Available genotypes for abiotic stress tolerance in pearl millet.
\r\n\tAnimal food additives are products used in animal nutrition for purposes of improving the quality of feed or to improve the animal’s performance and health. Other additives can be used to enhance digestibility or even flavour of feed materials. In addition, feed additives are known which improve the quality of compound feed production; consequently e.g. they improve the quality of the granulated mixed diet.
\r\n\r\n\tGenerally feed additives could be divided into five groups:
\r\n\t1.Technological additives which influence the technological aspects of the diet to improve its handling or hygiene characteristics.
\r\n\t2. Sensory additives which improve the palatability of a diet by stimulating appetite, usually through the effect these products have on the flavour or colour.
\r\n\t3. Nutritional additives, such additives are specific nutrient(s) required by the animal for optimal production.
\r\n\t4.Zootechnical additives which improve the nutrient status of the animal, not by providing specific nutrients, but by enabling more efficient use of the nutrients present in the diet, in other words, it increases the efficiency of production.
\r\n\t5. In poultry nutrition: Coccidiostats and Histomonostats which widely used to control intestinal health of poultry through direct effects on the parasitic organism concerned.
\r\n\tThe aim of the book is to present the impact of the most important feed additives on the animal production, to demonstrate their mode of action, to show their effect on intermediate metabolism and heath status of livestock and to suggest how to use the different feed additives in animal nutrition to produce high quality and safety animal origin foodstuffs for human consumer.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-404-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-403-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-405-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",keywords:"Technological Feed Additives, Feed Industry, Quality of Compound Feed, Non-Antibiotic Growth Promoter, Product Quality, Additive Enzymes, Digestibility of Nutrients, NSP Enzymes, Farm Animals, Livestock, Immunity, Microbiome",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 20th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus from the University of Debrecen, Hungary who authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited 3 books. Member of various committees and chairman of the World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.jpg",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus of animal nutrition at the University of Debrecen, Hungary. From 1984 to 1985 he worked at the Agricultural University in Wageningen and in the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition in Lelystad (the Netherlands). He also worked at the Agricultural University of Vienna in the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Austria) and in the Oscar Kellner Research Institute in Rostock (Germany). From 1988 to 1992, he worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition (Agricultural University in Wageningen). In 1992 he obtained a PhD degree in animal nutrition from the University of Wageningen.He has authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters). He edited 3 books and 14 international conference proceedings. His total number of citation is 407. \r\nHe is member of various committees e.g.: American Society of Animal Science (ASAS, USA); the editorial board of the Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A- Animal Science (Norway); KRMIVA, Journal of Animal Nutrition (Croatia), Austin Food Sciences (NJ, USA), E-Cronicon Nutrition (UK), SciTz Nutrition and Food Science (DE, USA), Journal of Medical Chemistry and Toxicology (NJ, USA), Current Research in Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences (USA). From 2015 he has been appointed chairman of World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).\r\nHis main research areas are related to pig and poultry nutrition: elimination of harmful effects of heat stress by nutrition tools, energy- amino acid metabolism in livestock, relationship between animal nutrition and quality of animal food products (meat).",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"25",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"67832",title:"Clinical Application of In Vitro Maturation of Oocytes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87773",slug:"clinical-application-of-in-vitro-maturation-of-oocytes",body:'\nIn the 1960s, major milestones were achieved in in vitro maturation (IVM) of human oocytes, and in vitro fertilization (IVF) of IVM oocytes was also established. Therefore, modern assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) are based on IVM. Currently, the clinical application of IVM may be extended to treat patients with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), ovarian hyperresponsiveness, and hyporesponsiveness, as well as to preserve the fertility of cancer patients [1]. In 2013, the practice committees of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) and the Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology (SART) stated that the clinical pregnancy rate of IVM was still lower than that of conventional IVF, and hence IVM could not yet be considered the first treatment choice for all cases of female infertility [2].
\nThe current standard protocol for ovulation induction in clinical practice involves intense stimulation with nonphysiological doses of gonadotropins to obtain an average of 10–15 or even dozens of mature oocytes per woman. Although the regimen of high-dose gonadotropin treatment may enable the retrieval of a larger number of oocytes, this approach can exert several short- and long-term adverse effects, including the risk of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS). At present, with the improvement in the IVF efficiency and culture systems, a natural cycle or mild stimulation may be more suitable for women receiving IVF treatments. A previous study showed that natural cycle or mild stimulation IVF is more effective than conventional stimulation protocols in patients with a low functional ovarian reserve [3]. In contrast to the standard stimulation protocol, the mild stimulation protocol is a safer and more rational regimen that helps reduce the hormone dosage, lower treatment risks, and retrieve a small number of high-quality oocytes. Despite these theoretical advantages, the mild stimulation protocol has yet to become a mainstream treatment modality in the United States. With the development of IVM technology, a modified protocol able to increase the success rates of natural cycle or mild stimulation IVF has been established. In this protocol, in addition to the retrieval of mature oocytes in naturally or mildly stimulated cycles, immature oocytes from small follicles are also retrieved for IVM, thereby increasing the total number of retrieved oocytes in a single treatment cycle and the clinical pregnancy rate. Data from previous clinical studies has shown that the combined use of natural cycle or mild stimulation IVF with IVM can expand the applicable scope of IVM technology to the treatment of various types of female infertility and has resulted in satisfactory clinical pregnancy rates and live birth rates [4, 5].
\nCyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) plays an important role in regulating the maturation of oocytes. The mural granulosa cells (MGC) located on the follicular wall contain natriuretic peptide precursor C (NPPC), while the cumulus cells around oocytes express natriuretic peptide receptor 2 (NPR2). Oocyte-derived paracrine factors can promote the activation of NPR2 in cumulus cells, while the NPPC in mural granulosa cells can bind to NPR2 receptors in cumulus cells to produce cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), which then enters into oocytes through gap junctions to inhibit the activity of phosphodiesterase (PDE3A), thereby maintaining a high level of cAMP in oocytes and the arrest of oocytes in the meiosis cycle. The activation of PDE3A by luteinizing hormone (LH) downregulates the level of cAMP in oocytes and induces the maturation of oocytes, thereby relieving the immature oocytes in the germinal vesicle (GV) stage or first meiotic metaphase (MII) from cell cycle arrest, so that they can complete the first meiosis and enter the second MII to develop into mature oocytes [6]. Zhang et al. [7] reported that estradiol can promote and maintain the expression of NPR2 in cumulus cells and participate in NPPC-mediated meiotic arrest of oocytes in vitro. These studies have opened up a new field of molecular mechanistic research on resuming the meiosis of oocytes, providing a theoretical basis for revealing the molecular mechanisms underlying the maturation of oocytes.
\nStudies have found that small molecule ribonucleotides (microRNAs) are also important for oocyte maturation. A certain number of dynamic and stable microRNAs were found in both mature oocytes and early-stage embryos, presumably contributing to the maturation of oocytes. Kim et al. [8, 9] reported that microRNAs may affect oocyte maturation by altering the gene expression and function of cumulus cells through cumulus cell interaction and paracrine secretion. Let-7 is one of the most abundant microRNAs in the ovary. Upregulation of Let-7c can increase the rate of oocyte maturation, suggesting that Let-7c may be involved in the information exchange between oocytes and surrounding mural granulosa cells. In addition, maturation-promoting factor (MPF), cytostatic factor (CSF), oocyte maturation inhibitor (OMI), and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) are involved in oocyte maturation and division [7]. The mechanisms underlying oocyte maturation awaits further studies.
\nThe biological definition of oocyte IVM is to remove immature oocytes in the GV stage from antral follicles and culture them in a suitable culture system, so that these immature oocytes can mature to MII stage in vitro. However, the clinical definition of IVM technology for immature human oocytes is completely different from its biological definition. The differences include the different sources of immature oocytes, the different protocols used to induce ovulation, and the different time of oocyte retrieval. These factors may lead to the situation where the immature oocytes retrieved clinically are not in the GV stage. The use of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to induce ovulation prior to clinical retrieval of oocytes may lead to the initiation of endogenous oocyte maturation, and hence some of the retrieved immature oocytes may have undergone germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) or entered the MI stage. Although immature oocytes in the MI stage have initiated the process of in vivo maturation, they still need to participate in the procedure of in vitro culture and maturation. Therefore, the definition of clinical IVM treatment should include the in vitro culture of immature oocytes in the GV and MI stages.
\nA recent point of view proposed to give the clinical definition of IVM of immature oocytes based on the diameter of follicles when the oocytes are retrieved [10]. However, this definition is not completely scientific, since the meiotic state of oocytes cannot be completely determined according to the size of follicles during the stimulation cycle [11, 12]. In addition, for immature oocytes collected from different clinical sources, their maturation rate and the rates to potentially develop into embryos and achieve live birth are different. Therefore, for clinical definition and research of IVM, attention should be paid to the effect of different sources of immature oocytes on the efficiency of IVM.
\nMaturation of oocytes includes the nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation of oocytes. Nuclear maturation refers to the rupture of the germinal vesicle, separation of homologous chromosomes, appearance of the perivitelline space, and discharge of the first polar body. Cytoplasmic maturation refers to the completion of protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation as well as the rearrangement of organelles in oocytes. Only the oocytes whose nucleus and cytoplasm are matured simultaneously can have adequate fertility and the potential for embryo development. Studies have found that most oocytes cultured in vitro can reach maturity within 24–48 h. The length of in vitro culture can affect the developmental potential of the embryo. The rate of nuclear maturation in oocytes cultured for 48 h in vitro is significantly higher than that for 24 h, but the rate of cytoplasmic maturation in oocytes cultured for 48 h is not significantly different from that for 24 h. Excessive culture time leads to the aging of oocytes and an increased level of associated genetic risks. When the culture time is too short, the maturation of cytoplasm and nucleus is not synchronized and will affect the subsequent development potential of the embryo. Wrenzycki et al. [13] found that oocytes only possess the ability to mature in the final stage of development. Therefore, adequate extension of IVM time can promote the necessary process of oocyte maturation, increase the rate of nuclear maturation in immature oocytes, and significantly improve in vitro developmental potential of oocytes and the rate of high-quality embryos.
\nGonadotropin can promote the expansion of cumulus cells and stimulate the maturation of the nucleus and cytoplasm of oocytes, thus facilitating the formation of embryos and blastocysts in the cleavage stage and playing an important role in follicular development [14]. The addition of follicle-stimulating hormone to the culture medium for oocyte maturation can promote the cytoplasmic maturation of oocytes. Some scholars believe that the effect of follicle-stimulating hormone is related to its concentration. When the concentration is 5 g/mL, a relatively high cleavage rate (79.1%) and blastocyst rate (16.1%) can be obtained [15]. The addition of LH or human chorionic gonadotropin to the IVM culture medium may promote protein synthesis, enhance oocyte metabolism, and facilitate oocyte maturation. The concentration of estradiol (E2) in the human body increases with an increasing volume of follicles. In addition, estradiol is involved in maintaining the meiotic arrest of oocytes and can promote the cytoplasmic maturation of oocytes. During in vitro culture of oocytes, nuclear maturation is faster than cytoplasmic maturation. Therefore, the addition of E2 to the culture medium helps synchronize the development of the nucleus and cytoplasm in oocytes.
\nAs a hydrophobic activator, forskolin (FSK) can increase the activity of adenylate cyclase in mammalian cells and the level of intracellular cAMP. By adding FSK to an IVM culture medium, Ezoe et al. [16] significantly improved the developmental capacity of oocytes in the GV stage. By adding FSK to the culture medium, Zeng et al. [17] promoted the synchronization of nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation and increased the rates of maturation, cleavage, and high-quality embryos. During IVM, the presence of oxidative stress may block oocyte maturation, lead to abnormal gene expression, and impair the cytoplasmic and nuclear development of oocytes, thereby resulting in the failure to obtain high-quality oocytes and decreasing the fertility and developmental capacity. The addition of antioxidants to the culture medium can reduce the damage caused by oxidative stress. By adding a-lipoic acid to the culture medium, Zavareh et al. [18] reduced the content of active oxygen, increased the total antioxidation capacity, and promoted the nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation of oocytes in vitro. The results of Mokhber et al. [19, 20] showed that an appropriate concentration of a natural antioxidant, crocin (100 g/mL), and aqueous extract of saffron (40 g/mL) can increase the concentration of glutathione (GSH), protect oocytes, and significantly increase IVM rate and fertility rate.
\nTogether with cumulus cells and follicular fluid, MGC form an in vivo environment for oocyte maturation. Co-culture with MGC can increase the rate of nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation of immature oocytes. Studies have shown that co-culture with parietal MGC can improve the nuclear maturation of naked oocytes, slow down the nuclear maturation of naked oocytes, increase the content of glutathione in naked oocytes, reduce the activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in naked oocytes, increase the rate of cytoplasmic maturation, and facilitate the simultaneous development of the nucleus and cytoplasm of oocytes [21]. Although immature oocytes detached of MGC can still mature, they cannot undergo normal fertilization and development because the cytoplasm is not synchronously matured [22]. The addition of a certain amount of MGC to the culture medium can delay the nuclear maturation of oocytes, so that the maturation of the nucleus and cytoplasm becomes more synchronized. However, there is currently no uniform standard for the amount of MGC addition. Choi et al. [23] significantly increased the development potential of embryos by co-culturing the oocyte-corona-cumulus complex with naked oocytes at a 1:5 ratio.
\nSome scholars have pointed out that the maturation of oocytes is completed in the fallopian tube, and hence some components of the fallopian tube may affect the maturation process of oocytes. Human tubal fluid (HTF) has been used to culture oocytes. Shirazi et al. [24] co-cultured ovine oocytes with oviductal epithelial cells (OECs) and conducted IVF, resulting in higher cleavage and blastocyst rates.
\nIn addition to the potential of self-renewal and multidirectional differentiation, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can also secrete a variety of cytokines and growth factors, and some biologically active factors can enhance the in vitro maturation of oocytes and subsequent developmental potential of embryos. By adding MSCs to a culture medium, Ling et al. [25] significantly increased the maturation rate and rate of blastocyst formation of immature murine oocytes. It can be seen that the co-culture system with MSCs can promote the simultaneous development of the nucleus and cytoplasm of murine oocytes.
\nImmature oocytes retrieved from the ovarian cortex during cesarean section can be cultured in vitro to achieve maturation, fertilization, and healthy progeny. The mature oocytes cultured in this way are expected to be used as the source of oocytes to preserve female fertility [26]. At present, few studies have investigated the approach to obtain immature oocytes during cesarean section for in vitro culture, and hence more studies are needed to prove the safety and effectiveness of immature oocytes obtained from cesarean section.
\nIn addition to cesarean section, immature oocytes can also be obtained via gynecological surgery in the follicular phase or luteal phase. The number of retrieved oocytes is mainly related to the age, pathological status, and stage of the menstrual cycle of the patient. Clinical studies have confirmed that oocyte retrieval carried out at different stages of the menstrual cycle does not affect the rate of in vitro maturation and the rate of fertilization of oocytes, suggesting that IVM technique can be used to preserve fertility in cancer patients during the follicular phase or luteal phase [27]. Therefore, for cancer patients who lack sufficient time for treatment and are unable to use hormone to induce ovulation, immature oocytes can be retrieved before chemotherapy to carry out IVM and vitrification to maximize the preservation of fertility.
\nA large number of antral follicles are present in the ovary of infertile women with anovulatory PCOS. These antral follicles are more sensitive to gonadotropins, and hence the risk of OHSS is increased when hormones are used to induce ovulation. Therefore, for PCOS patients, immature oocytes can be retrieved from antral follicle for in vitro maturation [28]. The use of hCG at 36 h before oocyte retrieval in PCOS patients can promote the resumption of meiosis of immature oocytes and their in vitro maturation, improving the rate of pregnancy and clinical outcomes [29]. The use of small doses of gonadotropin before the retrieval of immature oocytes from PCOS patients is also beneficial to improve the maturation potential of oocytes, increasing the rate of embryo implantation and clinical pregnancy. In addition, IVM techniques can also be considered for some PCOS patients with no or low response to hormones [30].
\nBased on the advantages of low hormone dosage, low cost, and simple treatment process, IVM has been gradually applied to the treatment of infertile women with normal ovaries and regular menstrual cycles. However, it remains controversial as whether the use of hCG is required in the IVM treatment of this type of patient prior to oocyte retrieval. It should be noted that the hCG trigger exerts different effects on normal ovaries and PCOS patients. In the IVM treatment cycle of PCOS patients, dominant follicles are barely visible in the ovary, but MI-stage oocytes can be retrieved from small follicles after hCG-induced ovulation. However, after the hCG trigger is used in the normal ovary during the follicular phase, most oocytes retrieved from small follicles are oocytes in the GV stage. There is currently no evidence suggesting that the hCG trigger exerts a significant effect on the pregnancy rate, live birth rate, or abortion rate in the IVM of immature oocytes obtained from normal ovaries [31]. However, the accuracy of these findings is limited by the small number of samples. Therefore, a well-designed, randomized, and controlled clinical trial is needed to further confirm the optimal dosage and timing of hCG administration.
\nThe in vitro maturation of oocytes is mainly affected by culture conditions. At present, the common media used for the IVM of immature human oocytes include TCM-199 medium, Ham’s F10 medium, and Chang’s medium. In addition, serum, gonadotropin [follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone], growth factors, and steroids can be added in a basal medium to produce a complex medium. At present, commercial IVM media have been widely used. However, no breakthrough has been made in the research on improving the quality of oocytes by improving the IVM medium. In recent years, research and application of antioxidants and growth-promoting factors have promoted the advancement of this technology to some extent. In addition, using cell cycle regulators or inhibitors of mitotic spindle formation, the synchronization of nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation of immature oocytes can be achieved by inhibiting GVBD, thereby increasing the blastocyst rate and live birth rate in animal models [32]. However, the safety and efficacy of this method in human oocytes should be further verified.
\nThe culture environment, equipment, and related operations in the IVM system may affect the in vitro maturation and embryo development of immature oocytes. Therefore, the optimization of the embryo culture environment and process of in vitro operation will help to maintain the potential of embryonic development [33, 34]. The three-dimensional culture system can support the development of follicles by using biological materials to maintain cell-to-cell information exchange. In addition, mature oocytes can be obtained by using a three-dimensional culture system in the in vitro culture of anterior follicles of nonhuman primates [35], although no reports are available regarding the use of a three-dimensional culture system in the in vitro culture of immature human oocytes. A past study has used microreactors to form three-dimensional bioreactors to support the growth of different types of cells [36]. Consisting of a drop of liquid encapsulated by hydrophobic powder particles, this system can provide a suitable microenvironment for in vitro maturation of oocytes. In addition, the development of microfluidic technology will exert an important impact in the field of human gametes and preimplantation embryo development and will have potential applications in the field of ART. This technology enables the creation of microfluidic models mimicking the “menstrual cycle of women” [37]. These models include interconnected 3D models of different tissues, such as 3D models of the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and vagina, in the female reproductive system and the endocrine cycle between various organ modules. The mechanical and biochemical properties of microfluidic systems still require intensive research before these systems can be applied to clinical applications in areas such as IVM of immature human oocytes.
\nAt present, the in vitro maturation rate of immature human oocytes can reach 70%, but the developmental potential of mature oocytes obtained in vitro is still lower than that of mature oocytes obtained in vivo. In addition, the rate of blastocyst development and the rate of implantation are relatively low after the fertilization of IVM oocytes. The main reason of such discrepancy may be related to non-synchronized nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation during IVM. With the further development in the basic and clinical research of IVM, the in-depth study on the mechanisms of oocyte maturation and mastery of key factors involved in oocyte maturation will contribute to the improvement and optimization of clinical IVM technology.
\nThe results of current research showed that human oocytes matured in vivo or in vitro display no significant differences in terms of their spindle morphology, organelle distribution, cortical particle distribution, and mitochondrial morphology [38, 39]. By observing embryos dynamically using time-lapse videos, it was confirmed that oocytes matured in vivo or in vitro showed no significant differences in terms of the morphological dynamics observed during the early development of embryos derived from these oocytes [40]. Another study has also shown that the oocytes matured in vitro and in vivo are different in terms of their organelle function, distribution, and gene expression [41]. The different experimental conclusions mentioned above may be caused by different sources and quality of oocytes used in these studies. Therefore, attention should be paid to clarify the IVM efficiency of oocytes retrieved from different sources, so as to reasonably evaluate the safety of IVM. In terms of epigenetics, a study has reported that IVM exerts no significant effect on the methylation level of maternal imprinted genes, such as LIT1, SNRPN, PEG3, and GTL2, in human oocytes [42]. After an imprinted gene examination was carried out for infant chorionic cells and cord blood obtained from IVM and a standard stimulation protocol, no significant difference was observed between the two methods [43, 44]. Currently, the follow-up of IVM-aided pregnancies shows that the IVM technique does not increase the risk of pregnancy, the rate of maternal complications, and the rate of neonatal abnormalities [45, 46]. However, due to a small sample size and the lack of in-depth study on epigenetics, the clinical application and safety of IVM still require investigations of large sample sizes to reach a definitive conclusion regarding the safety of IVM in terms of epigenetics.
\nAt present, more than 5000 IVM babies have been born worldwide, and the rate of clinical pregnancy among PCOS patients undergoing IVM treatment can reach about 35–40% [47]. IVM has been extended from the basic research to the treatment of patients with PCOS, ovarian hyperresponsiveness and hyporesponsiveness, as well as cancer patients to preserve the fertility. Therefore, IVM has a prospect of broad applications.
\nAt present, the application scope of IVM technology can be extended to patients with various causes of infertility. In addition, the IVM technology is associated with acceptable pregnancy and live birth rates. Although IVM has been used as an effective treatment and achieved significant outcomes with thousands of healthy IVM babies having been delivered, IVM is still considered as an experimental technique by the society. With the development of IVM technology, the combination of natural cycle IVF with the IVM of immature oocytes can be used as an attractive regimen to promote IVM treatment. More infertile women can benefit from such approaches if the treatment process is simplified by mild stimulation, especially when the difficulty to obtain immature oocytes is reduced. Therefore, the combination of mild stimulation IVF and IVM treatment can become a viable alternative to current standard treatments. With the accumulation of more experience and results, it will be further demonstrated that the combination of mild stimulation IVF and IVM is not only a viable alternative to current standard treatments but may also become a potential option of first-line treatment.
\nIn the agricultural context, stress has been defined as the conditions in which plants are prevented from fully expressing their genetic potential for growth, development, reproduction, and, ultimately, crop productivity [1]. Abiotic stress negatively affects the livelihoods of farmers and their families, the sustainability of livestock, as well as national economies and food security. Forages are generally described as plants and its parts consumed by domestic livestock. Forage plays a key role in rearing ruminants and protecting the environment. Apart from serving as the primary source of food for domestic and wild animals, forages also contribute to human civilization in different ways like protecting soil through crop over and fertility by addition of organic matter. It also provides habitat for wild animals. In the biological soil–plant–animal system, forage is highly demanded by livestock. Escalation in the human population in the coming decades will put the higher burden on land for food crops and fiber production. As a result, we may face forced forage cultivation in those areas having poorer soils regarding fertility and management [2]. The water use for irrigation is incredibly high and this trend could increase considerably in the future leading to shortage of water availability [3]. For perennial forage and natural vegetation, the ability to survive during adverse environmental periods is a life saving feature. A survival strategy plays a more important role than a growth strategy to improve the sustainability of forage production, especially in extreme environmental conditions [4]. Forage crop production is largely affected by abiotic factors related stress such as drought, salinity, etc. There is need to adopt various conventional and genetic approaches to improve stress tolerance of forage crops.
\nCurrently, India faces a critical imbalance in its natural resource base: around 18 percent of humans and 15 percent of the world’s animal population are only served by 2.4 percent of the geographical area, 1.5 percent of forests and pastures, and 4.2 percent of water resources [5]. The three main sources of forage supply in India are crop residues, cultivated forage, and forage from common property resources such as forests, permanent pastures, and pastures. Due to the multiplicity of forage crops produced in different seasons and regions, the surplus and deficit in different regions, the non-commercial nature of crops and forage production with minimal inputs from degraded and marginal land, there has been a large gap in the availability and need for forage. Currently, the country faces a net deficit of 35.6 percent of green forage, 10.95 percent of residues from dry crops, and 44 percent of concentrated ingredients for animal feed [6]. Supply and demand for the forage scenario are presented in \nFigure 1\n. Furthermore, in the case of forage, regional and seasonal deficiencies are more important than national deficiencies, since it is not economical to transport forage over long distances. Furthermore, the available forages are of low quality and deficient in available energy, protein, and minerals. Farmers maintain large herds of animals to compensate for low productivity, adding pressure on forage and other natural resources [7]. Almost two-thirds of the total cost of animal production is due to food and fodder. Consequently, any attempt to improve the availability of food and fodder and save the cost of food would result in better remuneration for farmers. The area under cultivated forage is only 8.4 million hectares and has been static for the past two decades. The potential for further increases seems very small due to demographic pressure for food crops. Recent crop diversification, where cash crops replace traditional cereal crops, especially coarse grains, is likely to have an impact on the availability of crop residues for animal production [8]. Likewise, the productivity of certain important cultivated forages is highly variable. Among Kharif forages, sorghum, corn, cowpea, Napier-bajra hybrid, and guinea they have a wide range. However, during rabi, the choice is limited to oats, alfalfa, and berseem. Emphasis should be placed on new area-specific crops that can break down yield barriers and meet the challenges of the food deficit.
\nDeficient trend of fodder crop concerning future demand. *IGFRI vision, 2050.
The tropical climate is cursed by higher temperatures and radiation that limit the growth and development of plants. High temperatures cause burns, sunburn, and discoloration of the leaves, reducing plant growth [9]. Limiting growth, metabolism, and performance potential due to exposure to a temperature below or above the thermal threshold for optimal biochemical, physiological, and morphological development is called thermal stress [10]. Plants are classified into psychophilic, mesophilic, and thermophilic according to their tolerance to low, medium, and high temperatures [1]. The adversity of heat stress varies with the duration, stage, and intensity of stress [11]. Increased heat stress adversely affects the spikelets number, the number of florets per plant in rice crop, and the seeds in forage crop like sorghum [12]. It also reduces quality due to reduced production of oil, starch, and protein [13]. Stress at low temperatures causes wilting, bleaching, darkening, necrosis, and death of plants [1]. Approximately 15percent of arable land is said to be affected by frost stress [14].
\nAbout 28 percent of the world’s land is too dry for agricultural support [15]. The estimated annual yield loss due to extraction in the tropics is almost 17 percent [16]. Increasing the draft with the changing climate scenario leads to a decrease in plant physiology, growth, and reproduction [17]. The moisture deficit causes greater transpiration and reduces the availability of water from the roots of the plants [18], which tends to balance the water on the negative side that affects growth, the relationship between nutrients and water, photosynthesis and assimilation of sharing and, ultimately, performance [19]. The stress response plan in plants varies according to the species according to its stages and other growth factors [20]. High-temperature stress affects enzyme activity, cell division in plants [21] and also changes the growth period and distribution of crops [22].
\nHeavy metals are those metals that have a specific weight greater than 5 g cm−3 or an atomic mass greater than 20 and are generally toxic even at low concentrations [23]; some of heavy elements or metals are cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), arsenic (As), silver (Ag), etc. Heavy metal contamination in the soil is mainly due to human activities such as mining, smelting, intensive agricultural practices, fuel production, electroplating, etc. [24] and may also be due to natural processes such as soil erosion, excessive weathering of rocks and minerals, and volcanic eruption. Among heavy metals, some have known physiological functions in the plant system called non-essential heavy metals, namely arsenic (As), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and selenium. (Sc) and some are involved in different physiological functions of plants as a cofactor of enzymatic reactions [25] or role in redox reactions [26] called essential heavy metals, namely cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), molybdenum (Mo) and nickel (Ni).
\nCrops are said to be subject to salt stress when they cannot express their full genetic potential in terms of growth, development, and reproduction, since the salinity of the soil exceeds the critical level [27] and dissolved salts in the soil and irrigation water vary from place to place [28]. The detrimental effect of soils affected by salt may be due to a high concentration of salt in the soil solution, i.e. osmotic effects or a high concentration of specific ions such as sodium or chloride that can damage sensitive crops, i.e. a specific ionic effect. The harmful effect of saline soil is due to the concentration of soluble salt, while the harmful effects of sodium soil are due to deterioration of the physical state of the soil [29]. The harmful effect of salt stress may be due to a specific ionic effect, that is, Na+ and Cl− [30] or to interact with other dynamics of mineral nutrients [31].
\nSeveral mineral elements contribute to the growth and development of a plant, 17 of which are called essential nutrients according to the essentiality criteria defined by Arnon and Stout. Since mineral nutrition is discipline independent of plant physiology [32, 33] divide essential minerals into four groups according to their biological structures and metabolic functions. There is some nutritional stress (deficiency or excess) reported by various scientists in different plants. Nitrate plays pivotal role cytokinin biosynthesis and transport, and a higher level of nitrate (NO3−) inhibits root growth and the root: shoot ratio [34]. Phosphorus deficiency limits the lengthening of the primary roots and improves the formation of lateral roots, decreases the proportion of the dry weight of the roots of the shoots [35], reduces the leaves [36] and affects the reproductive organs formation [37], plants with potassium deficiency (K+) are sensitive to lodging and airflow [38]. A sulfur deficiency decreased the net photosynthesis and the hydraulic conductivity of the roots [39], the reduction in the dry weight ratio of the roots of the shoots [40], an alteration in the metabolism of carbohydrates followed by an induced accumulation of starch [41].
\nModerate stress in water deficit plants reduces photosynthesis which is accompanied by closing of stoma [42]. Measurement of the photosynthetic response and the activity of the ribosose bisphosphate carboxylase vifro (RUBISCO) in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) exposed to an increasing water deficit and found evidence of adverse osmotic effects [43].
\nThe digestibility of legumes and their fiber have been largely affected by water availability [44, 45]. Drought affects the forage composition and quality by altering plant maturity and ratio of leaf mass to stem mass [46].
\nWater availability highly affects the forage seedlings growth and maturity [47]. Seminal roots support seedlings for a short time. Seminal root system absorbs by the hydraulic conductivity of the suboptoptic internode. Redmann and Qi (1992) found that the diameter of the xylem vessels in warm-season grass seedlings that emerged from different planting depths and length of suboptoptic internode plays an important role in transport of water from the root to the shoot and reducing hydraulic conductivity.
\nClimate change has become a serious threat to life on earth. There is also a global trend of increased storms on most lands. Glaciers are continuously melting, while daily high temperature with heat waves became more common [48]. Coping with climate variability is becoming a major challenge for human civilization. Higher seasonal variability regarding the distribution of precipitation, extreme events of temperature, and precipitation cause damage to crops and raise serious concerns about agricultural production. Among adverse weather events, drought is the major factor to directly affect the population. A warmer climate with increasing climatic variability will increase the risk of climatic extremes. Meteorological data analyzed over 5 decades from CRIDA’s Gunegal research farm, a typical rain region, showed low precipitation. Climate change is likely to affect the forage production and nutritional food security for domestic animals. Long-term rainfall data in India indicate that rainfed areas experience 3 to 4 years of drought in every 10 years. Of these, one or two of it occur in severe form [49].
\nSorghum with its persistent green character, well developed root system, higher water-use efficiency and epicuticular wax represents a good system for studying physiological features related to drought tolerance. Depending on stress development at any growth stage, sorghum shows a stress response before flowering and after flowering, respectively. All these different responses are affected by various genetic processes [50]. Pre-flowering stress affects plant biomass, panicle size, kernel quantity, and grain yield [51], whereas posttesthetic dryness leads to premature senescence of leaves and stems, lodging and the reduction of seed size [52]. Post-synthesis drought also increases plant sensitivity to biotic stress, such as charcoal rot (Macrophomina phaseolina) and fusarium stem rot (Fusarium moniliforme) [52]. For drought tolerance before flowering, six distinct genomic regions were Recombinant inbred sorghum lines (RIL) derived from the cross between the genotypes Tx7078 (tolerant before flowering, sensitive to post-flowering) and B35 (sensitive to pre-flowering, tolerant after flowering) [53]. The response to dryness after flowering is associated with the persistent green character of sorghum. Staying green is essentially the retention of the surface of mature green leaves (GLAM). Maintaining the remaining green character during the grain filling phase under stress conditions of soil water deficit constitutes an important element of drought tolerance [54].
\nEpicuticular wax (EW) forms a glaucous upper coating that is visible on many cultivated plants called waxy bloom. Species, organ, stage of development, and environmental conditions are all those things that affect buildup of wax. Composition and structure of epicuticular wax is very diverse which is considered a potential useful trait and has been related to resistance against different adverse environmental conditions [55]. Sorghum differs from other field crops in its ability to produce sufficient amount of EW that is placed on the leaf blade as well as leaf sheath generally during pre-flowering and stages of maturity. Sorghum leaf sheath bloom is composed of large amount of free fatty acids with a 16 to 33 carbon chain length [56].
\nTwo traits named osmotic adjustment and antioxidant capacity have been related with drought tolerance mechanisms. Osmotic adjustment has been associated with sustained performance under water limiting conditions in many crops and is an inherited characteristic. Two major independent genes namely OA1 and OA2 in sorghum have been reported to control Osmotic adjustment inheritance.
\nSorghum from the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa [57] is well adapted to warm growing conditions. Cool temperatures at the beginning of the growing season are therefore an important limitation for the growth of temperate sorghum areas [58]. Cross developed from local Chinese races, ShanQui Red (SQR, cold-tolerant), and SRN39 (cold-sensitive) was used for QTL analysis of early-season cold yields on sorghum [59].
\nBajra [Pennisetum glaucum] is a C4 plant with very high photosynthetic efficiency. Bajra also have high dry matter production capacity. It is generally cultivated under the most adverse agroclimatic conditions, where other crops such as sorghum and corn do not stand well.
\nPearl millet germplasm screening helped in the development of highly advanced breeding techniques, an improvement in the population, including OPVs, genetic pools and compounds, possible parental hybrids, and accessions of the high-throughput genetic material of cereals and forages, presumably with a high degree of salt tolerance (\nTable 1\n).
\nAbiotic stress | \nGenotypes | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|
Drought | \nCZP 9802; 863B and PRLT 2/89-33ICMP 83,720 | \n[60] | \n
Heat | \nH77/833–2, H77/29–2 and CVJ 2–5–3-1-3, 77/371XBSECT CP1 | \n[61] | \n
Salinity | \n33, 10,876 and 10,878 (Sudan), 18,406 and 18,570 (Namibia), and ICMV93753 and ICMV 94474 (India); 863-B, CZI 98–11, CZI 9621, HTP 94/54 | \n[62] | \n
Available genotypes for abiotic stress tolerance in pearl millet.
Soils in the areas where pearl millet is grown are often poor infertility because they contain a small amount of organic matter (0.05–0.40percent) due to low ground cover, coarse soil texture, and prevailing high temperatures [63]. Soils also contain low to moderate levels of available phosphorus (10–25 kg ha−1). This problem was mainly solved through nutrient management. The possibilities of genetic improvement for the efficient use of nutrients are increasingly explored in some cultures [64]. Only recently has strategic research been launched at ICRISAT in the West and Central Africa region to identify QTL to increase the efficiency of phosphorus and examine the stability of its expression across genetic environments.
\nCorn forage (Zea mays L.) has become an important component of ruminant rations in recent years. It is the only crop among non-leguminous forages that combines better nutritional quality. With a large amount of biomass [65]. Although the crop has great adaptability [66], it is the least tolerant of abiotic stress among cereals. Drought, salinity, and high temperatures are among the major abiotic stresses that negatively impact corn production in most regions of global corn production [67]. Soils with saline stress are present on all continents and in almost all climatic conditions. However, its distribution is relatively more extensive in arid and semi-arid regions than in humid regions [68]. Mohammed and Mohammed 2019 stated that the appropriate genotype based on stress selection is the inexpensive and manageable stress method based on salt, water, and heat or combined form and also concluded that the reduction in stress performance would be reduced to 20–40 parents.
\nThe cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is one of the most important legumes cultivated by subsistence farmers for human and animal consumption, mainly in the semi-arid regions of Africa and Brazil. In Africa, it is used for the livelihood of millions of people in the semi-arid regions of the West and Center [69] and is considered the most important grain legume crop in the sub-Saharan region.
\nCowpea is relatively drought tolerant. Despite this feature, however, drought can cause a considerable loss of performance. Efforts have been made to select the cowpea genetic material to identify lines with better drought tolerance than currently available varieties. According to Watanabe et al. [70], certain lines of genetic material, in particular, TVu 11,979 and TVu 14,914, were consistently very drought tolerant under real field conditions. Drought can occur at the beginning of the season, mid-season, or the crop development stage. Studies have shown that cowpea plants can show drought tolerance in the vegetative stage [71] and the reproductive stage [32]. Some cowpea lines exhibit a green persistence feature, also called delayed leaf senescence (DLS), which can help plants tolerate terminal and mid-season drought [32].
\nIn cowpea plants, overexpression of the CPRD 8, CPRD12, CPRD14, CPRD22 and CPRD46 genes that confer tolerance to water stress [72], as well as the production of VusAPX genes connected to VucAPX, VupAPX and VutAPX of antioxidant enzymes [73], it is reported, in addition to the expression of the high level of the PvP5CS gene associated with the production of proline, an amino acid that fulfills the function of osmotic adjustment between species during drought.
\nClimate and soil determine many plant adaptations and the ecogeographic distribution of species and ecotypes show differences in physiology and development patterns that provide good evidence of adaptation mechanisms. Plants respond to environmental change as individuals through phenotypic plasticity and in populations through the selection and associated evolutionary processes. Determining the genetics underlying adaptation processes is not always easy because environmental factors can be complex or poorly defined. However, extreme environmental pressures, such as heavy metal contamination from the soil or harsh winter conditions [74] can produce detectable genetic changes. Multiple genes may be responsible for a response to a certain factor, or the same gene may be involved in different adaptive responses specific genetic interactions can be in a state of change or become fixed, limiting the possibilities for future evolution. Phenotypic plasticity acts as a buffer to prevent excessive gene flow in response to short-term changes.
\nGenetic improvement of forages through the selection of conventional plants is slow because most forage species are self-incompatible, limiting inbreeding to concentrate the desired genes to be used in the rapid development of new cultivars. Genetic transformation allows the direct introduction of desirable genes, thus offering new opportunities for forage molecular selection. Like many other crops, drought tolerance is an important goal in improving alfalfa. Since cuticle waxes play a central role in limiting the breathable loss of water from the plant surface, the genetic engineering of plant waxes is expected to eventually increase tolerance to environmental stress in crops such as agronomic importance [75].
\nExtensive hybridization with relative species followed by introgression of chromosomes and/or chromosome fragments has been considered an effective means of transferring salt and other stress tolerance genes to target species to extend the gene pool. Intergeneric hybrids between species of Lolium (Ryegrass) and Festuca (Fescue) have attracted much attention from forage breeders. Rye grasses are considered ideal grasses due to their fast establishment, their ability to resist intense grazing, their good palatability, and their high nutritional value [76].
\n\nAlfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is widely cultivated in temperate and tropical regions for green forage, hay, silage, and grass. As a perennial forage plant, alfalfa is a fairly hardy species and has a relatively high level of drought tolerance compared too many other legume forage plants [77]. Alfalfa’s increased drought tolerance is due in part to deeper roots and the ability to extract more available water from the root zone [78]. Detection of salt-sensitive proteins in two contrasting alfalfa cultivars using a comparative proteome approach revealed two new proteins, NAD synthetase, and biotin carboxylase-3, as being salt sensitive. These results provide new information on alfalfa salt stress tolerance [79]. The effects of rhizobia strains on the amino acid composition of alfalfa under salt stress indicate that proline, glutamine, arginine, GABA, and histidine accumulate significantly in salt-stressed nodules, suggesting increased production of amino acids associated with osmoregulation, nitrogen storage, or energy metabolism to counteract salt stress [80] is a widely allogeneous forage legume species distributed worldwide due to its wide range of climate adaptation [81]. But it is less drought tolerant than other temperate perennial forage legumes due to its shallow root system and its inability to effectively control transpiration [82]. Biochemical studies have indicated that when white clover was stressed by a water deficit, De novo synthesis of amino acids, including proline, has increased in both leaves and roots [83]. This phenomenon may serve as an adaptive response during the first days of drought since the transient increase in amino acid concentration has been followed by a decrease in protein synthesis that slows plant growth.
\n\nCowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) growing in a variety of environments from tropical to arid/semi-arid regions, increased tolerance to drought and heat would be desirable. The cowpeas (Vigna marina) that grow on sandy beaches in the tropical and subtropical regions closest to the sea have the potential to be a source of genes for breeding salt-tolerant cultivars. Chankaew et al., [84] first reported QTL mapping for salt tolerance in the Vigna marina, and multiple internal mapping consistently identified an important QTL that can explain 50 percent of the phenotypic variation. The flanking marker can facilitate the transfer of salt tolerance of this subspecies in related Vigna cultures.
\nSorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is one of the important forage crops for high agricultural production and good nutritional value for animals. Nutrient requirements for growing sorghum are high; they are grown for forage, in part from organic sources, and are supplemented primarily with inorganic fertilizers. The growth, development, and biological yield of crops affected by balanced fertilization have shown positive effects. Micronutrients increase crop productivity and also maintain soil health. A very small amount is required. Soil application of micronutrients is preferable for what is desired. Choudhary et al. [85] observed that the combined application of micronutrients, that is, a considerably higher yield of cereals, stems, and organic, is obtained through a soil + leaf application. The results showed a significant increase in grain yield (14.15 and 12.13 percent), biological yields (11.37 and 9.31 percent), and in stem yield (10.75 and 8.60 percent) and through the combined spraying of soil and foliar on the soil and foliar application, respectively.
\nPearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) is one of the main millet crops in arid and semi-arid areas. Weather. Due to the drought-tolerant nature, it grows well in poor sandy soils. Sustainable production of pearl millet can be achieved through the balanced use of nutrients in crops with the fusion of organic and inorganic sources. Intensive farming is followed in the current system, most farmers use high-yielding whole crop varieties, ultimately a significant removal of nutrients from the soil in recent years, and the consumption of fertilizers has remained well less than the elimination one. So that the qualitative and quantitative improvement of the crop yield goes through mineral fertilization and that its quality can be improved through adequate practices of nutrient management and soil cultivation [86].
\nThe third most important cereal crop is maize (Zea mays L.) worldwide and India. It is cultivated in temperate and tropical regions of the world. It is the most important cereal for animal feed. In India, 45 percent of maize production is used in various forms of staple foods [87]. Corn, rice, and wheat are estimated to provide at least 30percent of food calories to more than 4.5 billion people in 94 developing countries. The demands for animal feed and biofuels can be met by increasing maize production [88]. The application of micronutrients can be carried out in several ways, such as seed treatment, soil and foliar application [89], which depends on the characteristics of the soil and the climate of the region. Corn productivity can be improved by applying Zn and B to the soil.
\nCowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is a legume and is used as a forage crop that is grown during the Kharif season, requiring only an initial dose of nitrogen (15–25 kg N ha−1). Most nitrogen requirements are met by symbiotic nitrogen fixation. The strong application of NPK fertilizers has led to micronutrient deficiencies in many parts of the country. To achieve high yields and maintain them over the years, it becomes highly relevant to predict emerging nutrient deficiencies and to develop appropriate breeding technologies. Balanced fertilization is inevitable to increase the productivity of the crop. Among the micronutrients, Zn, Fe, B, Mn, and Mo significantly improved yield, and micronutrient foliar spray is economical on legumes.
\nIntechOpen’s team of Scientific Advisors supports the publishing team by providing editorial and academic input and ensuring the highest quality output of free peer-reviewed articles. The Boards consist of independent external collaborators who assist us on a voluntary basis. Their input includes advising on new topics within their field, proposing potential expert collaborators and reviewing book publishing proposals if required. Board members are experts who cover major STEM and HSS fields. All are trusted IntechOpen collaborators and Academic Editors, ensuring that the needs of the scientific community are met.
",metaTitle:"STM Publishing and Free Peer Reviewed Articles | IntechOpen",metaDescription:"IntechOpen’s scientific advisors support the STM publishing team by offering their editorial input, ensuring a consistent output of free peer reviewed articles.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"scientific-advisors",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10367},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118188},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"8"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10504",title:"Crystallization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3478d05926950f475f4ad2825d340963",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Youssef Ben Smida and Dr. Riadh Marzouki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10504.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311698",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",surname:"Ben Smida",slug:"youssef-ben-smida",fullName:"Youssef Ben Smida"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10582",title:"Chemical Vapor Deposition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f9177ff0e61198735fb86a81303259d0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sadia Ameen, Dr. M. Shaheer Akhtar and Prof. Hyung-Shik Shin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10582.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bb239599406f0b731bbfd62c1c8dbf3f",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10697",title:"Raman Spectroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6e2bfc19cc9f0b441890f24485b0de80",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marianna V. Kharlamova",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10697.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"285875",title:"Dr.",name:"Marianna V.",surname:"Kharlamova",slug:"marianna-v.-kharlamova",fullName:"Marianna V. Kharlamova"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10699",title:"Foams",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9495e848f41431e0ffb3be12b4d80544",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marco Caniato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10699.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"312499",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Caniato",slug:"marco-caniato",fullName:"Marco Caniato"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10700",title:"Titanium Dioxide",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d9448d83caa34d90fd58464268c869a0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Ali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10700.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"187624",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz Muhammad",surname:"Ali",slug:"hafiz-muhammad-ali",fullName:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10701",title:"Alkenes - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f6dd394ef1ca2d6472220de6a79a0d9a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Reza Davarnejad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10701.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"88069",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",surname:"Davarnejad",slug:"reza-davarnejad",fullName:"Reza Davarnejad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11072",title:"Modern Sample Preparation Techniques",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"38fecf7570774c29c22a0cbca58ba570",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Massoud Kaykhaii",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11072.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"348186",title:"Dr.",name:"Massoud",surname:"Kaykhaii",slug:"massoud-kaykhaii",fullName:"Massoud Kaykhaii"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:8},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1282",title:"Robot Vision",slug:"psychology-digital-image-processing-robot-vision",parent:{title:"Digital Image Processing",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology-robotics-digital-image-processing"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1,numberOfWosCitations:71,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfDimensionsCitations:82,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"psychology-digital-image-processing-robot-vision",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"3595",title:"Vision Systems",subtitle:"Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"vision_systems_applications",bookSignature:"Goro Obinata and Ashish Dutta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3595.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"131538",title:"Prof.",name:"Goro",middleName:null,surname:"Obinata",slug:"goro-obinata",fullName:"Goro Obinata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"358",doi:"10.5772/4994",title:"A Practical Toolbox for Calibrating Omnidirectional Cameras",slug:"a_practical_toolbox_for_calibrating_omnidirectional_cameras",totalDownloads:4123,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:20,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Davide Scaramuzza and Roland Siegwart",authors:null},{id:"370",doi:"10.5772/5006",title:"Stereo Vision Based SLAM Issues and Solutions",slug:"stereo_vision_based_slam_issues_and_solutions",totalDownloads:4581,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"D.C. Herath, K.R.S. Kodagoda and G. Dissanayake",authors:null},{id:"367",doi:"10.5772/5003",title:"Algebraic Reconstruction and Post-Processing in Incomplete Data Computed Tomography: from X-rays to Laser Beams",slug:"algebraic_reconstruction_and_post-processing_in_incomplete_data_computed_tomography__from_x-rays_to_",totalDownloads:2972,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Alexander B. Konovalov, Dmitry V. Mogilenskikh, Vitaly V. Vlasov and Andrey N. Kiselev",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"364",title:"New Types of Keypoints for Detecting Known Objects in Visual Search Tasks",slug:"new_types_of_keypoints_for_detecting_known_objects_in_visual_search_tasks",totalDownloads:1802,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Andrzej Sluzek and Saiful Islam",authors:null},{id:"352",title:"3D Cameras: 3D Computer Vision of Wide Scope",slug:"3d_cameras__3d_computer_vision_of_wide_scope",totalDownloads:4199,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Stefan May, Kai Pervoelz and Hartmut Surmann",authors:null},{id:"362",title:"Omnidirectional Vision-Based Control from Homography",slug:"omnidirectional_vision-based_control_from_homography",totalDownloads:1748,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Youcef Mezouar, Hicham Hadj Abdelkader and Philippe Martinet",authors:null},{id:"356",title:"Image Magnification Based on the Human Visual Processing",slug:"image_magnification_based_on_the_human_visual_processing",totalDownloads:2609,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Sung-Kwan Je, Kwang-Baek Kim, Jae-Hyun Cho and Doo-Heon Song",authors:null},{id:"368",title:"AMR Vision System for Perception, Job Detection and Identification in Manufacturing",slug:"amr_vision_system_for_perception__job_detection_and_identification_in_manufacturing",totalDownloads:2392,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Sarbari Datta and Ranjit Ray",authors:null},{id:"369",title:"Symmetry Signatures for Image-Based Applications in Robotics",slug:"symmetry_signatures_for_image-based_applications_in_robotics",totalDownloads:2178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Kai Huebner and Jianwei Zhang",authors:null},{id:"348",title:"Extraction of Roads From Out Door Images",slug:"extraction_of_roads_from_out_door_images",totalDownloads:2318,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Alejandro Forero Guzman and Carlos Parra",authors:null},{id:"354",title:"Optical Correlator based Optical Flow Processor for Real Time Visual Navigation",slug:"optical_correlator_based_optical_flow_processor_for_real_time_visual_navigation",totalDownloads:3207,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Valerij Tchernykh, Martin Beck and Klaus Janschek",authors:null},{id:"366",title:"Robot Vision in the Language of Geometric Algebra",slug:"robot_vision_in_the_language_of_geometric_algebra",totalDownloads:3257,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Gerald Sommer and Christian Gebken",authors:null},{id:"370",title:"Stereo Vision Based SLAM Issues and Solutions",slug:"stereo_vision_based_slam_issues_and_solutions",totalDownloads:4580,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"D.C. Herath, K.R.S. Kodagoda and G. Dissanayake",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"psychology-digital-image-processing-robot-vision",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/embryology-theory-and-practice/clinical-application-of-in-vitro-maturation-of-oocytes",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"embryology-theory-and-practice",chapter:"clinical-application-of-in-vitro-maturation-of-oocytes"},fullPath:"/books/embryology-theory-and-practice/clinical-application-of-in-vitro-maturation-of-oocytes",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()