\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1011",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Environmental change is increasingly considered a critical topic for researchers across multiple disciplines, as well as policy makers throughout the world. Mounting evidence shows that environments in every part of the globe are undergoing tremendous human-induced change. Population growth, urbanization and the expansion of the global economy are putting increasing pressure on ecosystems around the planet. To understand the causes and consequences of environmental change, the contributors to this book employ spatial and non-spatial data, diverse theoretical perspectives and cutting edge research tools such as GIS, remote sensing and other relevant technologies.\nInternational Perspectives on Global Environmental Change brings together research from around the world to explore the complexities of contemporary, and historical environmental change. As an InTech open source publication current and cutting edge research methodologies and research results are quickly published for the academic policy-making communities.\nDimensions of environmental change explored in this volume include:\n\nClimate change\nHistorical environmental change\nBiological responses to environmental change\nLand use and land cover change\nPolicy and management for environmental change",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-815-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4366-6",doi:"10.5772/1518",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",numberOfPages:490,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"aaa208c16030078cdca711a1867ca7ff",bookSignature:"Stephen S. Young and Steven E. 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His exhibition, The Earth Exposed, has been displayed in over a dozen galleries including the headquarters of the National Science Foundation as well as being displayed in Australia and Tunisia.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Salem State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"120857",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"Silvern",slug:"steven-silvern",fullName:"Steven Silvern",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/120857/images/3878_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Steven Silvern is an Associate Professor of Geography at Salem State University where his teaching. His research interests focus on indigenous peoples, environmental sustainability, and sustainable food systems in the United States and the Middle East. 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These materials have extremely high surface areas, large aspect ratios, remarkably high mechanical strength, and can have electrical and thermal conductivities that are similar to that of copper (Ebbesen et al., 1996). They come in two forms: single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs). SWNTs have diameters ranging from 1.2 to 1.4 nm. MWNTs have larger overall diameters, with sizes depending on the number of concentric walls within the structure. Like graphite, carbon nanotubes are relatively non-reactive, except at the nanotube caps which are more reactive due to the presence of dangling bonds. The reactivity of the carbon nanotube side walls’ π-system can also be influenced by tube curvature or chirality (Okpalugo et al., 2005). In particular, their remarkable structure-dependent properties have attracted great attention due to their potential applications in heterogeneous catalysis (Planeix et al., 1994), use as substrates for destruction of cancer cells (Kam et al., 2005) and applications for biological and chemical sensing (Poh et al., 2004). Carbon nanotubes require chemical modification in aqueous solution environments to make them more amenable for attachment of reactive surface species. In the case of attaching metal nanoparticles to the carbon surface, functionalization is necessary to avoid agglomeration of the metal. Sensor applications involve the tethering of chemical moieties with specific recognition sites for the detecting ultra-trace analytes (Dai, 2002). Surface functionalization is also necessary for depositing high-loading, catalytically active metal nanoparticles on them (Xing et al, 2005).
Great attention has been paid to attaching functional groups onto carbon nanotube surfaces (Holzinger et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2005; Park et al., 2006) and probing the electronic structure resulting from post-nanotube-synthesis preparations. To understand the changes that result from surface functionalization strategies, well-defined characterization of the carbon nanotube’s surface chemistry and structure is needed. The ability to get an accurate detailed picture of the tethered functional groups that attach to the solid surface using aqueous solution preparation methods is important for controlling carbon nanotube surface composition composition.
We have developed an array of analytical methods to probe the surface composition of carbon nanotubes during various stages of nanomaterial synthesis in our laboratory. Summarized herein are three case studies. In the first study, sonochemically functionalized MWNTs were probed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) revealing a consecutive, first-order attachment mechanism. In the second study, extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) and attenuated total reflection infrared (ATR-IR) spectroscopy were used to examine tethered Pt nanoparticles on functionalized MWNTs. In the third study, we functionalized high pressure carbon monoxide (HiPco) SWNTs to produce carboxylic acid (COOH-SWNT), maleic anhydride (MA-SWNT), and nitroso (NO-SWNT) attached SWNTs in order to examine the effects of the tethered groups on the solid surface point-of-zero charge (PZC). The PZC is defined as the aqueous solution pH value at which the degree of surface protonation and hydroxylation are equal, which results in an electrostatically neutral charge at the electrical double layer interface (Brown et al., 1999). SWNTs were used in the PZC studies due to their relative ease for surface functionalization with specific moieties.
In the first case study, MWNTs produced from chemical vapor deposition were obtained from Nanolab, Inc. (Waltham, MA). The as-purchased MWNTs (95% purity, ~30 nm in diameter) were put into a mixture solution of HNO3 and H2SO4 in an Erlenmeyer flask. The concentrations of both acids were 8.0 M. The flask was placed in an ultrasonic bath (Fisher Scientific, 130 W and 40 kHz) maintained at 60º C. Sonication was performed for 1, 2, 4 and 8 hrs. The sonochemically treated MWNTs were then separated from the acids in a centrifuge (Thermal IEC Centra CL2), and thoroughly washed using doubly distilled, deionized water prior to analysis (Xing et al., 2005).
The chemical oxidation states and surface compositions of the resulting sonochemically treated MWNTs and Pt electrocatalysts were analyzed by XPS using an ion-pumped Perkin-Elmer PHI ESCA 560 system using a PHI 25-270AR double pass cylindrical mirror analyzer. An Mg Kα anode operated at 15 kV and 250 W with photon energy of
In the second case study, MWNT-Pt nanoparticle structural analysis was performed using EXAFS. Finely dispersed Pt nanoparticles (3.5 nm in diameter) tethered onto MWNTs were prepared via sonicating MWNTs in HNO3/H2SO4 for 2 hrs followed by reducing the Pt salt precursor, K2PtCl4 (Xing, 2004). Spectra were obtained from the 12-BM BESSRC Advanced Photon Source (APS) beamline at the Argonne National Laboratory and the X18B beamline at the National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS) at the Brookhaven National Laboratory to analyze the Pt LIII edge (11.564 keV) of the Pt nanoparticles tethered to the carbon nanotube surface. A spectrum of a 5
The experimental procedure for the third case study (McPhail et al., 2009) was as follows: (1) COOH-SWNTs were prepared by refluxing in H2SO4/HNO3 according to Lu et al. (2007). A 30.0 mL solution of 3:1 concentrated nitric-to-sulfuric acid ratio was added to a 100-mL round-bottom glass flask along with 60.1 mg of p-SWNTs. The mixture was refluxed at 338 K for 12 hrs, with constant magnetic stirring, under N2 atmosphere. (2) NO-SWNTs were prepared using an electrochemical functionalization procedure based on the description made by Wang et al. (2005). SWNT sheets were prepared by sonicating them in 1% Triton X-100 (The Chemistry Store.com Inc.; St. Cayce, SC) solution followed by vacuum filtration with Millipore Teflon filter paper (0.2
Isoelectric point measurements at the solid-liquid interface were made on MA-SWNT, NO-SWNT, COOH-SWNT and p-SWNT surfaces using a method described by Park and Regalbuto (1995). Twelve solutions in the range of pH = 1.0-12.0 were made using dilute aqueous solutions of NaOH and HCl. A 1.8 mL aliquot of each solution was pipetted into polyethylene vials and allowed to equilibrate for 1 hr. The initial pH of each solution was then recorded. A 2.0 mg amount of the SWNTs to be examined were added to each vial, which were then capped and shaken with a vortex mixer to settle the SWNTs. After an additional 12-hr equilibration period, the final pH at the SWNT solid surface was measured for each vial using a spear-tip semisolid electrode. Finally, initial pH values versus final pH values were plotted.
The sonochemically functionalized MWNTs were characterized and quantified by XPS. XPS is an effective surface sensitive method for quantifying the extent (or level) of surface oxidation (Huefner, 2003). The distribution of oxygen containing functional groups (-C-O-, -C=O, and O-C=O) is also often characterized by deconvoluting the C 1s spectral envelope to obtain quantitative information, based on differences in XPS binding energy (BE) (Datsyuk et al., 2008).
Left-hand panel) XPS stackplot of C 1s core level of the carbon nanotubes at varying sonochemical treatment times; (Right-hand panel) Kinetic model of sonochemically treated carbon nanotube oxidation process based on deconvoluted XPS C 1s integrated peak areas for C (on the MWNT graphene sheet), CO- and COO- oxidation states.
Fig. 1 (left-hand panel) shows the narrow scan spectra of the C 1s region of sonochemically treated and untreated MWNTs. The XPS spectrum shows distinct carbon peaks, representing the major constituents of the oxidized MWNT surface. The dominant peak structure for the C 1s core level at a BE of 284.4 eV corresponds to the bare, untreated MWNT surface (Ago et al., 1999; Suzuki et al., 2002). C 1s core level shifts at 287.6 and 288.3 eV indicate that the moieties consist of CO-/C=O and COO- respectively, in agreement with literature values reported for these groups tethered onto the MWNTs (Langley et al., 2005). Intensities of the high BE states increased due to oxidation as sonication ensued. The CO-/C=O and COO- concentrations were quantified relative to the graphitic carbon peak. The C 1s line broadening with extra feature developments were attributed to the surface oxidation of MWNTs where C atoms bond to more O atoms as a result of the sonochemical treatment. The population of the oxidized groups (CO-, C=O, and COO-) relative to the MWNT carbon were quantified via plotting the sum of their C 1s peak areas relative to that of the graphitic MWNT carbon as a function of sonochemical treatment time. The increase in surface oxidation measured from the integrated C 1s peak areas of the ([CO-] + [COO-])/[C] tracks well with the overall increase in XPS atomic percent oxygen. A greater uptake of oxygen by the surface carbon atoms corresponds to a higher population density of COx functional groups detected by the XPS.
The kinetic model for the oxidation process is shown in Fig. 1 (right-hand panel). A stochastic addition mechanism obeying a consecutive 1st-order mechanism was revealed. Here, we report the first detailed mechanistic delineation of the carbon nanotube oxidation process. Evolution of the high binding energy peak intensities during sonication shows a consecutive, single-step first order O-attachment mechanism, leading to the carboxylate. This scheme is consistent with a report made by (Chiang et al., 2011) showing CO to be an intermediate species, which could be oxidized quickly to other forms, usually COO under acidic environment. Sonication creates defect sites on the sidewalls that allow for O atom attachment (Li et al., 2006). Differential equations describing the mechanism are as follows:
Least squares fittings show rate constants of k1 (C
A) A plot of the uptake of D-to-G integrated peak area ratios (●, left-hand axis) and atomic percent oxygen (■, right-hand axis) versus sonochemical treatment time; (B) Raman shifts showing the emergence of the D and G bands of sonochemically treated MWNTs before deposition of Pt nanoparticles. The dashed line serves as a guide to the eye, denoting functional group saturation at 2 hrs.
In examining the Raman D-to-G integrated peak area ratios (Fig. 2A; left-hand axis), the disordered sp3 state increased with longer sonochemical treatment. The largest increase occurred between 0 and 1 hr of sonication with a plateau reached at 2 hrs. Noteworthy is the fact that the plateau of the relative Raman D-to-G band intensities (left-hand axis) coincided with a plateau of the atomic percent mole fractions of oxygen (right-hand axis), obtained from normalizing XPS high-resolution energy scans of the O 1s core level (Fig. 2A; right-hand axis), at 2 hrs. The population of sp3-hybridized carbon increased relative to the sp2-hybridized carbon during sonication, accompanying the creation of sidewall defects to which the functional groups attached. Thus, the groups covalently bonded to the surface with moieties directly forming from C atoms within the graphene sheets. The growth rate of sp3-to-sp2 Raman intensities with sonication time (Fig. 2B) was also consistent with that of our consecutive 1st-order kinetic model. The density of the surface functional groups was directly (albeit not linearly) related to sonication time; 2 hrs of sonication resulted in optimal Pt nanoparticle dispersion. Upon deposition of the Pt nanoparticles, the Raman line shapes and relative D-to-G band intensities remained unchanged. The presence of these peaks verified that the carbon nanotubes remained largely intact during the oxidation procedure and after deposition of Pt nanoparticles.
To examine the local structure of the nanoparticles, EXAFS was performed on the Pt deposited on the 2-hr sonochemically treated carbon nanotubes. The Pt-CNT samples were examined as a dry powder-like form instead of aqueous solution phase to get a stronger signal. EXAFS is an oscillatory feature in the X-ray absorption above the absorption edge of the target atoms and is defined as the fraction deviation in the absorption coefficient:
with
The XPS Pt 4f7/2 core level of the Pt-CNT (not shown; prepared using a 2-hr sonochemical treatment), referencing the graphitic C 1s orbital at a BE equal to 284.4 eV (Ago et al., 1999; Suzuki et al., 2002), had a BE= 71.4 eV, indicating that Pt was predominantly in the metallic (zero) oxidation state (Fleisch et al., 1986). XPS signals from the C 1s and O 1s and Pt 4f levels and from no other elements were observed. The asymmetry observed in the 4f5/2 level at ~78 eV indicated a small population of PtO or PtO2, which was masked by much larger signal from metallic Pt. The lack of insufficient signal from the Pt oxide (PtOx) hampered precise determination of the stoichiometric proportions of PtO and PtO2. Hence, EXAFS was needed for clearer structural elucidation.
In comparing the FTs of the EXAFS Pt LIII edge of Pt nanoparticles deposited on the –COO- and –C=O functionalized MWNTs, the first nearest neighbor atom was observed at ~1.78 Å in the Pt-MWNT sample instead of the expected distance of ~2.78 Å for Pt-Pt interactions in its zero oxidation state (Fig. 3A). The latter distance was observed for a standard PtO2 powder used for comparison. This result was consistent with the XPS core level shift for the Pt 4f7/2 orbital observed at 71.4 eV, denoting metallic Pt (Fleisch et al., 1986). The low
FTs of EXAFS oscillations plotted in R space of (A) Pt-CNTs (solid gray line; a Pt foil scan is shown as a dotted, orange spectral line); (B) PtO2 standard; and proposed (a) and (b) structures for Pt-MWNT coordination.
clearly not with Pt-Pt, denoted by the ~1.78 Å position. A FT of a reference PtO2 powder is shown in Fig. 3B. The location of its 1NN, signifying Pt-O, is seen at
Fig. 4 shows ATR-IR difference spectra of 2 hr sonochemically treated carbon nanotubes before and after Pt nanoparticles were tethered to these surfaces. The C-O ester features, denoted by peaks (2) and (3) in the 2-hr sonicated MWNTs with no Pt deposited, were replaced by a broad single band with a center at 1092 cm-1 after Pt nanoparticle attachment. This change in IR envelope shape indicated a strong interaction of ester O with the Pt nanoparticles. The carbonyl O band at 1700 cm-1 (before Pt nanoparticle deposition) were replaced by two peaks absorbing at 1712 and 1629 cm-1, indicative of Pt nanoparticles interactions with carbonyl O. Pt binding with the carbonyl O was evident from the absorbance shift from a single feature at 1700 cm-1 to two peaks at 1712 and 1629 cm-1. Bands from the ester C-O stretches were still present with vibrational stretches at 1160 cm-1. From Fig. 4, it was clear that the Pt loading of the oxidized MWNTs dramatically altered the absorbance signal from the C-O stretches in the 1300-to-900 cm-1 region. The carbonyl C=O signal at 1700 cm-1 was less affected although there was a shift to higher frequency at 1712 cm-1 along with the emergence of another stretch at 1629 cm-1, indicative of multiple binding sites for the Pt nanoparticles. Hence, ATR-IR data showed that the ester O peaks present before tethering Pt nanoparticles were radically altered after the Pt deposition, denoting their involvement in the coordination of the Pt nanoparticles to create the nanostructure. Based on this IR result and the EXAFS analysis, we propose two Pt-MWNT surface structures. Attachment can occur via carboxylate ions in which the O atoms effectively have equal bond order and participation in the Pt binding in the form of COO(Pt) (Fig. 3a). Pt nanoparticles can also coordinate to ester O atoms bound to the carbon nanotube surface, bridging between two carbons and serving as a binding site for the Pt nanoclusters in the form of C(=O)CO(Pt) (Fig. 3b). According to Petroski and El-Sayed (2003), because the d band of Pt is close to the Fermi level, electron density to form new bonds would come from the C=O group rather than the Pt. Hence, shifts in the C=O stretch would be sensitive to coordination with Pt (peak 1 in Fig. 4) as observed.
In our final case study, variations in the measured PZC were seen between differently functionalized SWNT structures (McPhail et al., 2009). Fig. 5 shows a plot of final versus initial pH values of solutions to which various SWNT samples were added. A plateau (horizontal dashed lines) in the plot indicates the PZC for each specifically-functionalized carbon nanotube.
The PZC values in this series of functionalized carbon nanotubes indicated a relatively acidic surface, amenable for adsorption of anionic (metal nanoparticle) precursors. The PZC values for the SWNTs were in ascending order: COOH-SWNTs (1.2) < MA-SWNTs (2.0) < p-SWNTs (3.5) < NO-SWNTs (7.5). Lowering of the p-SWNTs PZC compared to other studies (Matarredona et al., 2003) was attributed to our use of smaller radius (~0.7 nm) SWNTs. The COOH groups, due to its acidity, lowered the PZC to a greater extent than the MA groups (by 0.8 pH units). The PZCs were found to be tunable within 6.3 pH units by functionalizing them with various moieties of different electron withdrawing/donating character. The moieties markedly affected the PZCs. There is an obvious correlation of PZC with electron distribution, emanating from attached moieties along the SWNTs sidewalls.
ATR-IR difference spectra of 2100-900 cm-1 region of 2-hr sonochemically treated carbon nanotubes before and after Pt nanoparticle deposition. Untreated carbon nanotubes were used for background subtraction. Vibrations from (1) carbonyl and ester (2) asymmetric and (3) symmetric stretches are noted for comparison. The arrow denotes a new frequency signifying coordination with Pt nanoparticles.
The point of zero charge (PZC) values of NO-SWNTs, p-SWNTs, MA-SWNTs and COOH-SWNTs are denoted by horizontal lines.
In the context of electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS) reactions, nitroso groups are known to be electron withdrawing, maleic anhydride groups are lightly electron releasing, and carboxylic acid groups are strongly electron releasing, which can be quantitatively described by Hammett sigma constants (
Here, we note a new observation: greater σ values coincide with a greater propensity to be hydroxylated, thereby increasing the PZC. The greater electron donating character of the moiety led to an increased degree of surface hydroxylation. Quantitatively, the
In summary, we have demonstrated the utility of XPS for delineating MWNT oxidation kinetics, EXAFS (coupled with XPS and ATR-IR) for elucidating nanoparticle-MWNT interfacial structure, and the dependence of PZC on the electron withdrawing/donating character of moieties attached to SWNTs. Sonication of MWNTs is a facile functionalization technique as it lowers the surface activation energy barrier resulting in low temperature functionalization and reduction in surface physical damage. The process greatly reduces the functionalization time to as low as 2 hrs. Sonochemical treatments tend to create dangling bonds on the surfaces of carbon nanotubes, which progressively oxidize to hydroxyl (OH), carbonyl (CO), and carboxyl (COOH) functional groups (Al-Aqtash and Vasiliev, 2009). Kinetic studies uncovered a stochastic functionalization mechanism involved in the preparation of MWNTs for nanoparticle attachment. EXAFS, coupled with XPS and ATR-IR data, was pivotal in the elucidation of ester-like O atoms found to play an important role in synthesizing Pt nanoparticle-MWNT structures. Controlled surface functionalization on SWNTs can influence its PZC, an important variable for Coulombic attachment of structures onto the surface. The above described surface analytical methods, performed on MWNTs and SWNTs as benchmarks, may well be applicable for examining aqueous solution functionalization processes on newly emerging carbon nanomaterials, i.e., graphene and graphene oxides (Liu et al., 2008; Geim, 2009; Yan and Chou, 2010), for advanced technological applications.
We gratefully acknowledge support from the Faculty Research Creative Activity Committee (FRCAC) of Middle Tennessee State University awarded in 2011.
This text explores the body in augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR) and the implications of essentialism for the virtual sublime. The concepts of virtuality, digital materiality, the analogue/digital divide, an AR/VR spectrum, essentialism, sensorial sensuality, and avatar instantiation will be explored and conjoined, concluding with an analysis of the desire for experiences of the senses and the natural extension of sensorial engagement—effect. I propose that the heightened emotion and physical sensations of an AR/VR encounter lend themselves to an alignment with the sublime. However, the deficit of AR/VR sensuality due to truncated sensorial input leads to feelings of disaffection and disconnection. The residual effect of this less than optimal embodiment translates into a longing for a heightened engagement and becomes a yearning. Yearning then becomes a defining attribute of the virtual sublime. These ideas are considered in the light of the philosopher Henri Bergson’s concepts of the absolute and the relative.
I have spent considerable time, both motivated and frustrated, in virtual worlds. Most of the time I have been a creator in AR/VR spaces, which perhaps leads to more excessive reactions to the medium as I seek to impose my artistic will through an inherently collaborative process. I only have the affordances and range for self-expression that the application’s coders and designers think to offer, accidentally program or intentionally impede. Contemplating this often one-way street of
Composing this introduction in the time of an international pandemic is particularly instructive. It is impossible to ignore the terror and disruption a virus has created the world over. Sadly, little of the fear most of us are feeling could be typified as sublime. The sublime, along with its dose of danger, has a positive connotation of transcendence and awe [1]. However, how to look after ourselves physically and psychologically has suddenly come to the fore in most people’s everyday existence. We can never escape our bodies as much as Eurocentric philosophical thought and academic traditions have sought to divide the intellect from our material existence. So one comes to terms with the body, a truce of sorts, particularly as one is made aware of an imminent danger to it. However, it is difficult to shake the mindset that there is a way to
Virtuality is a philosophically knotty discussion. The concept is considered extensively in the writings of thinkers such as Henri Bergson [4], Gilles Deleuze [5], Elizabeth Grosz [6], Pierre Lévy [7], and Brian Massumi [8], to name a few. It could even be said to be fundamental to the discussion of idealism versus realism or materialism, around which so much philosophical discussion is centred. However, three specific notions define the idea of virtuality in current digital culture, making them particularly pertinent to this text. One; the capability of “functioning or being used as, but not constituting, the physical object or entity represented. For example, virtual memory is memory that a microprocessor can use, but it doesn’t correspond to actual chips in RAM.” Two; existence “in the form of, or by making use of, digital media. For example, groups of people who do not live near each other but who share a common interest or concern and keep in contact by means of the web can be said to be a virtual community.” Three; something that relates to or is existing in virtual reality [9].1
Virtual reality, on the other hand, is an ambiguous term “referring loosely to a broad spectrum of new media technologies which enable the user to interact with computer-mediated representations or simulations, and by implication also to any experience generated or mediated by such means” [11]. For example, video conferencing or video games could be considered virtual reality. It can also refer to “cutting-edge sensory immersive technologies which use head-mounted displays and an elaborate array of body sensors in order to enhance, elaborate, and expand our sensory interaction with new media objects” [11]. The term is oxymoronic—what is the virtual has generally not been equated with the
The digital is implicit in the virtual which is popularly experienced through AR/VR technology. Less obviously, the virtual is imperative to the digital in that one needs to imagine what is possible through digital materiality. Along with digital tools, processes and networks comes a materiality that starts with electricity, more particularly the state of the electricity, registering as on or off, and then converted to corresponding zeros and ones. The zeros and ones are, in turn, built into low-level languages that allow for sophisticated programs which can then control the ensuing digitized output. The electricity and recorded states are ephemeral but they are still material, even if that materiality eludes our human, immediate, senses. It is hoped we do not experience a jolt of electricity directly, but rather, see the results of it and therefore know it exists. Digitized output is how this materiality is commonly experienced. The light waves transmitted through screens hitting our eyes and sounds through speakers hitting our eardrums are elusive but material. The digital has these concrete manifestations even if it is made of and from substances such as light, sound, waves, and wattage, substances not often described as material. But they are. Electrons and sound waves are physical phenomena.
The relationship between the digital and virtual is not just substance versus concept. The virtual we experience is a unique product of the digital means enacting it. All materiality and process suggest more than just what meets the eye/ear/nose. When we look at or experience an object, we see and intuit the combined histories of the substances and processes that went into its creation. That is also true when experiencing virtually. Brian Massumi in
To some extent, Massumi is correct in thinking that the digital and virtual can not be equated; however, they are productive for each other. Massumi’s thinking conflates a constraint of means, the ‘possibilistic’ nature of the digital with what people can do within and with constraints. This is similar to arguing that anything made with paper and pen is limited because of how paper and pens are manufactured. In art making, the issue is not only the materials at hand, though contra Massumi, constraints of materiality often contain the gift of serendipitous intent or meaning; but rather possibility inherent through the intention of the artist, manipulation of audience reception, wish fulfillment, and force of inner vision conveyed, no matter whether the artist is using analogue or digital technology. As well, the assumption that possibility is only ‘plodding’ is near-sighted. Exploring/exploiting even the simplest of digitally calculated possibilities could take a lifetime, making this abstract notion of possibility infinite. That computers can do the plodding for us and give us an infinite array of possibility, seems like a creative positive rather than the negative Massumi seems to attribute to it. This is surprising given his obvious admiration for artistic methodology elsewhere in his writing [8]. Henri Bergson refutes the idea that quantification is limited by proposing that “…though mathematical processes are applicable only to quantities, it must not be forgotten that quantity is always quality in a nascent state…” [13].
Massumi’s point is taken, though. The tools one employs do have an organic relationship to outcomes. It is just not quite as straightforward as assuming the way tools are made or the materials one uses therefore determine outputs; sometimes results undermine the tools/materials or are used in surprising ways, and it is in the defying of our expectations that the most intriguing work is done. Nonetheless, capturing physical materiality and converting it into digital materiality and then back to the physical manifestations of the digital is now embedded in our artistic methodologies.
There is, however, a great irony to this digital material. It is infinitely malleable, indestructible, and very easily stored. On the other hand, it is incredibly fragile and error-prone. Much digital material is lost in obsolete storage devices, cloud computing, and virtual worlds that have disappeared. And as anyone who has ever had a computer file become corrupted knows a great deal of hard work can disappear in a nanosecond. As well, the ideal of endless storage floating magically in the cloud—in reality server farms located on vast tracts of uninhabited land—has become a critical issue as e-waste and environmental degradation impact our world [14], not to mention increased cybersecurity risk.
The organic relationship between materials/processes and resulting artifact, how our materials and methodologies define what we create, comes into particular focus when considering the difference between that which is analogue in nature and contrarily, the digital. The analogue is an uninterrupted continuum which can never be parsed, whereas the digital is always made up of discrete units even if they are so densely packed or measured as to seem continuous. Analogue we cannot measure in units because there are not discrete moments, but to translate anything into a digital form, we need to measure it in units, zeros and ones, electricity on or off, nothing in between. The units can be pixels, numbers, vectors, or other notations, but nonetheless, they are always bits, quite literally. Zoom into the highest resolution photographic image and you eventually see the individual printed dots translated from the screen pixels that make up what appears to be a smooth continuum.
Contrasting the analogue to the digital has both philosophical implications as well as an impact on artistic methodology. Here again I turn to Henri Bergson to explore the fundamental difference he delineated. A complete discussion of his ideas would be impractical in this text but central to his thinking was what he called the absolute and the relative. Though the analogue and digital are not aligned exactly to Bergson’s absolute and relative, his thinking does give us a way to conceptualize these two opposites if compared to his terms. His absolute, “the object and not its representation, the original and not its translation, is perfect, by being perfectly what it is” [13] and one can only know it through intuition. Whereas his relative is “…a translation, a development into symbols, a representation taken from successive points of view” [13] and is analysis not intuition. His absolute connotes the analogue, indivisible, and whole, and his relative the idea of individual digital units, somewhat similar to his “photographs of a town, taken from all possible points of view.”
This conceptual understanding does not stop people from trying to construct the analog from the digital. Most digital endeavours seek to imitate the analogue in some way. AR/VR epitomizes this ambition. The photographer Edward Burtynsky, along with his colleagues Jennifer Baichwall and Nicholas de Pencier, recently completed a VR film,
So, what if the digital can never be the analogue and is always an imperfect translation? Are we not getting close enough to fool ourselves into thinking we have recreated the analogue? Here Bergson connects “[t]he real, the experienced, and the concrete” to “variability itself” and further claims that the element or in the case of digital materiality the zero or one, “is invariable” [13]. The implications for artistic methodology lie in the invariability of the element as the building block for creating AR/VR. He goes on to ask “[h]ow could you ever manufacture reality by manipulating symbols”? [13].
Bergson does not necessarily judge the relative although it is hard not to interpret his critique as a fundamental lack within the relative, which he also refers to as a process of analysis. He asserts that analysis “is much more useful in life than the intuition of a thing itself would be” [13]. He is clear that the relative and analysis are as essential to shaping our understanding of the world as the absolute and intuition. However, he equally laments those that “have had no sense of the moving continuity of reality” [13].2 This might be more of a critique of other theorists, who he labels the “masters of modern philosophy”, than the idea that it is easier to understand and valourize our ability to analyze over our embodied intuition.
There is an irony in the discussion of augmented versus virtual reality. By using the digital to evoke the virtual through AR/VR, a spectrum is created that is very much analogue in character; in that it is continuous and indivisible, akin to Bergson’s absolute. At one end of the spectrum there is AR, a layering of the digital/virtual on the material world, whereas VR, at the other end, is, in theory at least, a total immersion in virtuality through a headset. However, there are degrees of material imposition throughout the AR/VR spectrum. A completely immersive experience is still only an ideal that anchors one end of the AR/VR spectrum.
So are the two terms AR and VR of any use? They are popularly in play so at some level make a difference to users; however, most people only have the foggiest notion of the distinction between the terms and this may melt away as AR/VR become more embedded in our lives. Dennys Kuhnert and Roger Küng, trainers in the organization XR Bootcamp, theorize that “…anything you learn to do in VR can be applied to AR” and they “also believe strongly that AR and VR will merge together and define the future of computing” [17]. Just the fact that the AR/VR acronym is often written with a slash [18] implies that continuity between the two and the basically indivisible or analogue nature of this spectrum of digital virtuality.
Even in the most immersive of circumstances we need some form of acknowledgement of the physical world around us for the very basic need to keep our bodies intact. For example, there is a safety feature built into a popular VR headset, the HTC Vive, that traces reality as a ghostly wireframe palimpsest so that the headset user is somewhat safe from bumping into walls and falling down stairs. When I first experienced this feature, I was much more intrigued with the wireframe of reality than the VR experience with which I was supposed to have been engaging. A competitor to HTC Vive, Oculus, has developed what it calls a Guardian System for its headset, a telling nomenclature. This functionality allows creators themselves to decide how best to visually hint at the physical world, for example, an overlay of a wireframe box that signals users when they are about to step outside of a zone. Another solution for safety, albeit low tech, is when an attendant is hired to physically and audibly guide VR users to prevent them from hurting themselves. A notable example of this was a VR installation at the Art Gallery of Ontario that allowed viewers to travel through a minuscule, medieval carved prayer bead3 [19]. The magic of VR was somewhat diminished by the long lineup before donning the headset for a very brief time; and secondly by the constant reminder that someone was by your side limiting your movement so you did not wander out of the prescribed area and do yourself or others harm. AR/VR systems often are in need of a babysitter to accommodate public interaction for both participant safety and equipment security.
As per this discussion of safety, it quickly becomes perilous to deny the body in AR/VR experiences at the basic level of straight-up survival, but philosophically, it is tricky as well. This is our instrument for knowing and being in the world and the only way we have to divine something like Bergsonian intuition. Academic Andrew M. Cox takes up the question of the neglect of the body in Western culture. In his overview of historical and theoretical influences that feed this disregard, he comes to the conclusion that a focus on the purely digital collapses in the face of “value and meaning in the everyday material and embodied world” [20]. Even though “the rise of the digital seems to reinforce disembodiment” [20]. There is apparently no way around the fact that we are creatures that can only illicit our knowledge of the world through our physicality. The digital, virtual or otherwise, is deeply entwined in our understanding of the world through our bodies. Utopic notions of liberating ourselves from our bodies [21, 22] now register as more and more dystopic rather than desirous.
Disconnect from the body or disembodiment is a contemporary conversation. As undeniable as our bodies have always been, discourse about them is now widely infected by technological concepts. We use the language of the digital in order to understand our own innate bodily processes. For example, people now quite often refer to their brains as hard drives. To quote artist Stephanie Cloutier: “In this present moment we are learning about our bodies again, using our body as memory storage” [23]. À la digital storage, we now believe we are accumulating experiences in our muscles, cells, and nerves that then inform how we think/process
If we form our world through our physicality, does this make our embodied existence paramount and is this unavoidable consideration of the body a version of essentialism? An illuminating perspective on essentialism comes through feminism. Scholars of feminism have long grappled with issues of the body and how it makes us who and what we are, therefore structuring our experiences. Eventually most deliberations about feminism come back to the question of materialism, a euphemism for this thing we carry around with us called the body. Shivers of terror run-up backs when the still dreaded term, essentialism, is evoked in feminist circles. Intellectual pendulums swing, however, and the most recent iteration of the recognition of the embodiment of women is called material feminism—when ported over to ecological studies—ecofeminism. In their anthology,
Likewise we can think of the body and its relationship to the virtual similarly. Imagining the AR/VR without the body is an impossibility. But the body does respond to and adapt to the technology as well. Principally, AR/VR designers have been more than a bit oblivious to the body though the experience is rarely able to escape its reputation as a nausea and headache-inducing trial. The resurgence of the medium took place when the technology of screen refresh and eye tracking had advanced enough so that the majority of people can now withstand this experience for a little while without vomiting [26]. Still, the caveat remains—do not try this on too little sleep.
Another indicative design flaw in virtual reality headsets denies differences between bodies [27]. There is some consideration for the space between the centre of one’s pupils or interpupillary distance (IPD) but not much accommodation beyond that. The head strap has a limited ability to adjust and the weight of the set is also prohibitive for people without a typically assumed adult’s spinal and neck strength. These are just a few of the obvious disincentives to using the equipment by anyone who differs from the highly idealized male body.
The implications of essentialism/embodiment for the digital virtual is not just a feminist pursuit, rather it is widely considered. Cox mentions four areas of study that concentrate on the body—phenomenology, practice theory, embodied cognition, and sensory studies [21]. It is through sensory studies that I will consider the organic relationship between the body and AR/VR. Sensory studies contends that our senses are acculturated and extolls “sensual scholarship….research, theory, and methodology that are
Intersensoriality plays a critical part in this notion of cultural sensorial specificity and “refers to the interrelation and/or transmutation of the senses”. David Howes delineates four dyads of intersensoriality, each describing a continuum. “a) cooperation/opposition, b) hierarchy/equality, c) fusion/separation, and d) simultaneity/sequentiality” [30]. Put concisely and to quote designer Annika Dixon-Reusz: “We are focusing on one sense at a time, but every sense brings us closer to a full body experience” [31]. Circling back to Bergson and connecting the senses to self, he suggests that one is: “…on the one hand a
AR/VR creators and consumers are entranced with capturing what we can sense and converting it into digital materiality. Nonetheless, we can only covert that which we can measure. The number of senses we have are somewhat contested—purportedly even up to 53 [32], however, there are five which are recognized traditionally: vision (sight), audition (hearing), gustation (taste), olfaction (smell), tactician (touch), and four more that are now widely recognized: thermoception (heat, cold), nociception (pain), equilibrioception (balance, gravity), proprioception (body awareness). We have more or less luck with digitizing what we can sense, ephemeral and otherwise, depending whether technologists have figured out how to measure those sensations. Here is a list from easiest to hardest to measure and why:
vision (sight) can be measured in wavelengths—colour and luminosity—giving us specific numbers that then translate into imagery;
audition (hearing) is measured in sound waves—frequency and amplitude resulting in sound files—we record this in both midi, the instructions for making sound and actual files themselves;
thermoception (heat, cold) can be measured precisely in degrees—Kelvin, Celsius or Fahrenheit—so it can be controlled by digital means, though the actual transmission of these sensations is not very satisfactory through a computer interface; and
tactician (touch) is measured in pressure and force.
These following senses are delivered to us through a complex combination of molecules, making them more difficult to measure than the list above:
gustation (taste) is difficult to measure as everyone has a different configuration of taste buds but we speak of five tastes—salt, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami; and
olfaction4 (smell) is the measuring of smell is almost impossible because of the complexity of how it is delivered through a combination of millions of molecules hitting the nose and how the human receptors for smell absorb and interact with those molecules.
The last three senses on this list are dependent on our brain/nerve reception thus making them extremely difficult to measure:
equilibrioception (balance, gravity);
proprioception (body awareness); and
nociception (pain).
Keep in mind that while some of this sensorial input can be measured, there is no way of knowing how a person perceives it. Computers can theoretically record 16 million colours. The human eye can only perceive 4 million.
Imagery, what we see, is now the most widely developed method for capturing sensorial input. Ironically, as easy as it is to capture, it is extremely complex for a computer to categorize what it has been fed. It takes a human brain to decipher an image, understand it as a whole rather than just a group of pixels of varying gamma and RGB levels. Humans excel at making sense of imagery. However, with the use of artificial intelligence, what I refer to as
On the fringes of the Indian city of Kolkata, in the dusty, crowded neighbourhood of Metiabruz, 460 young women are working at the vanguard of artificial intelligence. The women, mostly from the local Muslim community, are helping to train computer vision algorithms used in autonomous vehicles and augmented reality systems, for the likes of Amazon, Microsoft, eBay and TripAdvisor… The challenge is that the algorithms that underpin the technology are as naive as newborns. They need to be fed millions of labelled examples to teach them to “see” [34].There remains, beyond sight and hearing, so much of human sensing that cannot be digitized because it is too elusive to measure. This leads to a lack of sensuality and intersensorality in our digital experience. I will expand on this idea but contend that this lack is felt intuitively and causes a craving for sensorial completeness, a yearning.
Turning back to the question of capturing the ‘real’ world—there is a truism amongst technologists—garbage in/garbage out. The more
Another truism is that we are really in our infancy when it comes to interacting with machines. For example, we draw with a brick. There are options for using pressure and touch in the digital manipulation of images, such as the Cintiq tablet and stylus. But they are not widely adopted. Emulating what our senses tell us of the outside world depends on the sensitivity of instruments and technology we use to record the sensual experience. There was a time when one could tell the difference between a print of a digital photograph versus an analogue one, but with the addition of megabits of information captured by even the most rudimentary of phone cameras, it is hard for the human eye to discern digital from analogue continuity. So how much more could one capture if there were more sensitive instruments for recording the world around us? And when do we run into the Bergsonian brick wall of the impossibility of the relative translating the absolute? If we cannot discern the relative, can we
In this sense, the elegant term avatar, derived from the Sanskrit avatàra, is most apposite in suggesting the idea of a kind of transubstantiation, the incarnation of life in a different form [36].
One intriguing device for interacting with the virtual/digital realm is both a tool and an extension of self—the avatar.
Given that on top of being a tool, it is also an image, the avatar goes one better and is an affective, embodied self-portrait. The person/avatar relationship allows for exploring self/other elisions through our affective reactions, wherein we inflect the avatar with
Mark Stephens Meadows in his book
Meadows gives us an important clue for understanding why there is so much confusion between self and other when considering the second-person avatar. We see this
Meadows further theorizes that “avatars are about the advancement of personality within a kind of fiction that is both social and personal” [39]. The avatar must play a dual function of
Provisionally, I am positioning the avatar as simply an image rather than an
That an avatar or image-as-avatar is real in the sense of
Of particular note in the preceding discussion is the subjective instability triggered by the avatar. Similarly the idea of the sublime, which I turn to next, destabilizes boundaries of self. One is overwhelmed and enveloped by the sublime, thus the convergence of subject and object, ironically at the same instance, one stands apart and fundamentally alone. A quote from artist Eugénie Shrinkle supports the idea of a
The notion of the sublime has ebbed and flowed since it was first written about by the 1st century CE writer, Longinus,5 whose text is the first reference we have to the sublime in Western philosophy. Baldine Saint Girons, quoting Longinus, identifies some of the fundamental characteristics: “…for, as if instinctively, our soul is uplifted by the true sublime; it takes a proud flight, and is filled with joy and vaunting, as though it had itself produced what it has heard6>” and goes on to suggest that this “rapture or ecstasy by storm” is, nonetheless, a “violence” which “is indeed accepted, but it is violence all the same” (Longinus as quoted in [43]). Longinus also claims that “…the experience of the sublime is fundamental in that it brings about a relativization of knowledge” [43]. If a phenomenon is huge, terrible, infinite, and overwhelming, then one experiences the sublime and
Notwithstanding its ancient pedigree, it appears the sublime is still very much alive and kicking; it persists both in popular imagination and academic literature, though its nuances have morphed according to different epochs and socio-political contexts. It also has the effect of anthropomorphizing and personalizing phenomena, whether it be natural or manufactured, to the point where what people see/hear/smell/feel/taste resonates deeply inside themselves, making it difficult to extract self from other/nature/technology. This is the crux of understanding the morphing character of the sublime and why it is so pertinent to this chapter— Sensuality, AR/VR, and the Virtual Sublime.
The classic sublime was formed in the heyday of the Romantic era. Since then, in the modern era and particularly in postmodernism, myriad adjectives have been conjoined to it—the classic natural sublime: technological; virtual; feminist; ecological; quantum; to name a few. It is a flexible term, but the notion of terrible awe and overwhelming effect predominate. Of the virtual sublime in particular, Vincent Mosco sums up its mystery and complicated status thus: “… cyberspace has become the latest icon of the technological and electronic sublime, praised for its epochal and transcendent characteristics and demonized for the depth the evil it can conjure” [44]. The virtual shares some characteristics with a classic natural sublime. When faced with the natural, one feels anonymous, alone, forsaken. In the vast tract of the virtual sublime, particularly user-created virtual worlds, there is an equally problematic loss of identity as one navigates a space where one can be anything one wants, but amongst a muddled multitude that only serves to make a person lonelier. As N. Kathrine Hayles puts it, “opening the human to the unthought and unrecognized otherness of a universe much bigger than human conception can hold” [45]. Together with our intrepid avatars, participants are negotiating virtual worlds with a feeling of endless possibility at the same time experiencing the sense of losing self.
One can never really get to the end of a virtual world. It unfolds in front of you and is only contained by the computing power you have or the time you want to invest in the journey. There is no there to get to. This was well illustrated for me by an early encounter I had in the user-created virtual world of
Along with the psychological implications of the virtual sublime, there is the physical embodiment associated with VR. Immersion is the means of delivering a virtual experience, enveloping the viewer through one’s visual and aural senses. One wears a headset to experience true immersion and with these devices come the inevitable physical symptoms. On the positive side, one can fly and float above the world, climb mountains, and dive into the depths of an ocean, all without any auxiliary help in the form of oxygen, external transportation, and protective devices. However, the accompanying sensations of nausea, heart-stopping drops, gut-wrenching twists, sickening feelings can imitate or initiate feelings of mental terror [46]. These are common sensations when negotiating VR through headset technology. Often these experiences fall well short of anything close to the sublime. Nonetheless, if one’s stomach drops out when peering over the edge of a platform that is the only obvious structural support in an unbounded sky, then one feels fright and vertigo, which is never far from sublimity.
This concentration on the physical sensations of the virtual sublime do not address the contradiction of the virtual, that is, theoretically at least, a denial of the body. Referencing back to Gibson’s
Sublimity troubles our sense of self when one asks what is knowable in the face of enormity, infinity or even the endlessly microscopic. The sublime shakes our normative sense of subjectivity but also reminds us of our boundaries. It is always just beyond our grasp but alarmingly close. Although being infinite, overwhelming, terrible, and beautiful—we still seek out the pleasure and pain associated with the sublime; but instead of nature and uncontrollable expansion outward to the frontier of space, we are turning to digital technology which is deeply disrupting our subjectivity. Though AR/VR virtual worlds are negotiated, often with a feeling of endless possibility, they are at the same time horrendous Möbius strips of existence. Along with the possibility inherent in this affect, there is an added ingredient in the virtual sublime and that is of yearning.
Susan Stewart in her book,
…the direction of force in the desiring narrative, is always a future-past, a deferment of experience in the direction of origin and thus eschaton, the point where narrative begins/ends, both engendering and transcending the relation between materiality and meaning [47, 48].
Here Stewart is making the connections that work so persuasively to argue for a yearning in the digital virtual sublime. Materiality meets meaning and there is a lack. Usually implicit in the sublime is sensory overload. The missing pieces of materiality or truncated intersensoriality in the virtual sublime trigger yearning. As I proposed in the introduction, an AR/VR encounter has an affinity with the sublime but with a deficit of sensorial sensuality leading to less than optimum embodiment and then longing. Perhaps we are grasping at the sublime in order to make up for a lack of sensual input in our digital experience. We need to conjure up some magic again in a digital universe, and sublimity points the way to creative possibility and inspiration. Does the sublime stand in for the thing we crave? Part of the sublime’s power is its hallmark, awe. In awe, one is left speechless. In order to be speechless, all our other senses need to be subsumed and overcome.
Most importantly, what does AR/VR mean for our future and why would we go to the trouble of subjecting ourselves to the physical discomfort that often accompanies it? Acceleration into the virtual futurity through strange times such as the worldwide pandemic fulminate questions of sensuality affect and emotional engagement. Can we make AR/VR embodied, fully sensorial, an absolute? Can it give us a full experience of a range of affects, sublimity included? Let’s try.
The following text benefitted from research I conducted for my doctoral thesis,
I would like to extend a thank you to the support of research assistants, Stephanie Cloutier, Annika Dixon-Reusz, Shiemara Hogarth, and I’thandi Munro, who are fellow team members for the project
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