Open access peer-reviewed chapter

Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Heterotheca inuloides and Its Antimicrobial Activity in Catgut Suture Threads

Written By

Saraí C. Guadarrama-Reyes, Raúl A. Morales-Luckie, Víctor Sánchez-Mendieta, María G. González-Pedroza, Edith Lara-Carrillo, Ulises Velazquez-Enriquez, Victor Toral-Rizo and Rogelio Scougall-Vilchis

Submitted: 28 May 2019 Reviewed: 26 August 2019 Published: 09 October 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.89344

From the Edited Volume

Engineered Nanomaterials - Health and Safety

Edited by Sorin Marius Avramescu, Kalsoom Akhtar, Irina Fierascu, Sher Bahadar Khan, Fayaz Ali and Abdullah M. Asiri

Chapter metrics overview

906 Chapter Downloads

View Full Metrics

Abstract

Silver nanoparticles were synthesized through a green method, using Heterotheca inuloides as a bioreducing agent. Moreover, catgut suture threads were decorated with those biogenic silver nanoparticles, and their antibacterial activity versus highly resistant pathogenic microorganisms was evaluated. The principles of green chemistry and nanotechnology allow us to obtain advanced materials, such as suture threads, which can reduce or avoid the prevalence of infectious processes in the medical field. Mexican medicinal plants, such as H. inuloides, represent an adequate alternative for biosynthesis; this plant species is known for its medicinal benefits and its antibacterial activity, and for that reason, it is being used in folk medicine.

Keywords

  • Heterotheca inuloides
  • green synthesis
  • silver nanoparticles
  • antimicrobial activity
  • catgut
  • suture

1. Introduction

Diverse green synthesis methods, involving the use of plant extracts as reducing agents, provide attractive approaches to synthesize AgNPs.

Mexican medicinal plants represent an adequate alternative for biosynthesis, such is the case of Heterotheca inuloides, a plant known for its medicinal benefits, as well as anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. The plant, commonly named as Mexican arnica has been traditionally used for its antimicrobial activity, antifungal, cytotoxic and antioxidative properties, leading the World Health Organization (WHO) to recognize its use in medicine. This species has also been used to treat dental diseases and gastrointestinal disorders [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].

The wide use of H. inuloides, in medicine, can be attributed to its more than 140 components. Several constituents of the aqueous extract obtained from the dried flowers have been identified and characterized as antibacterial agents. Flavonoids, sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoids, and sterols are mainly present on its chemical composition [7, 8, 9].

Conventional approaches in nano-synthesis involve the use of highly toxic chemicals, resulting in side effects after administration [10, 11]. For this reason, it is of utmost importance for biomedical science to try to minimize any consequent risk to human health.

In modern surgery, attempts have been made to reduce the prevalence of infections related with surgical sutures, through the use of coated materials [12]. Nevertheless, the risk of surgical site infection is a constant challenge in wound closure. By using sutures with an antibacterial coating, the risk of infection is considerably reduced. The significant feature of silver is its broad antimicrobial spectrum associated with biomaterial-related infections [11, 13].

We present a total green synthetic method where Heterotheca inuloides is used for the first time to decorate catgut, a suture thread widely used in surgery. Its characterization, and antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, is reported.

Advertisement

2. Experimental

2.1 Synthesis of AgNPs

The plant material was collected from surrounding fields of the State of Mexico, and it was cleaned using tap water followed by distilled water. H. inuloides leaves were dried and finely ground to a powder and then kept at room temperature for 24 h. About 1 gram of powder was poured in 100 mL of distilled water and boiled. The solution was filtered using filter paper. A 10 mM silver nitrate solution (AgNO3, Sigma-Aldrich) was prepared to generate AgNPs; both solutions were mixed in a 1:2.5 ratio.

After 6 h, catgut (USP 3-0, Atramat®) was totally immersed in the solution for 1 h and then taken out and dried at room temperature.

2.2 Characterization of AgNPs

2.2.1 Spectrophotometry by UV: Vis

UV-Vis was performed every hour for the next 6 h. Spectral measurements were recorded on a Cary 5000 UV-Vis-NIR Scanning Spectrophotometer using a quartz cell, and the wavelength ranges from 300 to 600 nm.

2.2.2 Spectrophotometry by FTIR

The FTIR analysis was performed (Bruker, Model 27) to identify the main functional groups in the aqueous extract of Heterotheca inuloides.

2.2.3 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

Catgut samples were prepared for its analysis in a JSM-6510-LV microscope (JEOL Tokyo, Japan) at 20 kV of acceleration and using secondary electrons.

The samples were coated with a thin film of gold (c.a. 20 nm) using a Denton Vacuum DESK IV sputtering equipment.

2.2.4 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)

Transmission electron microscope (TEM, JEOL JEM-2100, Tokyo, Japan) was used. To evaluate shape and size of silver nanoparticles, the solution was analyzed by placing a drop on a copper grid (300 mesh) coated with carbon film and let to dry at room temperature. A 200 kiloelectronvolt accelerating voltage was used in bright-field mode and high resolution.

2.3 Antibacterial activity

The antibacterial activity of AgNPs was determined by well diffusion method against the Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli on the Mueller-Hinton agar plates.

Catgut suture threads were cut into pieces of approximately 10 mm of length and put on the Petri dishes. Each plate was prepared in triplicate. The plates were incubated at 37°C in a Felisa® incubator for 24–48 h.

After incubation, a clear zone appeared, and by measuring the halo of inhibition for both strains, the antibacterial effect was assessed.

Advertisement

3. Results

3.1 UV-Vis spectroscopy

AgNPs synthesized by Heterotheca inuloides produced polydisperse and stable nanoparticles as shown in Figure 1. The increase in the intensity of surface plasmonic resonance, at 451 nm, as a function of time, is observed. In addition, it is confirmed that at 6 h, the formation of the nanoparticles is finished.

Figure 1.

UV-Vis spectra showing that the AgNP plasmon wavelength lies between 440 and 460 nm.

By means of transmission electron microscopy (TEM), the size and shape of AgNPs are demonstrated; an average nanoparticle size of 16.0 nm and a standard deviation of 1.2 nm are recognized; in addition, an interplanar distance of 0.149 nm, corresponding to plane (220 nm), was found (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

TEM images show the size distribution and a spherical shape of AgNPs synthesized by the green reducing agent, having a mean diameter of approximately 17 nm.

Scanning electron microscopy images of catgut embedded with AgNPs (reduced with Heterotheca inuloides) at different magnifications are shown in Figure 3. Ag nanoparticles of spherical in shape are observed distributed over the fiber surface.

Figure 3.

SEM micrographs showing the catgut suture threads coated with AgNPs synthesized by the green reducing agent. (A) Images revealed that AgNPs were formed on the surface. (B) The micrograph shows a plain catgut suture.

Advertisement

4. Characterization of bioreducing agent of AgNp by infrared spectroscopy

H. inuloides represents a source of chemical compounds with variable structural patterns. Several different types of compounds such as sesquiterpenes, triterpenes, polyphenols, and phytosterols have been isolated from essential oil and organic extracts from various parts, including roots, aerial parts, and flowers. According to the abovementioned, the following characteristic functional groups, 3268 cm−1 (–OH), 2942 cm−1 (c (sp2)–H), 1584 cm−1 (C = O), 1393 cm−1 (–CH2), 1258 cm−1 (–CH3), 1033 cm−1 (CO), and 595 cm−1 (CH), were detected (Figure 4).

Figure 4.

FTIR spectrum of the Heterotheca inuloides aqueous extract.

The antimicrobial activity of the infusion using Heterotheca inuloides as reducing agent, against Staphylococcus aureus, can be seen in Figure 5. A well-defined inhibition halo around the disk impregnated with the nanoparticles solution is visible.

Figure 5.

AgNPs against Staphylococcus aureus: (A) blank disk, (B) disk containing AgNPs synthesized by H. inuloides, and (C) disk with H. inuloides infusion as a control.

In Figure 6, the antimicrobial activity of catgut against S. aureus and E. coli is observed. The suture threads were cut into small pieces and put on the Petri dishes. Some suture thread samples were used as blank.

Figure 6.

Antibacterial effect of suture against both strains a and b. (A) Inhibitory halo of catgut suture with AgNPs versus E. coli. (B) Inhibitory halo of catgut suture with AgNPs versus S. aureus. (a) Catgut with AgNPs. (b) Catgut without AgNPs used as a blank.

The inhibition zone for both strains is presented in the next tables.

Table 1 shows that the use of Heterotheca inuloides to synthesize AgNPs produces an antibacterial effect against both strains, by testing disks. The growth inhibition halo for S. aureus was on 3.5 mm average. While for E. coli, it was 3.25 mm on average. Without having a statistically significant difference between both strains.

VariableObsMeanStd. Err.Std. Dev.[95% Conf. Interval]
Sdis~pHi43.50.28867510.57735032.581307–4.418693
Edis~pHi43.250.250.52.454388–4.045612
combined83.3750.18298130.51754922.942318–3.807682
diff0.250.3818813-0.6844299–1.18443
diff = mean(Sdisco_NpHi) − mean(Edisco_NpHi)t = 0.6547
Ho: diff = 0degrees of freedom = 6
Ha: diff < 0Ha: diff != 0Ha: diff > 0
Pr(T < t) = 0.7315Pr(|T| > |t|) = 0.5370Pr(T > t) = 0.2685

Table 1.

Measures of the zones of inhibition of the disks against S. aureus and E. coli.

When performing the suture inhibition test for both strains, an average inhibition zone of 3.46 mm for S. aureus and an inhibition zone of 2.8 mm for E. coli can be seen in Table 2, demonstrating a statistically significant difference and a greater zone of inhibition with the use of catgut versus S. aureus.

Two-sample t test with equal variances
VariableObsMeanStd. Err.Std. Dev.[95% Conf. Interval]
Scatgu~i153.4666670.16523190.63994053.112279–3.821054
Ecatgu~i152.80.22253950.86189162.3227–3.2773
combined303.1333330.14958440.81930722.827399–3.439268
diff0.66666670.27717390.0989016–1.234432
diff = mean(Scatgut_NpHi) − mean(Ecatgut_NpHi)t = 2.4052
Ho: diff = 0degrees of freedom = 28
Ha: diff < 0Ha: diff != 0Ha: diff > 0
Pr(T < t) = 0.9885Pr(|T| > |t|) = 0.0230Pr(T > t) = 0.0115

Table 2.

When comparing both strains; there was a mean inhibition zone of 3.4 mm against S. aureus. While for E. coli there was a mean inhibition zone of 2.8 mm representing a statistical significant difference of 0.0230 value.

There was no growth inhibition with blank or control disks, neither with catgut blank sutures. All the measurements were replicated three times for each treatment.

Advertisement

5. Discussion

Regarding the UV-Vis results, we can recognize the presence of the characteristic surface plasmonic resonance of silver nanoparticles as other authors have reported to appear from 400 to 500 nm [14].

Other authors have shown that silver nanoparticles with sizes smaller than 50 nm offer high antimicrobial activity [15] that supported on catgut fibers and obtain a double function, in Figure 3. The accommodation of the nanoparticles on the surface of the fibers can be observed, and some authors have observed this same behavior [16].

Also, the main functional groups present in the reducing agent are recognized [1], which makes it possible to obtain silver nanoparticles with average sizes of 16.04 nm.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, assessment of wound healing after a surgical procedure is important [17]. Infection is the most important and preventable cause of impaired wound healing. Microorganisms can rapidly reach tissues after surgery [18].

A surgical site infection (SSI) surveillance in oral or maxillofacial surgery is necessary because the mouth is widely colonized by highly pathogenic microorganisms. Besides, suture threads are placed in a moist environment [19]. One of the categories to classify the SSI is the complications related to the superficial incision, in which the suture material used may be related [20]. Whether its natural or synthetic origin, the sutures are strange to the body and therefore cause tissue reaction. Any suture may provide an environment conducive to the propagation of infection [21].

In 2002 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of the first suture coated with antimicrobial and triclosan (polyglactin 910-polychlorophenoxyphenol), which has a broad-spectrum activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms [12].

However, the resistance of highly pathogenic microorganisms has been reported as a disadvantage of the use of triclosan [22].

An advanced material for the closure of a wound, with direct drug delivery from the suture to the surgical site, may be the key for the prevention of infections.

Mexico is one of the five megadiverse countries of the world [23]. Pharmaceutical products derived from this plant are widely used, since ancient times, due to the botanical exploration of the Valley of Mexico, one of the most well-known regions from the scientific and botanical aspect [24]. The Ministry of Health has studied its traditional therapeutic use in most regions of the country, using the flower as an infusion and other presentations, [25] searching for the establishment of public policies, and recognizing the importance of epidemiological contributions of popular medicine [26].

Plants have different types of metabolites that can help in the reduction of silver ions. The biological methods using plant leaf extracts have shown great potential for nano-synthesis [27]. Using endemic plants provides many advantages, such as easy accessibility, simplicity, economy, and ecological nature [28, 29, 30, 31].

Some of the most important considerations of a green synthetic method are the use of nontoxic chemicals, benign solvents for the environment, and renewable materials [10, 32]. Besides, the process can be carried out at room temperature, and the reaction is completed in a few minutes. Green synthetic methods are simple, environmentally benign, and quite efficient for producing silver nanoparticles [10, 28].

Advertisement

6. Conclusion

We present a totally green approach toward the synthesis and stabilization of metal nanoparticles allowing to obtain an advanced suture that can be effective on oral and maxillofacial surgery, having demonstrated an antibacterial effect versus resistant bacteria. In this study, Heterotheca inuloides turns out to be an appropriate reducing agent for coating natural suture threads with AgNPs.

Synthesis of AgNp by eco-friendly reducing agents represents an environmental and economically sustainable process that minimizes the costs and provides the benefits and properties of plants such as Heterotheca inuloides.

We believe that this may be an alternative for surgeons, which helps in reducing the indiscriminate use of antibiotic therapy. It also represents an option to use advanced materials that are produced under sustainable conditions, which reduce the impact on the environment.

Advertisement

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they do not have conflict of interest.

References

  1. 1. Rodríguez-Chávez JL et al. Mexican Arnica (Heterotheca inuloides Cass. Asteraceae: Astereae): Ethnomedical uses, chemical constituents and biological properties. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2017;195:39-63
  2. 2. Delgado G et al. Anti-inflammatory constituents from Heterotheca inuloides. Journal of Natural Products. 2001;64(7):861-864
  3. 3. Coballase-Urrutia E et al. Antioxidant activity of Heterotheca inuloides extracts and of some of its metabolites. Toxicology. 2010;276(1):41-48
  4. 4. Coballase-Urrutia E et al. Hepatoprotective effect of acetonic and methanolic extracts of Heterotheca inuloides against CCl4-induced toxicity in rats. Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology. 2011;63(4):363-370
  5. 5. Rosas-Piñón Y et al. Ethnobotanical survey and antibacterial activity of plants used in the Altiplane region of Mexico for the treatment of oral cavity infections. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2012;141(3):860-865
  6. 6. World Health Organization. General Guidelines for Methodologies on Research and Evaluation of Traditional Medicine. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2000
  7. 7. Gené RM et al. Heterotheca inuloides: Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effect. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1998;60(2):157-162
  8. 8. Kubo I et al. Antimicrobial agents from Heterotheca inuloides. Planta Medica. 1994;60(03):218-221
  9. 9. Rodríguez-Chávez JL et al. In vitro activity of ‘Mexican Arnica’ Heterotheca inuloides Cass natural products and some derivatives against Giardia intestinalis. Parasitology. 2015;142(4):576-584
  10. 10. Roy N et al. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles: An approach to overcome toxicity. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology. 2013;36(3):807-812
  11. 11. Jaidev L, Narasimha G. Fungal mediated biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles, characterization and antimicrobial activity. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2010;81(2):430-433
  12. 12. Granados-Romero JJ et al. Comparación entre sutura recubierta con antibacterial versus cierre tradicional en la incidencia de complicaciones en apendicectomías y colecistectomías laparoscópicas. Revista Mexicana de Cirugía Endoscópica. 2015;16(1-4):31-36
  13. 13. Corrêa JM et al. Silver nanoparticles in dental biomaterials. International Journal of Biomaterials. 2015;2015:485275
  14. 14. Sharma VK, Yngard RA, Lin Y. Silver nanoparticles: Green synthesis and their antimicrobial activities. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science. 2009;145(1-2):83-96
  15. 15. Morales-Luckie RA et al. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using aqueous extracts of Heterotheca inuloides as reducing agent and natural fibers as templates: Agave lechuguilla and silk. Materials Science and Engineering: C. 2016;69:429-436
  16. 16. Aramwit P et al. Green synthesis of silk sericin-capped silver nanoparticles and their potent anti-bacterial activity. Nanoscale Research Letters. 2014;9(1):79
  17. 17. Mangram AJ et al. Guideline for prevention of surgical site infection, 1999. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology. 1999;20(4):247-280
  18. 18. Bickler SW, Spiegel D. Improving surgical care in low-and middle-income countries: A pivotal role for the World Health Organization. World Journal of Surgery. 2010;34(3):386-390
  19. 19. Leknes KN et al. Tissue reactions to sutures in the presence and absence of anti-infective therapy. Journal of Clinical Periodontology. 2005;32(2):130-138
  20. 20. Kathju S et al. Chronic surgical site infection due to suture-associated polymicrobial biofilm. Surgical Infections. 2009;10(5):457-461
  21. 21. Fantry AJ et al. Deep infections after Syndesmotic fixation with a suture button device. Orthopedics. 2017;40(3):e541-e545
  22. 22. Edmiston CE Jr, Daoud FC, Leaper D. Is there an evidence-based argument for embracing an antimicrobial (triclosan)-coated suture technology to reduce the risk for surgical-site infections? A meta-analysis. Surgery. 2013;154(1):89-100
  23. 23. Castillo-Juárez I et al. Anti-Helicobacter pylori activity of plants used in Mexican traditional medicine for gastrointestinal disorders. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2009;122(2):402-405
  24. 24. Rzedowski GD, Rzedowski J. Flora Fanerogámica del Valle de México. 1a reimp ed. Pátzcuaro, Michoacán: Instituto de Ecología, AC y Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Usos de la Biodiversidad; 2005
  25. 25. Hernández-Cruz AS. Manual para el manejo sustentable de plantas medicinales y elaboración de productos derivados. Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo Social, Indesol. México. 2014:63. Folio CS-09-F-DI-308-14
  26. 26. Almaguer G. Programa de Trabajo 2001-2006 de la Dirección de Medicina Tradicional. Coordinación de Salud para los Pueblos Indígenas. México, DF: Secretaría de Salud; 2001. Manuscrito
  27. 27. Shinde N, Lokhande A, Lokhande C. A green synthesis method for large area silver thin film containing nanoparticles. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology. 2014;136:19-25
  28. 28. Behravan M et al. Facile green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Berberis vulgaris leaf and root aqueous extract and its antibacterial activity. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2019;124:148-154
  29. 29. Anand KKH, Mandal BK. Activity study of biogenic spherical silver nanoparticles towards microbes and oxidants. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 2015;135:639-645
  30. 30. Bindhu M, Umadevi M. Antibacterial and catalytic activities of green synthesized silver nanoparticles. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 2015;135:373-378
  31. 31. Ulug B et al. Role of irradiation in the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles mediated by fig (Ficus carica) leaf extract. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 2015;135:153-161
  32. 32. Raveendran P, Fu J, Wallen SL. Completely “green” synthesis and stabilization of metal nanoparticles. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2003;125(46):13940-13941

Written By

Saraí C. Guadarrama-Reyes, Raúl A. Morales-Luckie, Víctor Sánchez-Mendieta, María G. González-Pedroza, Edith Lara-Carrillo, Ulises Velazquez-Enriquez, Victor Toral-Rizo and Rogelio Scougall-Vilchis

Submitted: 28 May 2019 Reviewed: 26 August 2019 Published: 09 October 2019