhang D, Shu B, Xiao J, Xia R. Influence of nutrient deficiency on root architecture and root hair morphology of trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata L. Raf.) seedlings under sand culture. Scientia Horticulturae. 2013;162:100-105\n'},{id:"B149",body:'\nWan F, Ross-Davis AL, Shi W, Weston C, Song X, Chang X, et al. Subirrigation effects on larch seedling Growth, root morphology, and media chemistry. Forests. 2019;10:38\n'},{id:"B150",body:'\nWang G, Liu F, Xue S. Nitrogen addition enhanced water uptake by affecting fine root morphology and coarse root anatomy of Chinese pine seedlings. Plant Soil. 2017;418:177-189\n'},{id:"B151",body:'\nHermans C, Hammond JP, White PJ, Verbruggen N. How do plants respond to nutrient shortage by biomass allocation? Trends Plant Science. 2006;11:610-617\n'},{id:"B152",body:'\nZhang H, Jennings A, Barlow PW, Forde BG. Dual pathways for regulation of root branching by nitrate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1999;96:6529-6534\n'},{id:"B153",body:'\nWang G, Fahey TJ, Xue S, Liu F. Root morphology and architecture respond to N addition in Pinus tabuliformis, west China. Oecologia. 2013;171:583-590\n'},{id:"B154",body:'\nQin L, Walk TC, Han P, Chen L, Zhang S, Li Y, et al. Adaption of roots to nitrogen deficiency revealed by 3D quantification and proteomic analysis. Plant Physiology. 2019;179:329-347. DOI: 10.1104/pp.18.00716\n'},{id:"B155",body:'\nHodge A. The plastic plant: root responses to heterogenous supplies of nutrients. New Phytologist. 2004;162:9-24\n'},{id:"B156",body:'\nJeschke W, Peuke A, Kirkby EA, Pate JS, Hartung W. Effects of P deficiency on the uptake, flows and utilization of C, N and H2O within intact plants of Ricinus communis L. Journal of Experimental Botany. 1996;47(304):1737-1754\n'},{id:"B157",body:'\nZeng Q, Ao J, Ling Q, Huang Y, Li Q. Effects of K-deficiency stress on the root morphology and nutrient efficiency of sugarcane. Journal of Plant Nutrition. 2018;41(11):1425-1435. DOI: 10.1080/01904167.2018.1454958\n'},{id:"B158",body:'\nKarmoker JL, Clarkson DL, Saker LR, Rooney JM, Purves JV. Sulphate deprivation depresses the transport of nitrogen to the xylem and the hydraulic conductivity of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) roots. Planta. 1991;185:269-278\n'},{id:"B159",body:'\nEdelbauer A. Auswirkung von abgestuftem schwefelmangel auf wachstum, substanzbildung und mineralstoffgehalt von tomate (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) In: Nahrlosungskultur. Die Bodenkultur. 1980;31:229-241\n'},{id:"B160",body:'\nMarcar NE, Graham RD. Genotypic variation for manganese efficiency in wheat. Journal of Plant Nutrition. 1987;10:2049-2055\n'},{id:"B161",body:'\nWagner H, Michael G. Der Einfluss unterschiedlicher. Wurzeln von Sonnenblumen pflanzen. Biochem Physiol. Pflanz. 1971;162:147-158\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Raziye Kul",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Atatürk University, Turkey
Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Atatürk University, Turkey
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9716",title:"Plant Roots",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Plant Roots",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ertan Yildirim, Prof. Metin Turan and Prof. Melek Ekinci",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9716.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"186639",title:"Prof.",name:"Ertan",middleName:null,surname:"Yildirim",slug:"ertan-yildirim",fullName:"Ertan Yildirim"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"83650",title:"Dr.",name:"Gurch",middleName:null,surname:"Randhawa",email:"gurch.randhawa@beds.ac.uk",fullName:"Gurch Randhawa",slug:"gurch-randhawa",position:null,biography:"Gurch is Professor of Diversity in Public Health and Director of the Institute for Health Research at the University of Bedfordshire, UK. 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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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