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",isbn:"978-1-83968-760-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-759-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-761-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc49d6034d85f8f2e2890c6acc3cc629",bookSignature:"Dr. Abhijit Biswas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10285.jpg",keywords:"Mott Insulators, Semi Metals, Polycrystals, Single Crystals, Electronic Properties, Magnetic Properties, PLD, MBE, Topological Insulators, Topological Hall Effect, Devices Applications, Catalysis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 9th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 7th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 6th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 24th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 25th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in the field of tailoring metal oxide crystal surfaces and growth as well as engineering of thin films for various emergent phenomena and energy applications. Dr. Biswas received his Ph.D. from POSTECH, South Korea.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"194151",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhijit",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",slug:"abhijit-biswas",fullName:"Abhijit Biswas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194151/images/system/194151.png",biography:"Dr. Abhijit Biswas is a research associate at the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Pune, in India. His research goal is to design and synthesize highest quality epitaxial heterostructures and superlattices, to play with their internal degrees of freedom to exploit the structure–property relationships, in order to find the next-generation multi-functional materials, in view of applications and of fundamental interest. His current research interest ranges from growth of novel perovskite oxides to non-oxides epitaxial films, down to its ultra-thin limit, to observe unforeseeable phenomena. He is also engaged in the growth of high quality epitaxial layered carbides and two-dimensional non-oxide thin films, to exploit the strain, dimension, and quantum confinement effect. His recent work also includes the metal-insulator transitions and magneto-transport phenomena in strong spin-orbit coupled epitaxial perovskite oxide thin films by reducing dimensionality as well as strain engineering. He is also extremely interested in the various energy related environment friendly future technological applications of thin films. In his early research career, he had also extensively worked on the tailoring of metal oxide crystal surfaces to obtain the atomic flatness with single terminating layer. Currently, he is also serving as a reviewer of several reputed peer-review journals.\nDr. Biswas received his B.Sc. in Physics from Kalyani University, followed by M.Sc in Physics (specialization in experimental condensed matter physics) from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Bombay. His Ph.D., also in experimental condensed matter physics, was awarded by POSTECH, South Korea for his work on the transport phenomena in perovskite oxide thin films. Before moving back to India as a national post-doctoral fellow, he was a post-doc at POSTECH working in the field of growth and characterizations of strong spin-orbit coupled metal oxide thin films.",institutionString:"Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"205697",firstName:"Kristina",lastName:"Kardum Cvitan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205697/images/5186_n.jpg",email:"kristina.k@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"16857",title:"Carbon Nanotubes Addition Effects on MgB2 Superconducting Properties",doi:"10.5772/17428",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-addition-effects-on-mgb2-superconducting-properties",body:'Since the discovery of superconductivity at 39 K in MgB2 (Nagamatsu et al., 2001), considerable progress has been made in the understanding of the fundamental properties and the development of commercial applications of this material.
The strong potential for technological uses of MgB2 is due to a unique combination of characteristics, such as a high transition temperature
Thus, on one hand, the pinning force may be improved by the incorporation of defects (nano particle doping, chemical substitutions, etc.). On the other hand, the doping level affects the intraband scattering coefficients and the diffusivity of the two bands of this peculiar superconductor, and these changes may cause a significant
In this chapter we present a review of recent developments in the study of the effect of carbon nanotubes (CNT) on the superconducting properties of MgB2 bulk and wire samples, based on the known literature data and our own results.
It is well known that pinning of vortex lines to defects in superconductors plays an extremely important role in determining their properties. CNT inclusions, with diameters close to the MgB2 coherence length
In section 2 of this work, we describe the influence of C-incorporation into the MgB2 structure by using different CNT type over the microstructural and superconducting properties (critical current density, critical fields and critical temperature). In particular. we present the influence of synthesis parameters in the superconductivity of bulk samples prepared with single-walled (SW), double-walled (DW) and multi-walled (MW). In the first subsection, we compare the evolution of T
In section 3, we offer a review of the use of CNT in the production of PIT MgB2 wires and tapes required for applications. The fabrication and processing conditions strongly affect microstructures and current carrying capability of PIT conductors, making the question of grain connectivity more relevant. The standard and low-cost fabrication PIT method involves filling a metallic tube with superconducting powder (ex-situ) or precursors (in-situ) and drawing it into a wire and/or rolling into a tape (Flükiger et al., 2003). We show the results obtained in MgB2 wires and tapes prepared by PIT using different kind of CNT and treated at different temperatures between 600 and 900 °C, using several sheath materials (e.g. iron, stainless steel, Fe/Nb, etc), to establish a relationship among annealing conditions, modifications in the microstructure, and changes in Jc.
In Section 4 we go deeper in the role of doping by studying the magnetic relaxation of MgB2 with and without DWCNT bulk samples. In the first subsection, we introduce the main equations contained in a very recent work (Pasquini et al., 2011) necessary to investigate the current decay, that relates parameters such as the magnetic field B, the magnetization m, current density J flowing in the sample, and the activation barrier U(J,T,B) that governs the creep of vortices. In the rest of this section we present the experimental relaxation rates (measured using a DC magnetization technique), and the general behaviour is described and analyzed under the Anderson-Kim frame model (Anderson, 1964). The pinning energies U
Finally, we summarize the main conclusions in section 6.
There are many reports in the literature that study the effect of CNT on the superconducting properties of MgB2. However, many of them mentioned the effect of CNT-doping without clarifying the meaning of this word. Doping is generally the practice of adding impurities to something, but it specifically means the replacement of one element within the same crystalline structure, creating a substitutional point defect. In the case of CNT additions to MgB2 it is possible that part of the carbon replaces boron giving place to the compound Mg(B1-xCx)2. As a consequence, in many works, the nominal amount of CNTs added during the synthesis is calculated as the stoichiometric amount according to this formula or, in other cases as some extra %at or %wt of carbon added to MgB2. In the later case, if part of carbon replaces boron, some extra magnesium should be added that may also evaporate or form MgO during the synthesis process. In this chapter, unless it is specified, we will use “x” as the nominal amount of carbon added according to Mg(B1-xCx)2, and the term “doping” when carbon is actually replacing boron.
Several systematic carbon doping studies of Mg(B1-xCx)2 have been performed in single crystals (Lee et al., 2003; Kazakov et al., 2005), polycrystalline wires fabricated by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) (Wilke et al., 2004, 2005a), and B4C-doped (Avdeev et al., 2003; Wilke et al., 2005b). All these studies indicate a monotonic decrease of T
For single crystals, the solubility limit of C in MgB2 was estimated to be about 15 ± 1%, which is substantially larger than that reported for the polycrystalline samples. A dramatic decrease in Tc was also observed with C-substitution, followed by complete suppression of superconductivity for x>0.125. This solubility limit is usually not reached in bulk samples. A comparison of the critical temperature as a function of the nominal C-content for different carbon sources is displayed in Figure 1.
The reduction in Tc resulting from C addition using CNT sources is much lower than in the previous cases, suggesting that C substitution is lower than the concentration given by Mg(B1-
As an example, it is possible to calculate the actual C content substituting B into the MgB2 structure, using the lattice parameters obtained from XRD: the shift in the a-axis lattice parameter can be used as a calibration for the actual amount of C (x) in the Mg(B1-
Critical temperature as a function of the nominal C-content using different carbon sources.
Lattice parameter a as a function of the nominal C-content for DWCNT samples compared with others with full carbon substitution, measured by neutron diffraction.
It is important to mention that not only the nominal carbon content x but also other synthesis parameters affect the superconducting properties like T
Since the first work devoted to the study of the effect of the addition of CNT on the critical current density of MgB2 (Dou et al., 2003), several parameters have been studied:
the amount of "x" for a particular CNT type : MWCNT (Dou et al., 2003; Shekhar, 2007), DWCNT (Serquis et al., 2007), SWCNT (Serrano et al., 2009 ; Vajpayee et al., 2010)
the effect of CNT type (Serrano et al., 2008) and size (Yeoh et al., 2005, 2006)
the effect of sintering conditions such as temperature (Yeoh et al., 2004), pressure (Yuan et al., 2005), ultrasonication of precursors (Yeoh et al., 2006) or the application of magnetic field during sintering (Li et al., 2007)
Most researchers performed magnetization loops measurements to determine J
J
where a and b are the lengths of the parallelepiped edges perpendicular to the magnetic field and ΔM is the width of the magnetization characteristic at the applied magnetic field H.
Figure 3 shows the dependence of J
Critical current densities at 4 T as determined by magnetization as a function of the amount of SW (circles), DW (triangles) and MW (squares) CNT added to MgB2 at 5K (full symbols) and 20 K (open symbols). Data from MWCNT (
Figure 4 displays the dependence of J
Figure 5 shows the dependence of J
J
For comparing the absolute values it is important to take into account the pure MgB2 sample used as reference since this can be a good parameter to check the influence of variables other than composition, such as connectivity, that may result from the sintering process. Consequently, the best performances (i.e. Jc values and Jc(H) dependences) are obtained for MW (diameter 20-30 nm) (Yeoh et al., 2005) and DW (diameter 1.3–5 nm) (Serquis et al., 2007). These two samples (both heat treated in flowing high purity Ar at 900 for 30 minutes) presented the largest C-doping (smallest a lattice parameter) and Yeoh et al. suggested that it is not the diameter but the MWCNT length the responsible for allowing a more homogeneous C-incorporation by avoiding the nanotubes agglomeration. This explanation may not apply to DW CNTs, which have a length ≤ 50 μm. However, it is highly probable that synthesis parameters that promote a more homogeneous CNT distribution and improve connectivity (avoiding agglomerates at grain boundaries) are the key for Jc performance.
The Hc2(T) dependences are usually determined from four probe transport measurements. Since the involved fields are frequently very high for standard laboratory test equipments, several groups performed measurements at large High Magnetic Field facilities. As an example, measurements of DW and SW CNT samples were performed in the mid-pulse magnet of NHMFL-LANL, capable of generating an asymmetric field pulse up to 50 T. Figure 6 exhibits the temperature dependences of H
Transport measurements of the upper critical field (H
In all superconducting materials, an H
These models for a two gap superconductor in the dirty limit (Golubov et al., 2002; Gurevich, 2003) consider that nonmagnetic impurities affect the intraband electron diffusivities D
Transport measurements of the upper critical field (H
where, In Refs. (Gurevich, 2003; Serquis et al., 2007 ; Serrano et al., 2008)) Tc0 = Tc(g=0) is defined, where g the interband scattering parameter. This value corresponds to the clean limit MgB2 sample.
a
Another equation was derived when taking also into account the interband effects:
The extrapolation at 0K of H
where
In this case we optimized the diffusivity ratio =D
Figure 7 shows the dependence of H
samples are included for comparison (Serrano et al., 2008; Braccini et al., 2005). The lines are fits to the data with the model proposed using the fitting parameters described above.
The upward curvature signaled as a characteristic of the presence of two gaps is apparent in these H
Figure 8 displays the H
The CNT additions produce a larger C incorporation than SiC, probably because of the higher synthesis temperature, resulting in samples with lower T
The standard and low-cost fabrication powder in-tube (PIT) method involves filling a metallic tube with superconducting powder (ex-situ) or precursors (in-situ) and drawing it into a wire and/or rolling into a tape (Flükiger et al., 2004).
MgB2 crystallizes in the hexagonal AlB2 type structure (space group P6 /mmm), and the anisotropic structure has given the motivation to investigate formation of texture by different deformation processes. A key issue on which there is no agreement in the literature is the optimization of the heat treatment parameters. Although some post-annealing appears to be necessary to achieve higher J
Only one work (Xu et al., 2007) studied the influence of CNT amount, reporting the effect of the “doping level” (x) in the field dependence of critical current density for MWCNT Fe-sheathed MgB2 wires and tapes. Similarly to what was reported for bulk MgB2 samples, they found that there is an optimum composition for all fields and temperatures studied, but the best composition for the nominal Mg(B1-xCx)2 was x=0.05 and J
the effect of CNT type (Kováč et al., 2007) in comparison with other C-compounds (SiC, graphite)
the effect of MWCNT size and sintering temperature (Kim et al., 2006a, 2006b, 2006c)
the effect of sintering temperature when using SW CNT (Kim et al., 2007)
the possibility of MW CNT alignment by mechanical drawing in the PIT process (Dou et al., 2006).
Critical current density as a function of MW CNT content measured by transport in Fe-sheath Mg(B1-xCx)2 wires at 8 T (black symbols) and 12 T (open symbols) (
To illustrate the effect of some of the mentioned parameters we plotted in Figure 10 the critical current density of
Left side: MgB2 /Fe-Nb tapes with 5%wt addition of different CNT types (Kováč et al., 2007). SW: Arc discharge single wall nanotubes; SW-D: Purified arc discharge single wall nanotubes, Dry-mixed; SW-W: Purified arc discharge single wall nanotubes, Wet-mixed; MW: Multi wall carbon nanotubes (~60 nm × 1 μm). For comparison were included the pure (0) and a MgB2 tapes with 5%wt addition of SiC. This last addition is more effective in the whole field range in agreement with bulk results, while all CNT types only enhance J
Right side: MgB2/Fe wires with aligned MW CNT measured along (a) and perpendicular (c) to the wire (Dou et al., 2006). While the pure sample has little differences between both measurement field directions, there is a clear difference in samples with MW addition, which increased with field. This is a good indication that CNTs could be aligned along the longitudinal axis of the MgB2 wires by mechanical drawing in the PIT process.
Left) Critical current density measured by transport in MgB2 /Fe-Nb sheath tapes with 5%wt addition of different CNT types (
Matsumoto (Matsumoto et al., 2006) reported that J
Matsumoto et al reported a similar H
In Section 2.2 we have shown that the main effect of DW CNTs addition is the simultaneous increase in the critical current density and the upper critical field Hc2. However, it is not clear if these two effects are connected. In fact, the vortex physics underlying this performance improvement has not been so far understood. In this section, we present a very recent work (Pasquini et al., 2011), where the role of CNT addition is investigated by studying the magnetic relaxation in bulk MgB2 samples.
Normalized critical current densities J
As was mentioned in Section 2.1.1, if a superconducting sample is fully penetrated by the magnetic field B, the magnetization m is proportional to the density current J flowing in the sample that, in the ideal critical state approximation is the critical current density J
and then
where
The activation barrier is expected to be described by the general expression (Blatter et al.,1994; Geshkenbein et al., 1989)
where U
In High Temperature Superconductors (HTSs), the creep drastically reduces the measured current density, so J
In those cases the temperature dependence of the measurable J
In these very low creep superconductors an experimental confirmation of glassiness, which regardless of the specific approach always involves detecting tiny deviations from the Anderson-Kim model, is extremely challenging.
From this basic point of view, MgB2 is a very particular system, as the intermediate Tc and moderate anisotropy makes the creep effects smaller than in HTS but larger than in conventional superconductors. The influence of thermal fluctuations in the vortex physics is measured by the Ginzburg number G
In the rest of the section we present a creep study in bulk MgB2 samples as-grown and doped with different doses of carbon nanotubes. In subsection 4.2 experimental relaxation rates are presented, and the general behaviour is described. In subsection 4.3 we review some fundamental concepts and formulas concerning creep rates and activation energies to perform in subsection 4.4 a careful analysis of results that allows us to identify the region where the A-K model is valid. In 4.5, the pinning energies U
Samples used in this study were prepared by solid-state reaction with magnesium (-325 mesh, 99%) and amorphous boron (99%) as starting materials (Serrano et al., 2008). The powders were ground inside a glove box and pressed under 500 MPa into small pellets with
dimensions of 6 mm in diameter and 4 mm in thickness, wrapped together with extra 20%at Mg turnings (99:98% Puratronic) in Ta foil and then placed in an alumina crucible inside a tube furnace in flowing Ar=H2 at 900 °C for 30 min.
The relaxation measurements were carried out in a Quantum Design model MPMS XL 7T SQUID based magnetometer. Time-dependent data were taken with a protocol similar to that described in ref. (Civale et al., 1996). A scan length of 3 cm was used in order to minimize the effects due to the non-uniformity of the applied magnetic field that was applied parallel to the longest axis of the sample. For each relaxation measurement, the samples were first cooled and stabilized at the measurement temperature. Then the field was first raised up to 6T and then lowered to the measuring field to assure that the sample was fully penetrated. Intermediate measurements were performed in the upper and lower magnetization branches to subtract the reversible magnetization. We checked for and ruled out any effects due to the magnet self relaxations (H variations during the measurement time) that could lead to spurious changes in the magnetization of the samples.
The experimental critical current density J
As reported in section 2.2., the response for samples with DWCNT additions between 1% and 10% at temperature far below T
The magnetic relaxation has been measured in pure MgB2 samples and samples with DWCNT doses between 1 at% and 10 at% in the range between 5K and 25K. The corresponding relaxation rate S=-d(ln(J))/d(ln(t)) has been obtained as the slope of the ln J vs ln t graph. Results for H =1T (full symbols) and 3T (open symbols) are shown in Figure 12.
Samples with doses of 2.5% and 5% of carbon nanotubes have also been measured and display similar results, not shown in the figure for clarity.
As was described in the introduction, the S values are intermediate between those measured in low and high T
Again, at H = 1 T the decay in time is quite similar in all the doped samples with doses between 1% and 10%. However, same unexpected results appear. The S(T) curve at H=3T is similar for pure and CNT samples in all the temperature range. Furthermore, at H=1T the pure sample that has a lower J
We have proceeded to analyze the relaxation data in a pure and a 10 at% CNT samples to get an understanding of the causes of this puzzle. The procedure and results are described in the subsections 4.3 and 4.4.
In the general case (Blatter et al., 1994), the relaxation rate S is related with the pinning energy by
Relaxation rate S as a function of temperature for a pure MgB2 sample (circles) and for samples with different doses of DWCNT: 1% (diamonds), 7.5% (triangles) and 10%(squares) at H = 1 T (full symbols) and H = 3T (open symbols). In the inset, the plot of 1/S vs. 1/T reveals that it is not possible to assume a temperature independent pinning energy at low temperature in all the cases.
As was mentioned in the introduction, the A-K approximation assumes
and allows to estimate
Ratio J/ J
An alternative method combines Eq. 4 and Eq. 6 to obtain a linear dependence between J and ∂J/∂t that, under the condition
Due to the numerical differentiation, this method has a greater error in the calculation of the pinning energy, but allows estimating J
A mayor difficulty to directly decide the validity of the A-K approximation from the relaxation data at a single temperature is the extremely large time needed to reliably determine the linear relationship (Eq. 8) (i.e. the logarithmic decay with time of the current density). However, the resulting fitting parameter J
In the following section, we apply the above procedure to MgB2 relaxation data, determining the temperature region where results are consistent.
As can be observed in the inset of Figure 12, it is not possible to identify in all the cases a low T region with a linear relationship between 1/S and 1/T, characteristic of a temperature independent pinning energy. For this reason, experimental data where separately analysed at each temperature assuming a linear dependence between U and J, i.e. the validity of the A-K approximation.
At each temperature J
In Figure 13 the estimated true critical current density J
Taking a 10% criterion to determine the limit of the A-K condition (J
In figure 14 the resulting pinning energies obtained from the slope of eq. (Eq. 8) (squares) and (Eq. 9) (circles) are plotted as a function of temperature and compared with T/S (asterisks) for a pure and a 10%doped sample, at H=1 T and 3T. Results have been restricted to the consistent T region obtained by the above analysis.
Estimated pinning energies U
As can be observed (with exception of the lower temperatures data in the undoped sample at H= 1 T) pinning energies obtained from the three methods are very similar, and this validates the fitting procedure, including the estimation of J
Observing the resulting T dependence in Figure 14 it seems that, in most of the cases, pinning energies remain nearly constant at low temperatures. The unexpected drop in U
On the other hand, a continuous decrease occurs in the critical current density. This can be observed in figure 15, where the true critical current density is plotted in the studied range for the same samples.
The previous analysis excludes the creep study in the high temperature region using the A-K approximation. Successful procedures have been developed to analyze creep data in high Tc superconductors (Maley et al., 1990; Civale et al., 1996) in the limit J
Consistent with the relaxation rates, at H=1 T there is a clear decrease of Uc after CNT addition, whereas at H=3 T the doping has not an evident effect in the pinning energies.
The parameter U
Estimated critical current density J
The fact that the doping effect in the pinning energies is field dependent is a clear indication of a collective pinning regime.
In a collective regime, the pinning volume is determined by the competition between elastic and pinning energies and each volume V
In section 2.2, we have presented Hc2 measurements in pure and DWCNT MgB2 samples and we have found (Serquis et al., 2007 ) that H
The estimated numerical values (~10-¹5 cm³) imply that the correlation radius is larger than the main vortex distance, in agreement with a collective pinning regime of vortex bundles.
Doping additionally reduces the correlation volume, consistent with the increase in the critical current density.
Estimated collective pinning volume V
From the comparison of data taken at H = 1 T and 3 T, in both pure and CNT samples, the correlation volume at H= 3T is approximately three times smaller than that obtain at H = 1 T and both J
Magnetic relaxation in bulk MgB2 samples as-grown and with DWCNT doses between 1% and 10% in the range between 5K and 25K has been measured and the corresponding critical current density has been calculated. The current decay in time is quite similar in all the doped samples with doses between 1% and 10%.
A careful creep analysis has been carried out in a pure sample and in one with 10% of carbon nanotubes at H= 1 T and 3 T.
The analysis has been performed under the Anderson-Kim approximation, valid in the limit where the measured critical current density J
These pinning properties have been obtained as fitting parameters from the experimental data for two different methods. The consistence of the fitting parameters with the A-K limit has been required to delimit the region of validity of the analysis.
In the valid region, the pinning energies and critical current densities have been estimated and compared. The dependence with magnetic field, together with numerical estimations of the pinning volume, indicate the presence of a collective pinning regime of vortex bundles. There is a decrease in the pinning energies that implies an increase in the relaxation rates as a consequence of DWCNT addition. However, the true critical current densities increase, due to a decrease in the collective pinning volumes.
We conclude that the origin of the main changes in the pinning properties with doping are the reduction of the coherence length (that decreases the pinning energies ) and the increase in the disorder parameters (that increase the critical current and decrease the pinning volume).
The strong temperature dependence of the coherence length is probably the main reason to the observed temperature dependence in the pinning properties. At the lower temperatures, thermal instabilities that originate macroscopic flux jumps could also play a role.
A method to analyse the relaxation data in the high temperature region, beyond the A-K approximation, is necessary and will be object of a future work.
The effect of carbon substitution is one of the most studied in MgB2 and the results on C solubility and the effects of C-doping on T
The reason for this is the dual role of the CNT. They partially dilute into the MgB2 matrix, acting as a source of C that increases H
The study of the magnetic relaxation of MgB2 with and without DWCNT bulk samples can give some insight about the possible correlation in the simultaneous increase in the critical current density and the upper critical field. The experimental relaxation rates showed that the pure sample that has a lower Jc (associated with a lower pinning) has also a lower relaxation (associated with a higher pinning energy Uc). To understand these results the relaxation data was described and analyzed under the Anderson-Kim frame model (Anderson, 1964). The pinning energies Uc, true critical current densities Jc0, and correlation volumes Vc were estimated and compared. The strong temperature dependence of the coherence length is probably the main reason to the observed temperature dependence in the pinning properties with CNT additions: the reduction of the coherence length (that decreases the pinning energies) and the increase in the disorder parameters (that increase the critical current and decrease the pinning volume).
Research supported by CONICET, UNCuyo, UBACyT, and MinCyT-PICT (AS, GP) and by the U.S. Department of Energy, Basic Energy Sciences, Materials Sciences and Engineering Division (LC).
The main objective of this chapter is to monitor and explore the ecosystem and biodiversity by understanding the surrounding environment and public health surveillance. By monitoring the ecosystem and biodiversity, one can assess the proven significance of ecological indicators over terrestrial and geographical scales to discover emerging changes in the structure, function, and composition of ecological system with respect to natural and man-made influences. The extent to which the ecological indicators are used in monitoring the whole ecosystem and the selection procedure followed identifying the symbiotic indicators. There have been numerous articles, books, journals, videos, and manuscripts that relate to the field of monitoring ecosystem and biodiversity. Although former researchers, educationists, and many others have contributed to this area of study with different perspectives, there are still numerous common sections untouched which seem to link most of the articles collectively.
\nMoreover, it has been observed that several monitoring programs have been conducted to complete the ecological indicator selection process of which arthropod ecological indicators stand stringent. The whole arthropod community structure contributes to the well-being of environment health. Arthropods reproductive system, growth, and development aids the ecologists in assessing the impact of man-made activities which stand responsible for climate change, drought and other environment- effecting disasters. Different types of arthropods are explored which helps to evaluate environmental impact and design strategies for a successful healthy ecosystem and biodiversity. Thus, the current chapter highlights on key aspects of healthy ecosystem which include arthropods, relationship between arthropods and ecosystem, concept of biomonitoring, anthropogenic factors effecting ecosystem, and analyzing biodiversity.
\nArthropods are invertebrate animals with an exoskeleton, a segmented body and jointed legs. High functional, biological diversity and sensitiveness to environment, of arthropods make them suitable to be considered for utility as ecological indicators of sustainable ecosystem. The potential bioindicators groups of arthropoda include Acari, Collembola, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Araneae.
\nIn this whole universe, diversity exists at all levels of biological organization irrespective of the species ranging from macromolecules to ecosystems. The term biodiversity refers to the degree of biological variations within the ecosystem. In other words, biodiversity is the combination or blend of all biological organizations. As a whole, biodiversity refers to various forms of life existing on earth. The different forms of life on earth can be categorized into animals, plants, genes, micro-organisms and the ecosystem itself. Biological resources such as species, genes, ecosystems and organisms and ecological processes of the above said resources can be manifested as biodiversity [1]. Therefore, Biodiversity is analyzed and understood at 3 major levels namely: Genetic diversity, Species Diversity, and Ecosystem Diversity.
\nGenetic diversity provides the genetic information of all plants, animals, species, and microorganisms with respect to the population of species. It simply deals with variety of genes within the specie and population. Species diversity is nothing but diversity at specific levels. It includes variety of species such as species richness, which refers to total number of species identified in the target area; species abundance, which refers to the relative number among the species; and taxonomic diversity, which takes into account the genetic relationship between various species. Ecosystem diversity refers to variety of habitats, ecosystems, ecological communities, and ecological processes in the environment.
\nEvery single form of life on earth seems to be rare and has its own value regardless of the species under which that living organism is considered. Just like human beings all other forms of life has its own place and value. This is the right of every organism in the ecosystem. Every organism which is the part of this ecosystem has an innate right to exist in the universe regardless of its value, respect and honor. However, human beings seem to be the integral part of the natural world and hence the world value the human life more than all other living species. The environment preserves human heritage as humans are considered essential to the world. For this reason, the well-being of the coming human generations is wholly invested in the hands of existing generation. Sustaining the diversity becomes the key social responsibility of the anthropogony. Therefore, only by conserving the resources and organisms the future generation’s existence can be determined. Hence, these values become ethical or moral values for preserving biodiversity.
\nThe nature in which human beings live, grow and develop turns out to be a great enjoyment to the whole humanity. Natural environment in which human beings live plays an essential role in shaping and structuring the culture, stimulate the senses of human beings and eventually enrich our social culture. Hence, biodiversity is vested in human culture which is popularly preserved, valued, and protected. For instance, colossal amounts of money is paid by organizations in order to preserve, conserve and yield wild life as it becomes the vital part of human nature. The environment is protected, appreciated, and enjoyed only when the wild species are kept preserved. In fact, wild species enhance mankind’s way of living by providing enjoyment through different types of activities such as bird watching, trekking, spotting activities, watching wildlife and so forth. The above said activities attribute aesthetic value to biodiversity.
\nBesides, biodiversity comes with utilitarian values that contribute to the very existence and material well-being of living organisms. Apart from emotions and feelings of human race, there are several other materialist things which provide ultimate satisfaction to a human life. This includes conservation of materials from biodiversity such as agricultural materials, source of food, clothing, medicinal values, industry materials, educational values, scientific understanding and materialistic yearnings. Thus, a rich biodiversity is essential for healthy ecosystem and stands imperative for the survival of human race.
\nEcology and Biodiversity are two interrelated terms that seeks to maintain, preserve, and sustain the integrity of the ecological system thorough different ways such as maintaining carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen balance (O2), regulating biochemical cycles, decomposing waste materials, regulating natural world climate, identifying indicators that change the environment, and provide protection services to the ecosystem. Maintaining carbon dioxide and oxygen levels in the atmosphere can be made possible only through biodiversity. Carbon dioxide accumulation in the atmosphere results in greenhouse effect which eventually leads to ozone layer depletion. Ozone layer depletion makes the earth warmer and liable to natural disasters.
\nPreserving biochemical cycles is another important way to maintain biodiversity levels in this ecosystem. Regulating biochemical cycles is equally important in maintaining ecological values of biodiversity. Decomposing waste materials thorough absorption and breakdown of pollutants will lead to food webs and food chains to other forms of biodiversity. Production of waste would be zero as the waste id decomposed and transformed as food to other forms of biodiversity. Thus, pollutants are broken down and absorbed naturally. The other ecological values of biodiversity include controlling and determining the natural world climate irrespective of their regions by means of influencing factors such as precipitation, temperature, and air turbulence; act as indicators of environmental change, for instance, global warming changes in ecosystem and affects crops; and protect humans from harmful weather conditions.
\nGenerally, threat is defined as a natural or human-made process or event responsible for causing adverse effects on the sustainable use of biodiversity components at large. The biological diversity and wealth of our ecosystem has been rapidly decreasing due to the clearly pointed anthropogenic activities. Several studies have discussed the disappearance of large number of species along with the possible threats to the species as well as ecosystems. In the recent times, highest number of threats to ecosystems has been recorded. The reason for the failure of ecosystem is identified as human mismanagement of biological resources often stimulated by misguided policies which results in loss of biodiversity. Loss of biodiversity can further lead to decline in ecosystem process, decline in plant production, and lowered resistance to environmental pollutant such as physical, chemical and biological. The quicker rates of species extinctions that the world is facing now are largely due to human activities. Given below are the major threats to biodiversity:
\nIncreased voracious demand for resources results to use of land species which eventually acts as cause to loss of genetic diversity, changes in ecosystem such as disease outcrops, population increase or decrease, habitat fragmentation, and reduction in the number of species of ecosystem. The above mentioned reasons lead to heavy biodiversity loses. Habitat destruction, therefore, becomes a threat to biodiversity.
\nWhen individuals of particular species which can be sustained for a longer period of time with its reproductive capacity are decomposed at higher rate, population is said to be harvest or exploited at higher rate. For instance, human-induced activities such as fishing, hunting, food gathering, trade and so forth are responsible for overexploitation of higher sustainable biological resources. Over exploitation leads to extinction of biological resources and thereby reduces the number of species in the ecosystem. Exploitation of resources with the consent of law is termed as cropping. While exploitation of species even after providing protection is termed as poaching. Thus, overexploitation of resources or biological resources will turn out to be a major threat to biodiversity.
\nAny kind of pollution, be it physical, chemical, biological or thermal is a hazard to biodiversity. Majority of the species living in their habitats are prone to harmful industrial activities, pollution, and excessive use of chemicals. This kind of pollution eventually harms the ecosystem.
\nBiological Invasion can be intentional or accidental. Changes within the ecosystem are mainly due to the biological invasion of new species. The newly introduced classes are organisms that arise from habitats in which they were not found. These new introduced species from new habitats are generally termed to as biological pollutants. The ecological impacts of biological invasion include disorder of food webs, out competition, hybridization, disorder of ecosystem, disease transmission, plant pathogenic influences, and extinction of species in peculiar situations. The new species may be introduced intentionally for different types of reasons such as ornamental concerns; agriculture; hunting and spotting activities; biotechnology for scientific research; and trade.
\nClimate change is one of the greatest concern especially when global carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere resulting to global warming. Economic stability of an ecosystem is tolerated when most species originate within a narrow physiological limit. Hence, changes may be gradual or abrupt and hence result in species extinction.
\nWith increasing human population, vigorous demand for raw materials also increases which results in changes in biodiversity. Hence, controlling human population will be the only solution to conserve biodiversity for the coming generations.
\nBiodiversity Conversation embodies maintenance, preservation, conservation, and enhancement of crucial biological diversity components. Conservation is referred to as the sustainable use of biological resources with the aim of protecting them for the coming generation and at the same time protect them exploitation. Preservation is keeping the materials in a safe manner without altering it. Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Development are interlinked to meet the needs of current generation without undermining the thought of preserving for the coming generations to meet their basic needs. In other words, it establishes a balance between the ecosystem and living organisms which ensures biodiversity.
\nThe narrow practical arguments for biodiversity conservation are several. For instance, human being spring multiple benefits from nature such as pulses, cereals, firewood, fruits, construction material, fiber, industrial products such as dyes, lubricants, tannins, perfumes, and resins; and medical products. More than twenty five of the drugs sold in the market are derived from plants and twenty five thousand species of plants are used to prepare traditional medicines that are used by human beings around the world. Hence, all the species in the ecosystem depend on each other.
\nThe broad practical argument claims that biodiversity plays a major role in ecosystem services. Through photosynthesis, Amazon forest produces twenty percent of the whole oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere. While the ethical argument for conserving biodiversity to plant, animal and microorganisms living in this planet. Philosophically or spiritually, every species has an intrinsic value. Hence their well-being should be taken care and pass on biological inheritance to the coming generations.
\nThe concept of monitoring can be defined as the process of observing and measuring the state of key indicators such as physical, chemical and biological with respect to the element of environment or the medium. Physical monitoring is usually carried out considering the physical parameters such as temperature, climate, and other variables. Chemical monitoring monitors the chemical variables responsible for environmental pollution. However, these two types of monitoring failed to come up with the long-term effects of pollution on the environment. Assessing the ecosystem by taking into account the physical and chemical monitoring seems to be unreliable. Hence, the concept of biomonitoring has been introduced to assess the long-term effects of identified pollutants on ecosystem and produce reliable results. Biomonitoring or Biological monitoring is introducing biological variables to assess the structural, functional and compositional aspects of an ecosystem. These biological variables play an important role in controlling environmental alterations.
\nBiomonitoring is a systematic use of symbiotic organisms to assess the quality of environment. It enables to check for the additive effects of pollutants and monitors the overall health condition of ecosystem [2]. Hence, biomonitoring acts as a supplement to physical and chemical monitoring techniques that are commonly applied. Biomonitoring is defined as an act of observing, noticing, and assessing the changes within the ecosystem, structure of ecosystem, composition of biodiversity, and functions of ecosystem and biodiversity including different types of natural habitats, keystone species and population [2]. The advantages of biomonitoring are rich than those of physical and chemical monitoring which include: (1) it reflects the overall environmental integrity comprising of physical, chemical and biological monitoring; (2) it imparts an integrated and holistic measure of ecological condition by uniting stresses over a period of time; and (3) it provides a better understanding of healthy environment to the public surveillance than others.
\nBiomonitoring can be achieved by bringing about a change in the structural, functional and compositional aspects of biodiversity and ecosystem that are affected due to the adverse anthropogenic activities. Different parts of the world are conducting programs with the aim of spreading awareness on pollutants to the public. Several approaches, methods and strategies are identified to monitor the ecological pollutant out of which four of them have been marked approval. First approach is to monitor the effects of pollution depending on the absence or presence of taxa, changes in its composition or any other drastic changes. In other words, the first step is to monitor the adverse effects of pollutant within the community. After this, concentration of pollutants in indicators should be measured. Later, effects of identified pollutants on organisms should be assessed and classify them to abiotic and biotic indicators. Lastly, identify different strains of species which develop resistance in response to a pollutant.
\nSeveral micro-organisms are used as bioindicators to assess the impact of pollutants on the whole ecological system. Some of the bioindicators include protozoa, fishes, algae, macroinvertebrates and microinvertebrates [3]. According to Nesemann [4], arthropods is one of the macroinvertebrates that seems to be dominating seabed groups found in the seafloor [4]. Of all the other macroinvertebrates, arthropods are found to be more dominant bioindicator with respect to ecological pollution tolerant, followed by molluscs and annelids.
\nAccording to Holt and Scott [5], bioindicators are the species, communities and processes that are used to assess the environmental quality and record the changes happening in the ecosystem over a period of time [5]. Generally, environmental changes are often interconnected and interlinked with man-made disturbances such as pollution, droughts, climatic changes, and so forth. These bioindicators expanded their arena to all types of environments such as aquatic and terrestrial. Past studies claimed that bioindicators successfully indicates the condition of the environment along with the rate of tolerance to environmental variability. It is also observed that species or indicators with low or narrow tolerance act sensitive to the changes occurring in the ecosystem. In contrast, indicators or species with high or broad tolerance act less sensitive to the changes occurring in the environment which disturb the community.
\nTo conclude, biomonitoring and bioindicators are more or less the same and hence can be interchangeable within the science community with slight difference. While bioindicators assesses the impact of environmental pollutants qualitatively, biomonitors determine the responses of pollutants quantitatively. Therefore, the main functions of bioindicators or biomonitoring include: (a) monitor or assess the environment; (b) monitor or assess ecological process; and (c) monitor or assess biodiversity. Thus, biomonitoring lies at the core of ecosystem and has become the essential and effective tool to study environmental exposure to chemicals, pollutants, and other hazardous materials. Biomonitoring studies measures the responses and recoveries of water communities from the ecological disturbances, environmental pollution, and evaluate the relationship between physical, chemical and biological components.
\nThe important components of the ecosystem that occupy vital positions in food webs, changing population, and communities are called as Arthropods. Arthropods play multiple roles in this ecosystem such as going about as herbivores, decomposers, predators, parasites, seed dispersers, and pollinators [6]. The peculiar characteristics of arthropods such as small body size, high diversity, increased reproductive capacity, easy sampling, and less sensitive to environmental changes make them suitable for environmental biomonitoring. For these reasons, arthropods are used as biological indicators to monitor and assess the impact of pollutants on the ecosystem.
\nUsually, arthropods are used as bioindicators for the following reasons: (a) the most frequently polyphagous predators that play a crucial role in biological control; (b) groups are made easily with danger traps; (c) allow elevated statistical analysis. According Da Rocha [7], environmental indicators such as physical, chemical, human, and biological shows changes in the ecosystem. These indicators should be analyzed in the complex dynamics of the environment.
\nBiological indicators give insight of biological systems. These indicators provide significant information for prioritizing conservation areas and come up with better ecosystem management plans. Arthropods possess explicit spatial and temporal scales that distinguishes high patch sizes, patch dynamics, quick turnover, geographic distributions, larger population size when compared with birds and vertebrates. Thus, arthropods could be used reliably to infer ecosystem function and habitat condition.
\nArthropods occupy the widest diversity of microhabitats and niches, and play more ecological roles, than any other group of animals. They have diverse body sizes, agilities, and growth rates. Arthropods have been recognized as efficient indicators of ecosystem function and recommended for use in conservation planning and many researchers have assessed habitat quality and measured habitat differences using arthropods [7]. Important biondicator groups include Coleoptera (Carabidae, Curculionidae, Staphylinidae), Collembolla (Springtails), Diplura, and Hymenoptera (Formicidae).
Major arthropods and their taxonomic classification.
The attributes that make Arthropod biomonitoring acceptable because of the following attributes (1) cost-effective (2) their easy, reliable identification (3) respond differently to disturbance regimes [8]. Arthropods are commonly sampled from different habitats Spiller et al. [9]. Soil Arthropods are biological indicators of farm and plantation ecosystem processes because their existence regulate nutrient dynamics, soil quality, and are useful to reveal ecosystem condition [10, 11]. Some arthropod bioindicator groups live, feed and reproduce in the soil. They are highly sensitive to soil quality alterations [12, 13]. Moreover the high functional and biological diversity of arthropods provide evidence for their utility as ecological indicators of sustainable forest [14].
\nStudies reported the disadvantages of Diptera species (flies) such as great taxonomic difficulty, especially in their larval stage is an important barrier to its use as environmental bioindicators [15]. Challenges such as sampling methods and the proper identification of soil and litter arthropod diversity up to species level demands further research to overcome the disadvantages for utility of soil arthropods while assessing soil quality. An investigation to the most suitable methods for sampling soil and litter arthropods will be beneficial to strive arthropod potential for biomonitoring [16].
\nCicadas are large hemipteran insects characterized by unique life-history traits. Their interesting attributes are follows (1) extraordinarily long life cycles (2) a subterranean/terrestrial habitat transition (3) xylem sap-feeding (4) melodious sound production.
\nCicada fauna is known for community responses to climate change. Different studies taken up this model to understand its ecophysiological consequences to climate change. The cicadas are promising candidates for use as bioindicator species to monitor ecological impacts of climate change. Recently cicada nymphs have been studied in response to emerging novel environmental stress such as construction and demolition (C&D) waste. Studies carried out in uncontaminated and contaminated habitats by C&D waste where the cumulative effects on fitness and community structure of cicada nymphs such as biodiversity, community structure, population dynamics and morphology were investigated. A significant negative response was reported in
Aphids are known for their feeding style and close association with host plants. Due to various environmental stresses, developmental instability in morphological characters such as fluctuating asymmetry can occur in aphids. Heavy metal accumulation, pesticide application, other pollutants and anthropogenic disturbances posses (Figure 1).
\nBeetles form a large group of organisms which differ taxonomically and ecologically. The attribute that makes beetles distinguishable from insects are presence of hardened fore wings which provides protection to membranous hind wings. They feed on animal waste, rotten wood, animal carcasses and make soil suitable for vegetation. Beetles are very sensitive to environmental modifications and can be cost effectively sampled by employing different methods and these criteria makes beetles an excellent model for monitoring terrestrial ecosystem [18].
\nBeetles are used to detect environmental contaminants including biomonitoring of metal in the field studies. Biomonitoring programs include measurements of metal in these invertebrates.
Carabid beetles diversity is suitable for studying ecological impacts of anthropogenic activities. They are extremely sensitive to increasing human disturbances. Their abundance in grasslands and boreal forest was studied in relevance to habitat disturbance gradient. Staphylinid beetles biotopes have been considered for various land management practices.
\nAccording to Spector [19], dung beetles are found in different types of landforms such as forests, grasslands, deserts and grasslands [19]. In addition to, dung beetles feed on fungi, fruits, decomposing leaves. Taking these characteristics into account, dung beetles are considered as an ideal indicator to monitor biodiversity. Out of all bioindicators, dung beetles are utilized for clear-cutting, fragmentation, forest modification, fragmentation, and logging in the tropical regions [20]. Several aquatic insects groups or arthropods are identified as aquatic environment bioindicators. Hydrophilid beetles such as
Beetles from order Coleoptera and Family Carabidae are important predators. They participate in biological control, biological monitoring of pollution from oil, sulfur, herbicides, CO2, insecticides and radioactive phosphorus [7]. Predatory aquatic beetles are good indicator of trace elements. These are good candidates to monitor the trend of metal accumulation in aquatic invertebrates thereby making it suitable for distinguishing an impacted or non-impacted environments [21].
\nDragonflies or Odonata species act sensitive to changes occurring within their habitat especially flooded areas, lakes and drainage areas. Several other species of the families such as Coleoptera, Heteroptera, Gyrinidae, Dytiscidae, Notonectidae, Plecoptera and Ephemeroptera have high adaptive capacity, dominating capacity, reflect ecological and geographical changes, and their biodiversity conservation. Thus, the tolerance of aquatic organisms to metals are found to be less, however, tolerates toxic agents responsible for environmental stress.
\nThe termites are detritivores and feed on dead and decaying organic matter. Hence they are efficient nutrient recyclers which colonize dead and decaying organic matter. Termite mounds are considered as ‘hotspots of fertility’ or ‘nutrient patches’. These increases plant and animal diversity in the ecosystem. The population dynamics and species richness in termites can be used as an environmental bio indicator to detect habitat disturbance.
\nTermites possess several characteristics that make them appropriate to use as bioindicators of habitat quality. The richness, abundance and composition of termite communities analyzed in vegetations with different levels of anthropogenic disturbances [22]. The ecological behavior of termites is affected by land use change and disturbance level. According to the land use types and disturbance level, a variation in termite species’ richness and evenness, relative abundance, and biomass of termite were reported. Hence a major factor for declining termite diversity is found to be habitat disturbance [23]. The conformity between environmental variables and ecological data can effectively model termite communities as potential tools for ecological monitoring.
\nIndia’s Coffee forests are considered as self-sustaining ecosystem and inter linked with various biotic partners including termites’ community. Termite mounds act as important bioindicator that reveals ecology of the region. Their distribution and abundance may provide vital clues with respect to nutrient recycling and soil dynamics inside the coffee ecosystem.
\nThe ecology of
Damselflies (Zygoptera) are insects belonging to the order Odonata and their nypmhs spend most of their lives as aquatic nymphs. Damselfly larvae are sensitive to water depth, water movement, and pH. Fluctuating asymmetry in damselflies has been used widely to investigate the effects of environmental pollution. They are considered moderately sensitive to pollution. Damselflies together with other macroinvertebrates considered as common bioindicators of stream and wetland health.
\nAnts are eusocial insects from Formicidae family and their communities headed by queen or queens. Worker ants are wingless females which carry out activities such as foraging, take care of queens offspring, they live in structured nest underground.
\nStudies suggest, ants are extensively used as effective bioindicators that hold responsible for ecosystem management and biodiversity restoration [24]. Ants seem to have high sensitivity to environmental disturbances such as grazing, forest fires, forest conversion, forest thinning, forest fragmentation, species invasion, and other forms of disturbance [25].
\nThey are considered as important part of soil macro fauna because of their ability to restore soil quality. These bioindicators are required to monitor adverse changes in soil quality and can provide warning. Ants-soil quality model can be explored to identify sustainability of soil resource [26].
\nThe biogeography of ants community structure has been used for validation. Ants are used to check habitat disturbance. Their composition have been used to identify ecological change in different habitats around the world including rainforests of Australia, Brazilian Savanna, Shivalik Mountains of Himalayas [27, 28]. They have been used as representatives of ecological trend in the mining site [29].
\nLand used intensification can be studied by evaluating Odonata species richness, body size and individual species’ response. An Odonates body size variable found to better variable than richness to tract integrity of original vegetation [30]. Methylmercury (MeHg) levels in dragonfly larvae and water were measured. In aquatic systems dissolved MeHg concentrations levels in dragonfly larvae are useful indicators [31]. Their sensitivity to habitat quality and the amphibious life cycle make Dragonflies (Anisoptera) an efficient environmental tool to track micro changes within the confines of coffee ecosystem. Similarly these Dragonflies are best suited for evaluating water quality and any environmental changes in a coffee ecosystem.
\nMayflies are found in a wide variety of habitats and are very sensitive to pollution. They are considered as valuable indicator of water pollution [32]. Ephemeroptera larvae are recognized as bioindicators and used in many monitoring programmes for their sensitivity to oxygen depletion in running waters [33, 34]. They are considered as keystone species. Different mayfly genera such as
Grasshoppers are a dominant group of herbivorous insects and their diversity, sensitivity to disturbances and ease of sampling make them quality bioindicators for land management. Grasshopper assemblage dynamics is considered reflective to human land use.
\nThey are sensitive to disturbances and their ease of sampling makes it a good model for land management studies. The accumulation of metal such as accumulation patterns for Cd, Ni, Cr, Zn, and Cu as result of industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, vehicular smoke, domestic and sewage wastes, and use of fertilizers studied in acridid grasshopper (
Millipedes are involved in breakdown of organic matter and because of their sensitivity to habitat change considered as important bioindicator taxa. Biodiversity conservation efforts should consider these invertebrates. The content of some elements such as Ca, P, K, Mg, Na, Fe, Cu and B in adult bodies of
Butterflies with a lifespan ranging from 15 to 30 days, are considered to be most potential bioindicator group because (1) easily identifiable by DNA barcoding (2) require little labour to collect (3) maintain symbiosis with definite host plant. They respond extremely quickly to environmental changes and acts as early warning system of biodiversity reduction. A decline in butterflies can suggest the richness of other British species, in particular birds such as blue tits, jays and sparrows.
\nAccording to Halder [38],
Butterfly often live in close association with specific larval host plants and carry out different pollinating activities. This attributes makes butterflies a strong indicators of the presence of particular plant taxa. The composition of different butterfly communities in a specific habitat suggest environment quality and its ability to support a diverse arthropod community [41]. The rare butterfly
In addition to, moths are the bioindicators widely used during vegetation recovery as a result of environmental disturbance. Moth families such as Arctiinae, Catocalinae, Heliothinae, Noctuinae, Hermeniidae, and Phycitinae respond positively to the environmental disturbances, while others such as Ennominae, Geometrinae, Epipaschiinae, Lymantriidae, and Anthelidae respond negatively. For the above reasons, moths are considered as effective bioindicators. These different responses to environmental changes make them suitable bioindicators.
\nFrom the study it can be claimed that appropriate use of biological indicators is fundamental for biomonitoring or environmental monitoring. The primary features of bioindicators include species richness and diversity, indicators can be handled easily, showcase high faithfulness towards ecology, more sensitive and fragile to ecological changes. It is observed that some of the environment species in the ecosystem tend to respond in better ways to the changes in the environment. Odonata species are observed to be highly sensitive to environmental changes occuring in the water. While some other species such as Plecoptera, Heteroptera, Coleoptera, and Ephemeroptera are highly adaptive in nature. With respect to land insects, Coleoptera Order has several bioindicators. Different types of bees are used to monitor trace metals in pesticides, herbicide effects, ecological conditions, and radioactivity. Therefore, this study concludes that arthropods are environmental bioindicators which monitors, assesses and maintains a healthy biodiversity conservation with a healthy ecosystem.
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\\n\\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\\n\\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\\n\\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\\n\\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\nIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\\n\\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\\n\\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\\n\\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\\n\\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\n\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\n\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\n\nIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\n\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\n\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\n\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
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