Applications of EIS in analysis and characterizations of different drug materials in variable matrices.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tThe heavy metals group is one of the main and common environmental pollutants. They are persistent and naturally occurring elements from sea’s salts, forest fires, volcanic eruption and rock weathering, but most of the environmental pollution by these elements results from human and industrial activities such as mining, wastewater discharge, crude oil transfer and spill, agriculture, and the smelting process. These activities introduce heavy metals in different environments such as biological, aquatic, terrestrial and air environments. Heavy metals are persistent and accumulative, therefore introducing heavy metals to these environments leads to many potential negative impacts.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the heavy metals’ physicochemical properties, toxicity, transferring in the environment, legislation, environmental impacts and mitigation measures.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-122-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-121-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-402-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ac4f5b254442e9f19a8c609453a83915",bookSignature:"Dr. Mazen Nazal",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10388.jpg",keywords:"Heavy Metals, Physical Properties, Chemical Properties, Environmental Faith, Analytical Techniques, Extraction Techniques, Qualitative Analysis, Quantitative Analysis, Impact Toxicity, Bioaccumulation, Removal Techniques, Adsorptive Removal",numberOfDownloads:200,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 15th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 5th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 23rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 21st 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"More than 15 years' experience in analytical related research and teaching at research laboratories, industries, and universities. Dr. Nazal’s innovative research interests are focused on the development of efficient and selective materials and methods for the removal of pollutants from different matrices for water treatment and fuel desulfurization.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"214815",title:"Dr.",name:"Mazen",middleName:null,surname:"Nazal",slug:"mazen-nazal",fullName:"Mazen Nazal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/214815/images/system/214815.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nazal joined the Research Institute at King Fahad University for Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM) in 2016. As a Research Scientist, he is leading the organic analysis section in the Center for Environment and Water (CEW). Dr. Nazal got his Ph.D. in Chemistry specializing in Analytical and Environmental Chemistry in 2016 from KFUPM. He received his MS and BS degrees in Chemistry from The University of Jordan in 2003 and 2006 respectively. Dr. Nazal has more than 15 years’ experience in analytical related research and teaching at research laboratories, industries and universities. Dr. Nazal has published more than 30 research papers in refereed ISI journals and application patents and sub patents registered in the US patent office. Dr. Nazal’s research interests are focused on the development of efficient and selective materials and methods for the removal of pollutants (organic sulfur compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, phenolic compounds, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, heavy metals, etc.) from different matrices for water treatment and fuel desulfurization. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65647",title:"Television as a Surveillance Tool",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83532",slug:"television-as-a-surveillance-tool",body:'\nTelevision (TV) that became a ubiquitous part of households in many parts of the world since World War II has been witnessing a significant transformation since the turn of the twenty-first century. Starting in the early 2000s, TV has morphed in many ways such as in the size and quality of picture it delivers, the kind of content it can offer, and the multiple ways in which it can be used.1 Yet, in spite of these changes, it has been the case that TV has remained a site to consume narratives.2 Within the narrative paradigm, narratives, as pointed out in the work of Fisher [7, 8, 9] and later in the research on narrative bits [10, 11, 12, 13], are also windows to the lives of individuals and groups. While TV has brought narratives home, the knowledge of the narratives of people can allow one to better understand the person and predict and control what the person may do. This perspective on narrative suggests that every person has a “life story,” and access to that story offers an insight into the person’s life. The challenge has been accessing the story in detail. Creating a detailed narrative requires constantly watching the person and tracking the person’s beliefs, interests, and behavior. The matter of watching and constructing the narrative was eased when the advent of the digital allowed the analog, flesh-and-blood person, to construct a digital representation of the self in the digital space. This was akin to creating the life story online, which could be the repository of the narrative of the person. Indeed, this is the realm of big data [14, 15]. In this essay I argue that TV, originally the conduit for offering passive narratives to the audience, is transforming into a tool that can watch over the audience and construct a dynamic narrative of the audience, thus operating as tool for surveillance.
\nSince the early days of TV in the developed countries of the West, technology and medium had been considered to be a passive device that was the conduit that brought information to the people who would watch the screen seeking anything from entertainment to education. TV has sometimes been called the “idiot tube,” for the mesmerizing effect it would have on the watcher who could be distracted to catatonic inactivity just watching TV in a “mindless” way without having to bring any intellectual energy to the process of watching TV. This phenomenon was examined copiously by scholars from many disciplines, and numerous theories were proposed and debated that examined the “effects” of watching TV as would be found in many introductory books on mass communication.
\nOne important assumption that underpinned the emergent theories claimed that the audience of TV was a relatively passive and often disengaged person (see, e.g., early research by Klapper [16]). This assumption was especially true for the programs of research that mimicked the natural scientific methods of research devising experiments and interventions with samples selected from the population to understand the effects of TV in numerical terms, as in the case of development of theories such as cultivation theory often considered to be a central tenet of understanding the effect of TV. Other researchers who subscribed to a more cultural anthropological, critical, and cultural interpretations of the role of TV in everyday life sought answers in the ways the audience would talk about television or through observational studies where the audience would be observed to see how they interacted with the narratives and discourses on television, as in the case of scholar originating in the Birmingham Centre for Cultural Studies and offering the vast array of literature on the role of TV within popular culture starting with the work of scholars such as [17]. In both approaches, however, there was the shared presumption of relative anonymity of the audience where any individual member of the audience was a part of a larger similar kind of people where the specific individual was unknown to those who created and circulated the content of TV. This presumption worked well for the industry because the content producers were only concerned with creating content that could be of appeal to a certain type of audience and not to any individual person since there was no definitive way of knowing who the person was.
\nThis lack of information about a specific member of the audience was largely a factor of the way in which TV technology worked from its inception to the time when the Internet became a part of everyday life for large groups of people. Traditional TV technology was designed to deliver a robust image and sound to the audience without the audience having to come to the place where the content was available as in the case of movies. Like its predecessor—radio, TV brought the message to the home of the audience. The content distributors had little knowledge of who was watching the content, why they were watching the content, or if the audience was liking the content. For the content distributors such as the NBCs and BBCs, once the content left the antennas, there was no way to “control” the content and trace where it went or what happened to the content. At the reception end of the process, TV technology was a “passive” tool that merely displayed the content on the screen. Once the TV was turned off, the screen was just a part of the furniture in the room. This status quo changed with the increasing adoption of the Internet in the public sphere.
\nFor a length of time, the television screen achieved a sense of status quo until around the 1980s when one of the key quests was to push the size of the screen so that a cinema-like experience could be reproduced in the privacy of homes for those who could afford the huge back-projection units that often had pictures of poor quality. This trend to improve the picture quality continued for decades.
\nHowever, a change started to happen in homes of the developed nations in the latter part of the 1990s, and by the 2000s, there was an increasing interest in a different screen that had made its way into the households of the developed nations—the computer monitor—very similar in technology to TV but often only available for displaying text that would appear on the screen in monochrome. However, the magic of the computer screen was in the fact that there was an additional device, the computer, which was connected to the screen that allowed the user of the computer screen to interact with the screen unlike the user of TV screen who merely viewed the screen. This change was especially important, because the interaction produced an active audience who could personalize the experience of using the screen. Even if the use was restricted to typing words on the screen, it was a different form of interaction with a device that looked similar to TV screen that the user was already accustomed to.
\nThis interactivity with the computer screen progressed in several different directions in the early part of the twenty-first century. With increasing home-based access to the digital network of global computers—the Internet—the interactive computer screen became a conduit to a larger virtual space with increasing libraries of data that the user could access. This data, often residing on computers all over the world, could be accessed by any of the computers using the computer screen. Even though the computer and the TV screen were beginning to look similar, their functions were constantly diverging with the TV screen becoming a site for narratives that the user could not control. The narratives of the TV screen were simply sent out to the user with the expectation that the user would subscribe to the narratives when the screen brought them home; indeed, the users were expected to manage the everyday life practices of their lives to suit the demands of the TV screen if the users wanted to access the narratives on the TV screen. Therefore, people would plan their evenings around the shows they would watch on TV [2]. On the other hand, the narratives were within the control of the user on the computer screen. Here, the user could build an unending narrative by accessing multiple data that were connected by hypertext to each other allowing the user to constantly explore, discover, and construct the personalized narrative that the user sought and not what the TV institutions handed out.
\nThe seduction of interactivity, coupled with the primacy of the computer screen over the TV screen, led to the demand for a single-screen solution where the screens could be merged into one where the single screen would serve primarily as a conduit for interactions that would allow the user to construct their personalized narrative that would appear on this single converged screen. It is this demand for convergence that allowed the ubiquitous merged screen to become a site for collecting data about individuals.3
\nThe notion of convergence is particularly important in the context of the emergent screen in the private spaces occupied by individual members of the audience. The duality between computer screen as a site with the potential of creating an interactive narrative, such as writing a book, and the TV screen as a site of consuming narrative was increasingly being erased as a single converged screen was replacing the two where the single screen would converge the different functions into one site. The notion of technological convergence precisely states that new tools often diminish the need for multiple tools with multiple functions into a single tool that offers the convenience of doing many functions with one gadget.4
\nThe new digital TV with access to the Internet built into TV was becoming commonplace by the early 2000s and became nearly ubiquitous within 5–6 years, especially in the USA where all TV broadcast changed to digital broadcast on June 12, 2009, and nearly 97.5% of the American homes were ready for the mandatory transition.5 Within the next several years, the transition to digital TV, the nearly ubiquitous availability of broadband connection to the Internet, and the emergence of content conglomerators, producers, and distributors that were distinct from the traditional media content providers offered new narratives to the audience. Thus, the dominance of corporations such as Netflix, Amazon, Hulu, YouTube, and others less prominent institutions allowed for narratives to be converged on the now-interactive screen in the private home. The narratives could now smoothly travel from the screen of the smartphone to the screen of a tablet computer, to the screen in the living room, to the projection system in the den, to the screen on the back of the driver seat in a car, and to the seat-back screen on a transcontinental flight. The same narrative was available everywhere.
\nThis narrative was also partially composed by the viewer and could be completely distinct from the narratives composed and consumed by other viewers. This narrative had a distinct characteristic of interactivity that was missing in the traditional TV narrative.
\nThe notion of interactivity, as proposed here, is derived from the way TV narratives have traditionally worked. In discussing the “flow” of television, it has been suggested that the programming decisions by the traditional TV content providers, from the CNNs to the BBCs, were thoughtfully made to construct an intertextual narrative that would span an evening of watching TV where the passive viewer has no little choice but to follow the narrative pattern constructed by a network. The availability of hundreds of TV channels, and the simple remote control, allowed viewers to “interact” with the narrative, create a partially customized narrative by switching between channels, and construct a narrative that gratified the audience, albeit within the limits of what was available on the channels. The availability of recording technology from the traditional VCR to the DVRs allowed users to shift the viewing time to one under the control of the viewer and watch only the narratives that the individual viewer was interested in.
\nThe popularity of the Internet, accompanied with the availability of content producers and distributors mentioned earlier, however, altered the way in which the viewer could interactively construct narratives. First, it became far simpler to shift the viewing time, an advantage that was already available through the more elaborate home-based recording technologies. The viewer now had the ability to seek and find narratives at any time the viewer wanted to consume narratives. The boundaries of space and time were disrupted because the ubiquitous connectivity to the Internet through multitude of digital devices, some of which were portable, allowed the viewer to call upon programs and narratives anywhere and anytime the individual wanted. Second, the narratives could be obtained from a multitude of sources where the viewer was no longer restricted to the traditional providers of narratives such as the TV channels. The increasing digitization of video (and audio) allowed for narratives to be obtained from sources that would never be considered providers of narratives, including noninstitutional sources that could not have afforded to be in the public sphere before the availability of the Internet. In particular, YouTube is the example of the worldwide video-sharing platform. A viewer could now call upon narratives that were from individual composers of narratives who would never be found in the traditional media spaces. All that was needed was the ability to do the appropriate queries to yield the kinds of narratives that the viewer was interested in. Third, the viewer could interact with multiple sources of narratives and create a customized “playlist” that specifically would be designed to meet the interest of the viewer and could be distinct from other viewers. Even though the viewer was still restricted to the narratives that were connected to the network, the choice was sufficiently large that a viewer could construct a very specific playlist to satisfy the “taste” of the viewer. Finally, all of the narratives, and the queries that create the conglomeration of narratives, could now be done through the interface of the TV screen which transformed from the passive screen to a site of interaction between narratives and the viewer.
\nThe common theme for this transformation is the interactive power attributed to the viewer with the privilege of being able to search for the narratives based on the interests of the viewer. It is precisely this interactivity, now happening through the press of buttons on a TV remote control, that transforms the relationship between the viewer and the TV screen which now serves as the gateway for the vast digital space where content is located. It is precisely the nature of the gateway that makes the TV screen the window into the world of the individual viewer who, while watching the narratives, is also being “watched” by the TV screen.
\nIn February 2018, an analysis by the reputed magazine Consumer Reports announced that their testing revealed that the increasingly ubiquitous “smart TV” was capable of “watching” the viewer and keeping a detailed record of the viewer’s TV watching patterns and related behavior.6 As more of smart devices find a place in the average home, there are other gadgets that can work in tandem with smart TVs to perform the task of “watching.” Consider, for instance, the Alexa devise that responds to voice commands to perform simple tasks, including connecting with a smart TV to control the smart TV.7 All such devices and functions rely on the fact that these devices always “surveil” its environment—watching with built-in cameras, listening with built-in microphones, and capturing data with built-in sensors. Real people occupy the space that is under the surveillance of these devices.
\nIt is useful to briefly consider the way in which the process of surveillance has been examined over a period of time. The practice of surveillance has been around since the times that people wanted to “watch over” others. The need to watch has most importantly been related to the notion of security where the watcher has been concerned about the fact that the watched poses a threat to the interests of the watcher. Those interests could be intertwined with the interests of the watched as well; thus, the process of watching becomes particularly important to maintain a sense of order within a specific societal system. Indeed, this perspective was aptly summarized by Mike Rogers, the chairman of the intelligence committee in the American House of Representatives, following the embarrassing report in 2013 that the National Security Agency (NSA) was surveilling the phone conversations of European leaders such as Angela Merkel. Mr. Rogers was quoted to have said, “It’s a good thing. it keeps the French safe. It keeps the US safe. It keeps our European allies safe.” [19]
\nThe intimate connection between the maintenance of order and discipline becomes the central thesis of the academic examination of the process of surveillance when scholars such as Foucault [20] begin to connect surveillance to power and discipline. Among the different ideas of surveillance that emerged as important was the notion of the Panopticon which claims that the powerful is constantly watching everything all the time [21]. The Panopticon society was built around a strict definition of discipline, and in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the metaphor was principally used to describe the ways in which totalitarian nations and despots would want to constantly watch everything to maintain power and discipline (see, e.g., [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]).
\nIn some cases, however, there is the emergent interest in examining how the watchers could also include corporations and institutions that had a motive unrelated to discipline and power but more interested in understanding the “market” that the institution would be interested in serving (see, e.g., [28]). This is especially true for the type of interactive technologies described in this essay. The advent of the technologies described earlier in this essay is, however, concerned with the corporate watching rather than the discipline- and power-based Panopticon world that earlier scholars were concerned with. TV in the house is now constantly watching and monitoring the individuals that use TV not to stop sedition or to exercise power over the watched but to better understand the “taste” of the watched to ensure that the watcher can best deliver content to the watched that the watched is most likely to consume. In a transactional system where commodities would be sold for profit the process of TV watching, the audience is to better commodify the audience who can then be sold to appropriate institutions as a part of a potential market. The point of interest in this transaction is not the seditious behavior of the individual, as in the case of cameras watching for shoplifters in large shopping areas, but more in constructing the life story of the individual to analyze and predict what the individual may like to consume. The process of watching is thus tied to creating the life story of the audience that TV can obtain by “watching” the data that the individual generates. The data was being generated for a long period of time through a variety of digital tools that a person could be using, but TV converged all the functions of data collection into one console which increasingly becomes ubiquitous in the life of most individuals in the developed and developing worlds. The Panopticon TV in the living room is thus watching a set of different things that early surveillance studies have pointed toward, albeit no longer in the context of discipline and power.
\nThe new Panopticon created by TV at home is however less about discipline and power and much more about the way in which the “customer” who is being watched can be analyzed as a commodity who can be sold to those that are interested in selling to the watched. Simultaneously, the Panopticon condition becomes far more benign and perhaps even comforting to the watched by creating a cocoon of comfort within which the watched can dwell, where the cocoon is created by the TV itself. This process is possible because the customer voluntarily interacts with the TV by offering information to the TV and the vast array of interests that the TV represents. There are broadly two kinds of information that the watched offers to the watcher through the modern television—attitudes and behavior.
\nThe information about the attitudes, interests, beliefs, and tastes is offered by the specific discourse the watched offers to the different providers of information that bring content to the TV. Consider, for instance, the simple act of accessing a digital video service such as YouTube that can be accessed on a smartphone and then projected on the TV. In some cases, the TV itself would offer the option of connecting directly to a service such as YouTube. Indeed, it is estimated that nearly 80% of TVs in American homes would be connected to the Internet by 2019 and any TV that is connected to the Internet can potentially be accessing YouTube without the need for any other ancillary device.8 This connection makes TV the conduit for the vast amount of data available on YouTube as well as many other segments of the digital space that contain searchable data. One of the key aspects of this connection is the ability of the person being watched search for specific kind of content that can be accessed by TV and displayed on the screen. The person inscribes attitudes and preferences in the language of the search. Companies like Google have been using similar information for a long time and are thus able to offer personalized advertising when a person is working on a computer. There are ways in which such personalization of marketing messages can be turned off through the adjustment of specific settings on an application provided by a corporation. The matter becomes a little different on TV where the very purpose of the tool, the TV, is to watch narratives, and in the environment of services such as YouTube, the viewer must reveal interest information to customize what the person is watching or interested in watching. The process of using TV to access narrative content is intimately connected with the process of revealing to TV the watcher’s interests, attitudes, and beliefs.
\nThis information is also connected with the disclosure of behavior patterns. Given that much of the consumption of the content is happening through the content providers such as YouTube, Hulu, Netflix, and other Internet-based content delivery systems, there is a constant record of what was watched, when it was watched, how it was paid for, and in some cases greater granular information related to the particular watcher in a multi-people home. For instance, Netflix offers the opportunity to set up multiple subaccounts under one primary account for each member of the household, and the data that is built up actually shows which particular person was actually using specific content. In homes that have multiple TVs, it is also possible to surveil which particular TV was being used to watch what content offering a detailed understanding of the specific members who are being watched by the corporations through the conduit of TV.
\nThe attitude and behavior data that such surveillance offers eventually become a narrative about the people who are being watched over. It is this narrative that becomes especially important in the new Panopticon system produced by the modern TV.
\nAs suggested in the opening of this essay, analog person has increasingly been supplemented by the digital self where the latter can be constructed as a story about a person using the data that is produced by the analog being. The surveillance that the TV does within the privacy of the home is geared toward the construction of that narrative. A specific and unique narrative is produced by the Panopticon TV which examines the different aspects of the life of a person, and this life story of the person becomes a part of the analog person itself. This narrative can be quite detailed with some specific characteristic because of the number of different aspects of a person’s life that is being watched by the TV as indicated earlier.
\nFirst, the narrative is cumulative. TV is constantly watching and updating the narrative. Every time an individual interacts with the TV, a new segment is being added to the narrative of the life of the person. This process is similar to the way in which other data about an individual is constantly updated, as in the case of the combination of location based on Global Positioning System (GPS) and applications that offer mapping information such as Google Maps. These applications retain the records of the movement of a cell phone through space and are thus constantly updated offering a “time line” of spaces that a person might have inhabited.9 The TV surveillance operates in a similar way because the attitude and behavior data being collected by the TV is also constantly updated and the ongoing narrative of the life of a person is stored for future reference. This certainly has its advantages, where a viewer can, for instance, resume watching a show from where it was left off, offering the Panopticon TV an opportunity to see how the “rhythm” of a person’s life unfolds on a moment-to-moment basis. Similarly, because TV knows the story of a person’s life, it knows, through its applications, what the person may like to watch next with very well throughout suggestions being offered by the TV with respect to what entertainment the watched individual may be encouraged to watch. The TV watcher’s life story is now known to the TV, and TV can gently help to shape that story to reinforce the elements of the story that have been prominent over time. Thus, a person who watched a few episodes of a science fiction would be encouraged to watch other shows belonging to the same genre.
\nThe longitude of the narrative is also connected with the way in which an attempt is constantly made by the different tools of surveillance, including TV, to triangulate the data to create a narrative about the individual which would encompass all the data about the person. Current laws may make it a little difficult to correlate all the data sets, as in the case of privacy laws in the USA where the medical data of an individual is held sacrosanct and unavailable and generally unconnected with other narrative elements of a person’s life. However, there is sufficient data about a person that can be available to the Panopticon TV which would allow the TV to surveil the individual in a more precise manner and further help design the ongoing narrative of the person being watched. For instance, gadgets like the Alexa, which respond to voice commands, can be connected to the TV to control the TV with spoken words, as explained in a guide, “Once you link Quick Remote with your Roku device and Alexa, you can use voice commands to tell Quick Remote to navigate the Roku menu system and select any app to start playing.10” There are two important aspects that need to be noted in these instructions: first, it shows how to connect three different applications (Quick Remote, Roku, and Alexa) to each other to have the convenience of sending voice commands to the Panopticon TV. All these three systems are sharing the data with each other and thus creating a robust narrative about the person who is being watched.
\nThe second important aspect pointed out in these and numerous other such instructions is that the user, or the watched, is offering the data to construct the narrative. There are no hidden cameras or stealthy sensors that are surreptitiously watching the person. On the other hand, the person chose to find the convenience of talking to the TV and thus voluntarily obtained the devices and the applications which help to create the dynamic narrative that eventually makes the life of the person more comfortable. Indeed, this comfort is best maintained if the person’s life story is fully known to the Panopticon TV and its army of other devices that is constantly updating the narrative of the person and creating the zone of comfort for the person that eventually becomes comfort for the analog self where the digital narrative helps to predict what the analog self needs. Consider, for instance, the notion of Internet of Things (IoT) that hopes to convert information from and about every device that surrounds an individual to a centralized interconnected database about the person making the life story as complete as possible. When such projects come to fruition, the surveillance, aided by the voluntary data offered by the individual, would transcend the TV. In that future, all devices, including TV, would be geared to collating the most complete life story of the watched.
\nThere are a few things worthy of note with respect to the way in which TV has transformed into a tool for watching the watcher. First, this process has not been forced upon a population who had no option but to be watched. A small amount of knowledge about the ways in which the tools are watching us can allow us to shut off the surveillance. None of these tools, including TV, makes the data collection process a “required” activity to use the tool in its basic and rudimentary way. One can certainly watch television shows broadcast “over the air” without connecting the TV to the Internet. In a similar way, it is possible to use the Alexa speaker as only a portable speaker connected to a smartphone that has music stored in it. Indeed, even a smartphone can be used to make phone calls only without connecting it to the digital realm.
\nHowever, as these examples show, when a user chooses to not connect the TV to the Internet, or Alexa to its manufacturer, and the smartphone to a data plan, the user is sacrificing the ability to use the tools to their full potential. Additionally, the user is sacrificing access to the numerous programming options offered through these tools. There is, therefore, a constant tension between the inclination to maintain a sense of privacy while watching TV and retaining the convenience of the TV making suggestions about what would be interesting to watch. If TV is allowed to surveil, and it is connected with the other tools that surround the TV, then it will eventually be able to create an increasingly complete life story of the person who uses TV. This complete life story could become the way in which TV constructs a mediated reality for the person who is being watched. As discussed earlier, this reality can become progressively myopic and an echo chamber within which the person would reside while the Panopticon TV creates the comfortable media space for the person.
\nThis future is increasingly realistic since the function of TV as the bearer of the programs offered “over the air” or even through the cable system that became commonplace in the 1980s is quickly shifting. In many parts of the world, there is the increasing tendency to “cut the cord” and get rid of the cable delivery of programming. Cable companies are increasingly facing a threat where the centrality of program delivery by cable is being replaced by program delivery via the Internet. Numerous companies such as Amazon, Roku, and Apple are offering accessories that could be connected to the TV, and program would be delivered through the connection of the accessory to the Internet. Thus, a Roku “stick” can connect to the Internet, and the programs would be offered by Roku in collaboration with other content aggregators such as Sling, YouTube, and Hulu, to name a few. In some cases, a complete ecosystem is produced by a company like Amazon that would offer the accessory for TV, a household voice activated information retrieval system such as Alexa, and content through the vast store of content that Amazon owns. As the user is migrating to these options, the user is also required to share information through the conduit of the TV with all these different corporations that continue to watch the watcher. It is indeed a world of constant surveillance, whenever the TV is switched on.
\nElectrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a usually described as a potent (if not the most powerful) electrochemical analytical technique. The history of EIS goes back to the late nineteenth century, thanks to the foundations established by Heaviside on his work on the linear systems theory (LST). By the end of the same century, the success achieved by Warburg to broaden the conception of impedance to the electrochemical systems (ES) came to the scene. It was close to the middle of the twentieth century, when the EIS started to realize its potential! That came with the invention of the potentiostat in the 1940s, followed by the frequency response analyzers in the 1970s. This progress has led to the application of EIS chiefly in investigation of corrosion mechanisms [1, 2, 3].
Later on, this has opened the doors for realms of applications of EIS. Applications encompassed electrocatalysis and energy [3, 4, 5]; characterization of materials, e.g. corrosion phenomenon surveillance [6, 7]; and depiction of quality of coatings [8], exploring mechanisms of processes such as electrodeposition and electro-dissolution [9, 10], food and drug analysis [11, 12, 13], detection of biomarkers [14, 15], and water analysis [16, 17].
It is noteworthy to mention that impedance spectroscopy (IS), depending on the material used, the device, and the system or process to be studied, has two main categories: EIS (the topic of this chapter) and dielectric IS. A major difference is that EIS applies to systems/materials involving chiefly ionic conduction, in contrast to electronic conduction in the case of dielectric IS. Therefore, it can be observed from the fields of EIS applications that EIS usually applies to systems like electrolytes (solid/liquid), polymers, and glasses [18, 19, 20, 21].
In general, EIS measurements involve the application of an alternating current (AC) voltage or current to the system under investigation, followed by measurement of the response in the form of AC current (or voltage) as a function of frequency. Measurements are usually performed using the potentiostat, and the measured response is analyzed using a frequency response analyzer (FRA) [18]. By and large, three factors make EIS exceptionally attractive in terms of applications:
Capability to explore the ES at relatively low frequencies using the minimal perturbation that in turn serves to keep the kinetic information of the system under investigation at near zero conditions (steady state). Therefore, EIS is said to be a steady-state and nondestructive technique. The majority of the electrochemical techniques, however, involve an application of large perturbation for sensing the membrane/electrolyte interface, with the purpose of obtaining mechanistic data following the driving of the reaction to a state that is far from equilibrium [3].
Feasibility of implementation of EIS into the system to be measured.
The usefulness of data obtained in characterizing the studied ES, where EIS provides on-site data on the relaxation data over a range of frequencies, from as low as 10−4 Hz and up to 106 Hz.
A combination of the three advantages led to the wide use of EIS as previously mentioned.
The current chapter throughout the following sections is investigating the applications of EIS in a variety of matrices, mainly in food, drug, and water analysis, and the recent advances in these fields as well as comparisons between EIS and other electroanalytical approaches applied for the same purposes.
Throughout the current chapter, readers will be exposed to the different analytical techniques, especially the electrochemical-based approaches, which are generally used for detection of pollutants in food, drug, and water.
Readers will be more focused on the applications of EIS in specific. A comparison between EIS and the other techniques commonly used in water and food analysis will be exhibited.
The safety, quantity, and the quality of food and water are becoming worldwide concerns. Water is the most crucial source for human development. With the advancement of human life, uncountable contaminants are intimidating the aquatic system. These intimidations include but not limited to automation/industrialization, widespread use of chemicals, increased population, and suburbanization. Subsequently, water pollution is becoming a significant health and environmental concern.
By and large, the safety of food and water is influenced by contaminants. Among these pollutants, heavy metals, elevated anions (sulfates, phosphates, fluoride, etc.), dyes, agricultural waste, pesticides, drugs, and pharmaceuticals are the most common. Heavy metals, in specific, are widely used in many industrial, domestic, and agricultural applications, and they are nondegradable, an issue that raises the concern about their potential influence on public health, water systems, and the ecosystem in general. As, Cd, Cr, Pb, and Hg have been reported to be the highest systemic toxicant elements.
According to the US EPA and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), these toxic elements are probable to be carcinogenic. Moreover, accumulation of Pb, Cd, and Hg in the human body over time can cause serious health problems [22, 23, 24, 25, 26].
Similarly, food, leather, and textile industries discharge huge amounts of polluted wastes. With the various structures of the chemicals used in these industries, numerous problems develop. Dyes, a key water pollutant and even if discharged as traces (as low as 1 ppm), would color large volumes of water. Reports show that amount of dyes as huge as 7 × 105 tons per annum are being produced annually, demonstrating the magnitude of the problem. Released dyes do not only affect the aquatic beings but also the human health. Their impact includes carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, poisoning, disturbance of the metabolism in aquatic bodies, etc. [27, 28].
On the other hand, and representing a significant category of aquatic pollutants, pharmaceutically active materials (PhAMs) are usually released into the aquatic systems from different sources, including but not limited to the effluents of the manufacturing sites and hospitals, illegal disposal, veterinary applications, and landfill leachate. Daily use by humans and the subsequent conversion of PhAMs into various metabolites with variable chemical structures is also a major source. The fate of these metabolites, and probably their parent drug compound, is usually the wastewater [29, 30, 31, 32, 33].
The increasing understanding of the assembly of the food chain and the probability of infection of human with these resilient microorganisms, either directly or via the food chain, has explained largely the spread of these species. Therefore, the process of food production and commercialization is posing rigorous regulations nowadays. Different societies, such as the Food and Drug Administration (US FDA), European Union (EU), and World Health Organization (WHO) in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) creating the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), are setting up standards for the maximum residue levels (MRLs) permissible in raw and processed food products of animal or poultry origin. Yet, any food product that would conform to these criteria and the preceding risk assessments cannot be banned by countries of the World Trade Organization (WTO) [34, 35, 36, 37, 38].
The elevating concerns on food and water safety and the existence of these materials at relatively low concentrations have created the need to find sturdy as well as sensitive detection and removal/remediation technologies. Detection technologies included traditional techniques such as spectrophotometry, spectrofluorimetry, atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), as well as electrochemical and the more sophisticated chromatographic approaches [27, 28, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49]. Each of these techniques has its pros and cons.
Electrochemical techniques are among the widely used techniques for detection of pollutants in food and water analyses. The following subsections will be focused on the electrochemical approaches and EIS in specific in detection of contaminants in water and food samples.
As an analytical approach, electroanalysis offers many advantages including but not limited to simplicity, sensitivity, specificity, and applicability in various matrices and cost-effectiveness. These advantages are of specific importance when it comes to detection of drugs and pharmaceuticals, especially in food and water samples as well as in quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) laboratories. According to the signal being measured (voltage/potential, current, conductance, impedance), electroanalytical techniques can be categorized into potentiometric, amperometric, conductometric, and impedimetric techniques. Subcategories for each technique also exist, and coupling with other technologies has been investigated.
Sensors, and in particular those based on the classical potentiometric technique, or the new polyion, galvanostatic, or voltammetric sensing mechanisms, now possess the foothold in analytical chemistry. Offering irresistible advantages, on the in vitro scale, such as operation simplicity, sturdiness, and remarkable sensitivity hitting nine orders of magnitude, selectivity, and functionality over wide range of matrices, suitability for on-line or real-time analyses, and most prominently their liability for miniaturization, make the use of sensors indispensable [50, 51, 52, 53].
Figure 1 shows an illustration of ISE (ion-selective electrode) potentiometric sensor and generation of potential across the different phase boundaries.
Schematic illustration of ISE cell assembly and the generation of EMF across different phase boundaries.
The sensing mechanism especially if the target analyte is a biomolecule depends on tailoring the surface of the sensor with a bio-receptor that can selectively bind to the target bio-analyte. Following the adsorption of the bio-analyte from the solution on the surface of the probe, a change in the electrochemical signal can be observed and measured. Such a change is correspondingly dependent on the bio-analyte concentration.
Figure 2 shows a schematic illustration of the sensing mechanism in plastic microfluidic channels. The left panel shows the generation of streaming potential, ΔE, as a result of pressure-driven flow and surface charge at the electric double layer (EDL). The right panel shows a sensogram with signal inversion upon adsorption of the analyte. The bottom graph shows the pulsed streaming potentials as a function of heparin with immobilized protamine.
Schematic illustration of the generation of streaming potential as a result of pressure-driven flow and surface charge at the electric double layer (EDL)—left upper panel. The right panel shows a sensogram with signal inversion upon adsorption of the analyte. The bottom graph shows the pulsed streaming potentials as a function of heparin with immobilized protamine on a surface of a cyclo-olefin copolymer (COC) microchannel. Data points were fitted using Langmuir isotherm. Graphs are replicated from the authors’ own work with permission from Copyrights@ American Chemical Society (ACS) [45].
EIS as an electrochemical technique entails measurement of the change in the charge transfer resistance (Rct) following the interactions between the analyte and the receptor and the consequent change in the interfacial electron transfer kinetics. The following sections will be dealing with the application for EIS for sensing different target analytes in different matrices [53, 54].
The effects of presence of the PhAMs either in waste and drinking water or even in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are still inarticulate. However, what is well understood is that the impact extends to humans and animal’s health, the aquatic environment, and in the long run the ecosystem. This effect is greatly dependent on the released dose of the PhAMs as well as their pharmacological effects. The issue becomes of concern when we know that the metabolites might be of a higher risk than the parent drug compound. At the microbial level, microorganisms upon prolonged exposure to anti-infectives, for example, become more tolerant, and new strains, which cannot be cured using the conventional antimicrobials, are now in the scene [55, 56, 57].
EIS, being capable of detecting as low as 10−12 M of the target analyte, is widely used in drug analysis. Several drug categories were analyzed using EIS. Table 1 shows some examples of drugs analyzed using EIS, as well as the matrices and type of electrode used together with the sensing interface, sensing strategy (label-free or labelled), and limit of detection (LoD).
Target drug | Sensing interface | Electrode | Matrix | Sensing measurement method and strategy | LoD | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Raloxifene | Nd2O5 NPs@GO/GCE | GCE | ND Serum and urine | EIS CV Amperometry (Label-free) | ND ND 18.43 nM | [58] |
OTC | Aptasensor (Fe3O4@mC900) | GCE | Milk samples | EIS (Label-free) | 0.027 pg mL−1 | [59] |
TET | Aptasensor 1: CPE/OA/anti-TET Aptasensor 2: MBCPE/Fe3O4NPs/OA/anti-TET | CPE MBCPE | Tablets, milk, honey, and serum | EIS (Label-free) | 10−1–10−7 M 3.0 × 10−13 M | [60] |
TOB | Aptasensor/ SnOx@TiO2@mC | GCE | Urine and serum | EIS (Label-free) | 0.01 nM | [61] |
Chloramphenicol | Au/N-G | GCE | Eye drops | EIS (Label-free) | 0.59 μM | [62] |
Sulphamethoxazole | MIP-decorated Fe3O4 MNPs | SPCE | Seawater | EIS (Label-free) | 0.001 nM | [63] |
17β-estradiol | Au nanoparticle-thiolated protein G-scaffold | Au | Serum | EIS (Label-free) | 26 pg mL−1 | [64] |
BPA | AuNPs/PB/CNTs-COOH/GCE | GCE | Water | EIS (Labelled detection) | 0.045 pM | [65] |
P4 | ssDNA/Au | Au | Tap water | EIS (Labelled detection) | 0.90 ng mL−1 | [66] |
Applications of EIS in analysis and characterizations of different drug materials in variable matrices.
The electrochemical properties of raloxifene, an important chemotherapeutic agent, were assessed using different techniques including EIS. Three electrodes were tested for this investigation: (1) bare screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE), (2) graphene oxide (GO)/glassy carbon electrode (GCE), and (3) neodymium sesquioxide nanoparticles Nd2O5 NPs@GO/GCE. The target was to assess the interface properties of these electrodes. Results showed that the Rct of the third electrode was much smaller than the other electrodes. Other electrochemical techniques such as cyclic voltammetry (CV) were used in the same work [58].
Other examples included the determination of an important class of PhAMs, which is antibiotics, a subclass of antimicrobials. Label-free detection of oxytetracycline (OTC) in milk samples was performed using a mixture of iron oxide and mesoporous carbon (Fe3O4@mC) together with nanocomposites made of Fe(II)-based metal-organic frameworks (525-MOF) by calcination at different temperatures. The sensor showed a very high sensitivity with a LoD = 0.027 pg mL−1 and a linear range of 0.005–1.0 ng mL−1. Moreover, the fabricated aptasensor showed a high selectivity for oxytetracycline in the presence of similar drugs like tetracycline, doxycycline, and chlortetracycline [59].
Similarly, label-free detection of tetracycline (TET) was performed using two aptasensors made of carbon paste electrode (CPE) with oleic acid (OA) and a magnetic bar carbon paste electrode (MBCPE) with Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles and oleic acid (OA) following the modification of electrode surfaces using anti-TET. The LoD were 1.0 × 10−12 to 1.0 × 10−7 M and 3.0 × 10−13 M for the two aptasensors, respectively, and the sensors were applied to pharmaceutical formulations, serum samples, as well as food products (milk and honey) [60].
A sensor based on nanocomposites of mC with SnOx and TiO2 nanocrystals was used to determine tobramycin (TOB) in urine and serum samples selectively and in the presence of kanamycin, oxytetracycline, and doxycycline. The aptasensor showed an excellent sensitivity with a LoD of 0.01 nM [61].
Chloramphenicol was also determined in eye drop formulations using N-doped graphene nano-sheet-Au NP composite (Au/N-G). The LoD was 0.59 μM, and the sensor showed a selectivity in the presence of interferences like oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline, ascorbic acid, and metronidazole [62]. Other applications included sulphamethoxazole using molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) decorated with Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) on SPCE [63].
Immunosensors for 17β-estradiol composed of Au electrode nanoparticle-thiolated protein G-scaffold. This structure has facilitated the anchoring of a mouse monoclonal anti-estradiol antibody. The LoD was 26 pg mL−1. As per the authors, square wave voltammetry (SWV) was more sensitive (18 pg mL−1) and required less time and effort compared to EIS [64].
Bisphenol A (BPA), a xenoestrogen with an estrogen-mimicking effect and that is widely used as a precursor in plastics industry, has been determined using a labelled aptasensor made of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), Prussian blue (PB), and functionalized carbon nanotubes (AuNPs/PB/CNTs-COOH).
Determination of progesterone (P4) in water and other clinical samples was performed using single-stranded ssDNA aptamers with high binding affinity to P4 [66].
In addition to food contamination with antimicrobials and other drugs, bacteria and other pathogens like mycotoxins (secondary metabolites of microfungi) or chemicals such as pesticides are also other sources of food contamination. Food contamination can occur at any stage of food production, storage, or dissemination. Sicknesses caused by foodborne pathogens include symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, septicemia, meningitis, and even death [50, 53, 67, 68]. Pathogens include famous strains of bacteria such as different species of Salmonella (e.g., S. enteritidis and S. typhimurium), Escherichia coli (E. coli), and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus).
Table 2 shows examples of different bacterial strains that have been determined in food products using EIS-based aptamers.
Target | Sensing interface | Electrode | Matrix | Sensing method | LoD | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bacteria (LoD is measured as/CFU mL−1)* | ||||||
S. enteritidis | GNPs@SPCE | SPCE | Poultry products | EIS | 600 | [69] |
S. typhimurium | GNPs@SPCE | SPCE | Animal-based products | EIS | 600 | [70] |
Salmonella | GO+AuNPs@GCE | GCE | Pork meat | EIS | 3.0 | [71] |
Mycotoxins | ||||||
OTA | Diazonium modified-SPCE | SPCEs | Cocoa beans | EIS | 0.15 ng mL−1 | [72] |
OTA | Thiolated DNA aptamer | Au | Food products | EIS | 0.12–0.40 nM | [73] |
AFB1 | Cys-PAMAM-modified electrode | Au | Peanuts and corn snacks | EIS | 0.40 ± 0.03 nM | [74] |
Pesticides | ||||||
Acetamiprid | Ag-NG/GCE | GCE | Cucumber and tomatoes | EIS | 0.033 pM | [75] |
Applications of EIS in analysis of food and food products.
Colony-forming unit (CFU) mL−1.
A highly specific DNA—aptamer to S. enteritidis in pork products—was developed using gold NPs, i.e., modified SPCE (GNPs-SPCE). The developed aptasensor was selective towards S. enteritidis and showed a negative response towards mixture of other pathogens [69]. Similarly, the same electrode was used as a sensor for S. typhimurium [70]. The developed sensors were capable of differentiating between the targeted Salmonella species (S. enteritidis and S. typhimurium) and the other Salmonella.
Another Salmonella sensor was fabricated using a GO/Au NP-modified GCE. The sensor was applied for pork samples and achieved a LoD of 3.0 colony-forming unit (CFU mL−1) in this case [71] compared to 600 CFU mL−1 using the GNPs@SPCE aptasensors [69, 70].
The mycotoxin ochratoxin (OTA) has been determined in a variety of samples, e.g., in cocoa beans, using EIS aptasensor developed using a diazonium-coupling reaction mechanism for the immobilization of anti-OTA-aptamer on screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) [72]. EIS was also applied for the determination of OTA using a thiolated DNA aptamer immobilized by chemisorption to the surface of Au electrode [73]. Other mycotoxins, e.g., Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) were detected using layer coating of cystamine (Cys), poly (amido-amine) dendrimers of generation 4.0 (PAMAM G4) and DNA aptamers (on Au electrode) specific to AFB1 [74].
Pesticides, e.g., acetamiprid, were determined in samples of vegetables (tomatoes and cucumber) using AgNP-modified nitrogen-doped graphene (AgNPs/NG). The designed aptasensor was sensitive, selective, and economical and did not require intricate labelling procedures [75].
Discharge of heavy metals (HMs) into the water bodies via industrial activities and other sources, e.g., mining, acid rain, agricultural waste, etc., denotes a worldwide challenge. As previously mentioned in this chapter, HMs and other emergent contaminants possess a significant influence on the environment and human health. The intensifying flux of HMs into aquatic environments and the properties of HMs (toxicity, degradation rates, accumulation, uptake, bioavailability, etc.) necessitate the presence of firm rules and action plans for monitoring, detoxification methodologies, and treatment technologies to keep their concentrations within the permitted levels [23, 24, 25, 26, 76].
Table 3 shows examples for the applications of EIS in determination of water contaminants such as HMs, pesticides, drugs, and pharmaceuticals.
Target | Sensing interface | Matrix | LoD | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
Heavy metals | ||||
Hg2+, Cd2+ | Arthrospira platensis cells (Spirulina) | Municipal wastewater | 10−20 M and 10−20 M | [77] |
Pb2+, Cd2+ | PET-SPE | Water | 1 nM for both metals | [78] |
Hg2+ | Cu2O@NCs | River water samples | 0.15 nM | [79] |
Pesticides and herbicides | ||||
Parathion-methyl | Arthrospira platensis cells (Spirulina) | Municipal wastewater | 10−20 M | [77] |
Paraoxon-methyl | Arthrospira platensis cells (Spirulina) | Municipal wastewater | 10−18 M | [77] |
Triazine | Arthrospira platensis cells (Spirulina) | Municipal wastewater | 10−20 M | [77] |
Acetamiprid | Ag-NG/GCE | Wastewater | 0.033 pM | [75] |
Drugs and pharmaceuticals | ||||
Sulphamethoxazole | MIP-decorated Fe3O4 MNPs@SPCE | Seawater | 0.001 nM | [63] |
BPA | AuNPs/PB/CNTs-COOH/GCE | Water | 0.045 pM | [65] |
P4 | ssDNA/Au | Tap water | 0.90 ng mL−1 | [66] |
Applications of EIS in analysis of water.
EIS has been applied for quantitative determination of HMs in water samples. In one of the investigations, a bi-enzymatic biosensor was constructed by immobilizing Arthrospira platensis cells (Spirulina) on gold interdigitated transducers. Consequently, phosphatase and esterase activities were inhibited by HMs and pesticides, respectively. This approach was used to determine Hg2+ and Cd2+ as well as parathion, paraoxon, and triazine pesticides, alone or in mixture with the HMs [77].
In another approach, a three-electrode sensor was printed on a polyethylene terephthalate film (PET) and was applied for impedimetric determination of Pb2+ and Cd2+ in water samples at nanomolar level [78]. An electrochemical DNA biosensor based on microspheres of cuprous oxide (Cu2O) and nano-chitosan (NC) was used for Hg2+ detection in river water samples with a LoD of 0.15 nM [79].
Other contaminants like pesticides and herbicides as well as drugs and pharmaceuticals were also determined using EIS [63, 65, 66, 75, 77] (Table 3).
The literature is rich in articles and reviews that investigate the applications of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy in detections of various contaminants such as heavy metals, drugs, and pharmaceuticals, as well as pesticides. The advantages that impedance spectroscopy introduces as an electrochemical technique are innumerable. High sensitivity, specificity, selectivity, no time or effort consumption, and being label-free are the major advantages reported in the majority of the surveyed literature. As the mentioned contaminants usually exist as traces in complicated matrices, impedance spectroscopy with the mentioned advantages was usually the electrochemical technique of choice for the detection of these contaminants in water, food, and drug matrices.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\\n\\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\\n\\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\\n\\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\\n\\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\\n\\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
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\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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