The difference between textile materials and traditional engineering materials.
\r\n\tThis book shall focus on these antisense guided sequence specific silencing molecules with different mechanisms and potency for gene silencing, providing the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in ASO based therapeutics, featuring the more recent developments in terms of clinical translation and the use of nanomedicine for the effective delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids towards precision medicine.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"96f256f5bb2e750c7496b3c0b62cb95a",bookSignature:"Prof. Pedro Baptista and Prof. Alexandra R Fernandes",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9571.jpg",keywords:"gene therapy, gene silencing, genome modulation, post-transcriptional modulation, modified oligonucleotides, PNAs, LNAs, siRNA, antisense nucleotides, vectorization of antisense nucleotides, nanotheranostics, clinical translation, nanoparticles for gene delivery",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 25th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 15th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 14th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 3rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 2nd 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"82671",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Baptista",slug:"pedro-baptista",fullName:"Pedro Baptista",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/82671/images/system/82671.jpg",biography:"Pedro Viana Baptista (b.1972) holds a degree in Pharmaceutical Sciences (1996) from the Universidade de Lisboa. He obtained his PhD in Human Molecular Genetics from the School of Pharmacy, University of London in 2000. In 2001 moved to FCT-NOVA where he created the Nanomedicine Group, which he leads. Currently, he is Full Professor of Molecular Genetics & Nanomedicine at the Department of Life Sciences, FCT-NOVA and responsible for the NanoImunoTech Group – Nanomedicine in the Applied Biomolecular Sciences Research Unit. His work focuses on the biomedical applications of nanoparticle-based strategies towards light-induced cancer therapy and as gene silencing platforms (including siRNA, antisense and nanobeacons). Coordinates several research projects focused on the use of nanotechnology for molecular diagnostics and nanotheranostics, including nanoparticles for diagnostics and therapy; biosensors (TFTs and ISFETs); medium-throughput SNP analysis platforms, and nanoparticle-based therapies (nanovectors for siRNA and antisense therapy, targeted combined therapies).",institutionString:"Universidade Nova de Lisboa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidade Nova de Lisboa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"253664",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra R",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandes",slug:"alexandra-r-fernandes",fullName:"Alexandra R Fernandes",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253664/images/system/253664.jpg",biography:"Alexandra R. Fernandes is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Life Sciences, FCT-NOVA where she leads the group of Cancer Therapeutics dedicated to assessing novel compounds against tumor cells and elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms. She has obtained her PhD in Biotechnology from IST-UL and, before joining FCT-NOVA, was responsible for setting up key molecular genetics diagnostics facilities in Portugal.",institutionString:"Universidade Nova de Lisboa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidade Nova de Lisboa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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The basic textile processing process is shown in Figure 1.
\nBasic process of textile processing.
As shown in Table 1, the textile materials are essentially different from traditional engineering materials; moreover, textile materials are flexible, easy to change their shape, and generally light weight; these characters can largely compensate the defects of engineering materials. According to the form, textile materials can be divided into fibers, yarns, flat fabrics, and three-dimensional fabrics. The fibers are spun to form the yarns, which are then weaved into the fabrics by weaving technology or knitting technology. In addition, the nonwoven fabrics are formed directly by winding the fibers.
\nTraditional engineering materials | \nTransitional material | \nTextile materials | \n
---|---|---|
Rigidity | \nFlexible | \nFlexible | \n
Homogeneous state | \nSolid state | \nDiscontinuous state | \n
Dense, non-permeable | \nDense or porous | \nPorous | \n
Smooth surface | \nSoft, fillable loose structure | \nSurface texture | \n
No buckling state | \nFlexion or non-buckling | \nMultiple buckling state | \n
The difference between textile materials and traditional engineering materials.
The shape of fibers is flexible and elongate, with length (Figure 2) and diameter ratio (Figure 3) of more than 103. Theoretically speaking, the fibers have round and slender bodies with the continuous homogeneous internal structure. But actually, they have a wide variety of cross-sectional shapes, and section shape changing along the length, heterogeneous internal structure, with the porosity form. According to the source of the fibers, they can be divided into natural fibers and chemical fibers. Fibers such as cotton, hemp, silk, and wool are the natural fibers with the longest history.
\nThe longitudinal morphology of natural fibers. (a) Wool fiber; (b) Cotton fiber; (c) Silk fiber; (d) Hemp fiber.
The cross-sectional morphology of natural fibers. (a) Wool fiber; (b) Cotton fiber; (c) Silk fiber; (d) Hemp fiber.
The yarn is an elongated body having a certain strength and toughness, in which the fibers are arranged in parallel and are cohered or entangled by twisting or other methods. The yarn is an intermediate product of textile processing. A number of short fibers or filaments are arranged in an approximately parallel state and twisted in the axial direction to form an elongated object having a certain strength and linear density, which is called the “yarn.” The strand of two or more single yarns is called the “thread” (Figure 4).
\nThe morphology of one kind of the yarn. (a) The appearance of the yarn and (b) The distribution of fibers in the yarn.
A two-dimensional object having thin thickness, large length, and wide width formed by interweaving and interlacing textile fibers and yarns by a certain method is the flat fabric. There are a variety of fabrics (as shown in Figure 5); they could have various materials, forms, colors, structures, and formation methods.
\nThe type of the fabric. (a) Woven fabric; (b) Knitted fabric and (c) Nonwoven fabric.
According to the forming methods, the fabrics can be divided into woven fabric, knitted fabric, and nonwoven fabric. The woven fabric is composed by warp and weft yarns arranged perpendicularly to each other according to some organization rules. The knitted fabric is formed by the yarns bent into a loop. Nonwoven fabrics are reinforced by oriented or randomly arranged fiber webs.
\nTraditional textile materials are mostly dielectric materials and are important electrical insulation materials. The electromagnetic properties of textile materials include electrical conductivity, dielectric properties, electrostatic and magnetic properties.
\nThe electrical conductivity of textile materials is expressed as specific resistance. There are usually three representations: volume specific resistance, mass specific resistance and surface specific resistance (Table 2).
\nType of fiber | \nlg | \nlg | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Cotton | \n6.8 | \n11.4 | \n16.6 | \n
Ramie | \n7.5 | \n12.3 | \n18.6 | \n
Silk | \n9.8 | \n17.6 | \n26.6 | \n
Wool | \n8.4 | \n15.8 | \n26.2 | \n
Washed wool | \n9.9 | \n14.7 | \n26.6 | \n
Viscose fiber | \n7.0 | \n11.6 | \n19.6 | \n
Acetate fiber | \n11.7 | \n10.6 | \n20.1 | \n
Acrylic | \n8.7 | \n— | \n— | \n
Acrylic (degreasing) | \n14 | \n— | \n— | \n
Polyester | \n8.0 | \n— | \n— | \n
Polyester (degreasing) | \n14 | \n— | \n— | \n
Mass specific resistance of textile materials.
According to the law of resistance, the resistance
where \n
For textile materials, the cross-sectional area or volume is not easy to measure; so, we usually use the mass specific resistance \n
where \n
where
The dielectric constant of dried fiber is 2–5 at the frequent of 50 or 60 Hz. The dielectric constant of the liquid water is 20 and the adsorbed water is 80. The dielectric constants of common textile fibers measured at the frequency of 1 kHz and the relative humidity of 65% are shown in Table 3.
\nFiber | \nDielectric constant (\n | \nFiber | \nDielectric constant (\n | \n
---|---|---|---|
Cotton | \n18 | \nAcetate | \n4.0 | \n
Wool | \n5.5 | \nNylon staple fiber | \n3.7 | \n
Viscose fiber | \n8.4 | \nNylon yarn | \n4.0 | \n
Viscose wire | \n15 | \nPolyester staple fiber (deoiled) | \n2.3 | \n
Acetate staple fiber | \n3.5 | \nPolyester staple fiber | \n4.2 | \n
Acrylic staple fiber (deoiled) | \n2.8 | \n— | \n— | \n
The dielectric constant of common textile fibers.
The high moisture regain of cotton and viscose leads to its high dielectric constant.
As the relative dielectric constant of water is several tens of times larger than that of the dry textile material, the dielectric constant of the fiber is different when the moisture regain or moisture content of the textile material is different. The presence of frequency, temperature, and impurities also changes the dielectric constant of the materials.
\nA physical process in which a dielectric converts a portion of electrical energy into thermal energy under the action of an electric field is known as dielectric loss. The magnitude of the dielectric loss is related to the applied electric field frequency, electric field strength, fiber constant, and dielectric loss angle. In unit time, the heat energy P produced per unit volume of fiber is
\nwhere
The dielectric constant of dry textile material generally is 2–5, for which \n
The specific resistance of textile materials with dielectric properties is generally high, especially for synthetic fibers with low hygroscopicity, such as polyester and acrylic fibers. Under normal atmospheric conditions, the mass specific resistance is as high as 1013 Ω cm/cm2 or more. In textile processing, the contact and friction between fibers or between fibers and machine parts tends to trigger charge transfer and static electricity generation. During the production process, static electricity will cause fiber hairiness, hairiness increase, filament winding mechanism, breakage, etc. In the course of the taking process, static electricity will cause clothes to stick and absorb dust.
\nAlthough the phenomenon of static electricity leads to many hazards during textile processing, the electrostatic properties of textile materials can also benefit to some processing technology, such as electrospinning and electrostatic flocking.
\nOrdinary textile materials are anti-magnets, which are negative. The magnetic susceptibility of some textile materials is shown in Table 4.
\nMaterial | \nMagnetic susceptibility ( | \nMaterial | \nMagnetic susceptibility ( | \n
---|---|---|---|
Ethylene | \n−10.3 × 10−6 | \nPolyester | \n−6.53 × 10−6 | \n
Polypropylene | \n−10.1 × 10−6 | \nNylon 66 | \n−9.55 × 10−6 | \n
Fluorine | \n−47.8 × 10−6 | \n\n | \n |
Magnetic susceptibility of some fibers.
The magnetic properties of textile materials are not as much as those of electrical properties, but they are gradually being valued by people to develop various types of magnetic fibers and textiles. For example, magnetic powders such as iron, cobalt, nickel, and ferrite are added to a spinning solution, and fibers having magnetic properties are obtained by wet spinning.
\nCommon textile materials have dielectric properties and electrostatic phenomena, but the electromagnetic parameter of them has not reached the order of magnitude of metals or semiconductors. Therefore, they generally do not own any electromagnetic function.
\nElectromagnetic textile materials are a new type of functional textile materials obtained from fibers or yarns with good electrical and magnetic properties through textile processing technology or by applying the materials with metallic properties to common textile material. Meanwhile, electromagnetic textile materials have unique structure of textile materials and the electromagnetic properties of the metal materials [1, 2].
\nOrdinary fibers are generally made of nonconductive and non-magnetic polymer materials. To obtain the functionalization of textile materials, special materials must be introduced during the preparation process. Textile materials include fibers, yarns, and fabrics. Therefore, electromagnetic functionalization of fibers, yarns, and fabrics can be achieved by spinning, weaving, and finishing.
\nIn the spinning process for fibers, metal fibers, carbon/graphite fibers, or intrinsically conductive polymer materials having intrinsic electromagnetic function may be used to take place of the ordinary fiber materials in whole or in part. It is possible to add the powder having electromagnetic properties to the spinning solution in the blending way during the spinning process.
\nIn the spinning process for yarns, electromagnetic fibers such as metal fibers and magnetic fibers can be added to the ordinary fibers through different ways to combine, producing the electromagnetic yarn. Metal fibers have low elongation and poor toughness; so, they are not suitable to be used alone for weaving. They are often used to form the yarn containing metal fiber with ordinary textile fibers by blending, enveloping, etc.
\nIn the weaving process, electromagnetically functionalized yarns can be directly woven. The common yarns can be interlaced into fabrics with the electromagnetically functionalized yarns.
\nThe finishing process is suitable for fibers, yarns, and fabrics. For the fiber or the yarn that has been formed and does not have electromagnetic function, the surface of it may be coated with a metal coating or magnetic powder by electroless plating, electroplating, magnetron sputtering, or other ways. For ordinary fabrics without electromagnet properties, the surface can be treated by finishing, such as the electroplating, electroless plating, or embroidery to make it electromagnetic.
\nThe electrostatic phenomenon of cellulose fibers in the processing process is not obvious; but the electrostatic interference of protein fibers is pretty serious. Although the wool fiber has high equilibrium moisture regain, its mass specific resistance is the highest in the natural fiber. The resistivity of synthetic fibers such as polyester, nylon, acrylic, and polypropylene, which are generally high in moisture regain, is as high as 1014 Ω cm, and the accumulation of electrostatic charge is obvious.
\nThe material is excited by various energies, causing the electrons to escape from the nucleus. The electrons overcome the binding of the nucleus, and the minimum energy required to escape from the surface of the material is called the work function. Different materials or the same material in different states have different work function. The generation and accumulation of electric charge causes the substance to carry static electricity, and the one that acquires the electron exhibits the negative electric property, and the one that loses the electron exhibits the positive electric property, which generate the electrostatic phenomenon.
\nThe resistivity of conventional textile materials is up to 1010 Ω cm or more, and the generated charge is not easily dissipated, resulting in very serious electrostatic phenomenon. Therefore, the antistatic properties of textile materials have become an important property having a great influence on the processing of textile materials and the use of textiles.
\nThe antistatic technology of textile materials includes the preparation of antistatic fibers, the preparation of conductive yarns, and the conductive treatment of textiles.
\nFor textile materials with higher mass specific resistance, surfactants are often added to fibers in fiber factories, which absorb water molecules from the environment and reduce static interference in the yarns. The hydrophobic end of the surfactant molecule is adsorbed on the surface of the fiber; the hydrophilic group is pointed to the outer space [3]. Then, the fiber forms the polar surface and adsorbs water molecules in the air. The surface resistivity of the fiber is reduced, and the charge dissipation is accelerated. The method is simple and easy to make; however, the antistatic effect is poor in durability, and the surfactant is volatile and less resistant to washing.
\nIn order to prepare relatively durable antistatic fiber, the methods are following: (1) Adding the surfactant to a fiber-forming polymer during blend spinning; (2) adding the hydrophilic group by block copolymerization; and (3) adding the hydrophilic group by graft modification in a fiber-forming polymer. These can make the fibers obtain durable hygroscopicity and antistatic properties.
\nIn addition, there are also another methods, including fixing the surfactant to the surface of the fiber with a binder and crosslinking the surfactant on the surface of the fiber to form a film. The effect is similar to applying an antistatic varnish onto the surface of the plastic.
\nAntistatic fibers are usually blended with ordinary fibers, and a higher content of antistatic fibers is required to achieve a more feasible antistatic effect. The specific ratio between antistatic fibers and ordinary fibers should be based on the resistivity of the ordinary fibers used, the final use environment, and requirements of the products.
\nThe electrical resistivity of the conductive fiber is smaller than that of the antistatic fiber, and it has a more significant antistatic effect. And during the blend fabrics with the same antistatic effects, the amount of conductive fiber added is much smaller than that of the antistatic fiber [4]. As long as a few thousandths to a few percent of the conductive yarn is added, the fabric can attain antistatic requirements. So with the widespread use of organic conductive fibers [5, 6], the field of application of antistatic fibers has been gradually reduced.
\nElectromagnetic shielding is a technical measure to prevent or suppress the transmission of electromagnetic energy by using a shield. The shield used can weaken the electromagnetic field strength generated by the field source in the electromagnetic space protection zone. There are two main purposes for shielding: one is to limit the field source electromagnetic energy leaking out from the area that needs protection and the other is to prevent the external electromagnetic field energy entering into the area protected.
\nThe shielding effectiveness equals to the ratio of electric field strength \n
Arching method is usually used to measure shielding effectiveness. The schematic diagram is shown in Figure 6, which can characterize the shielding effectiveness by measuring the power of the receiving antennas and transmitting antennas.
\nSchematic diagram of arching measuring method for shielding effectiveness.
Woven fabric is composed of warp and weft yarns interlaced vertically with each other according to a certain regularity. It is well known that ordinary fiber yarns are transparent to the
The grid structure of electromagnetic shielding fabric. (a) Typical mesh structure (b) The structure of the metal fiber-containing yarn fabric.
The metal fiber yarn fabric is considered as a periodic grid structure model composed of conductive yarns [8], as shown in Figure 8. Assume that one parallel periodic array is composed of the warp yarn (as shown in Figure 8(b)) and the other is composed of the weft yarn (as shown in Figure 8(c)). The two wire arrays are directly cascaded at a certain orientation angle. The contact impedances between the wires of the two arrays are assumed to be negligible, due to the
Grid structure model. (a) Grid structure; (b) Period parallel array 1 and (c) Period parallel array 2.
The two parallel periodic arrays (as shown in Figure 1) have wire orientation \n
The periodic grid is regarded as a stratified medium made of two periodic parallel arrays at a certain angle. The transmission matrix was established, and the
The grid is excited by a plane wave having normal incidence, and the incident
Schematic wire mesh illuminated by a plane wave with normal incidence and transverse magnetic (
\n\n
where \n
As shown in Figure 10, the global coordinate system (
The periodic array in the local coordinate system and the global coordinate system.
Assuming that the diameters of the metallic yarns and periodic spacing are small compared to the wavelength, then the parallel array can be modeled by a homogeneous thin anisotropic sheet with thickness
in which
in which the expressions of impedance \n
where \n
Combining Eqs. (10) and (11) yield
\nAccording to Eqs. (7)–(9) and (14), the boundary condition describing the relation among the
in which \n
In the global coordinate system, the transformation matrix of the parallel array \n
in which the transformation matrix \n
The grid array transmission matrix \n
where \n
The total thickness of the wire grid is \n
in which the effective shunt admittance \n
Therefore, the matrix of the boundary condition for the metal grid is given as
\nThe shielding factors of the metal grid of against \n
in which \n
The electric field component on the back faces of the grid expressed in matrix form is given by
\nin which
\nIn the case where the incident wave is the \n
Similarly, for a \n
The shielding factors are, respectively
\nThe
For isotropic material, the transmitted
For anisotropic materials, the total incident and transmitted power are computed as the average of the two polarizations
\nFrom Eq. (6), we obtain
\nFor the grid that is isotropic in the \n
In combination with the mesh structure of the electromagnetic shielding fabric, the key factors affecting the electromagnetic shielding effectiveness
Samples in which copper filaments are arranged in parallel at different intervals have different
The shielding effectiveness at different intervals.
Metal yarn arrangement interval has an important effect on
The woven fabric is interwoven from the yarns of two systems that are perpendicular to each other. Therefore, it is possible to introduce functional fibers into the parallel structure in only one system, or functional yarns are introduced to both systems to form a grid structure.
\nThe stainless steel core spun yarn and the blended yarn were arranged in parallel as a sample with a spacing of 2 mm, and the distance of the grid structure sample is 2 mm in both vertical and horizontal directions. The shielding effectiveness is shown in Figure 12. It can be seen that the
The shielding effectiveness of metal fiber yarns in parallel and grid arrangement.
Separating the yarns of the horizontal and vertical systems in the sample with a thin insulating plate is seen as a nonconducting state. The bare copper wire is arranged in two states with conduction and nonconduction at the intersection, and the periodic intervals of the grid samples are 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 mm, respectively, the shielding effectiveness is shown in Figure 13. It can be seen that under the same periodic spacing, the shielding effectiveness curves of the copper wire mesh model samples almost coincide in the two states of conduction and nonconduction.
\nThe shielding effectiveness of metal fiber yarns in parallel and grid arrangement.
The material parameters mainly include the way of forming the metal yarns, the material of the metal fibers, and the content of the metal fibers.
\nMetal monofilaments can be used to make fabrics after they have been formed into yarns by a certain yarn forming method. For metal filaments, core yarns and twisted yarns are the common yarns. However, for metal staple fibers, blended yarns are the commonly used yarn. The type of yarns affects the electromagnetic parameters of the yarns and fabrics, resulting in the difference in
Stainless steel filaments, core-spun yarns, blended yarns, and twisted yarns composed of stainless steel/cotton with a stainless steel content of 30% are arranged in a grid sample with a periodic spacing of 2 mm. The
The shielding effectiveness of different types of yarns.
The metal fibers used in the fabric are different, and the different electrical conductivity of the metal may affect the electrical resistivity of the yarns and the fabrics. For example, the electrical conductivity of copper fiber is 5.8 × 107 S/m, and the electrical conductivity of aluminum is 3.54 × 107 S/m. When the metal fiber content, linear density, and fabric specification parameters are the same, the
The five grid samples with completely nonconducting period of 2 mm is shown in Figure 15, for which each grid sample of five different materials consisting of stainless steel bare wire (the diameter is 35 μm), core spun yarn and blended yarn of stainless steel/cotton (containing the stainless steel content of 30%), silver-plated nylon filament (the diameter is 50 μm), and bare copper wire (the diameter is 80 μm). The
Shielding effectiveness of different materials with grid period spacing of 2 mm in order.
The two blended yarns with the stainless steel content of 20 and 30% are woven in both warp and weft directions, and the
The shielding effectiveness of the fabrics with different content of stainless steel.
It is assumed that the fibers are evenly distributed in the yarn. As the content of the metal fibers increases, the shielding effectiveness of the fabrics will increase, but when it is increased to a certain extent, the bending stiffness and flexural modulus of the yarns will increase, and the porosity among fibers during the fabric will increase. So the
When electromagnetic waves radiate into the macroscopic object, which will causing induced electric charges and currents of the object, then the electromagnetic wave radiated into the object will be scattered into various directions. This process is called electromagnetic scattering [11, 12]. The electromagnetic scattering fabric is an electromagnetic functional material with the specific design structure, which makes the electromagnetic waves incident on the target are no longer reflected back along the way of the reflection of mirror, but radiated out into different directions. Thereby, it can reduce the radiated electromagnetic waves in the direction of propagation, and can make the human body and military targets invisible for certain direction Radar.
\nThe textile technology is relatively mature in the preparation of three-dimensional structural fabrics. Thus, it is very feasible to design the three-dimensional structure of metallized fabrics which have good scattering properties for incident electromagnetic waves.
\nAs shown in Figure 17, the composite materials of the three-dimensional periodic structure can be simplified into two-phase dielectric materials when studying the transmission process of electromagnetic waves in the three-dimensional structure.
\nDielectric column periodic three-dimensional structure.
When a simple harmonic uniform plane wave is incident on the three-dimensional structure, the three-dimensional coordinate system
The schematic diagram of electromagnetic wave incident three-dimensional structure.
Electromagnetic waves are reflected at the interface of different medium, which conforms to the law of reflection, as shown in Figure 19. The concave-convex natural surfaces can be broken down into a series of planar elements with small-sized geometries, which is called roughness. The roughness of the scattering surface is very important in the surface scattering.
\nThe law of electromagnetic wave reflection.
If the surface is smooth, the incident energy would form two plane waves after interacting with the surface. One is a surface-reflected wave whose angle with the normal is the same as the angle of incidence, and the direction is opposite, as shown in Figure 20. The other is refracted or transmitted waves with downward surface.
\nThe reflection of electromagnetic waves on smooth reflective surfaces.
If the surface is rough, the incident energy interacts with the surface and then radiates and shoots in all directions, becoming a scattering field, as shown in Figure 21.
\nThe reflection of electromagnetic waves on rough reflective surfaces.
The fibers having electromagnetic properties are scattered as the fluff of the fabric on the surface, or are consolidated as a U-shaped structural unit on the fabric to form the fluff, and thereby a velvet structure fabrics with good radar wave scattering property is obtained.
\nThe woven velvet fabric for decoration and its reflection coefficient is displayed in Figure 22. It can be seen from the test results that the tested structural unit achieves attenuation of 5 dB in the bandwidth of 10 GHz, and the peak value reaches −30 dB. This is mainly due to the angle between the metal fluff of the structural unit and the plane of the sample. When electromagnetic waves are incident onto the sample, those metal fluffs with a certain angle in the plane have a certain scattering of the incident electromagnetic waves, which reduces the energy received by the receiving antenna, so that the reflection coefficient is reduced.
\nThe woven velvet fabric for decoration and its reflection coefficient.
The silver fiber spacer fabric is prepared on the warp knitting machine, of which the silver-plated filaments with a fineness of 83dtex are used in the middle layer, and the upper and lower surfaces are all made of polyester fibers, as shown in Figure 23. The silver-plated fibers make the radar waves absorption, reflection, and multiple reflections happen in the intermediate layer.
\nThe silver-plated fiber spacer fabric and its reflection coefficient.
The silver-plated fiber spacer fabric has a significant resonance peak, which should be related to the thickness of the intermediate layer of the fabric, and indicates that the shielding effect on the radar wave is not mainly due to the reflection radar wave mechanism. The reflectivity of silver-plated fiber spacer fabric is generally inferior to that of velvet fabrics, but its resonance peak can reach −30 dB, and when the reflection coefficient is below −5 dB, it has a wide bandwidth, even up to 18 GHz.
\nThe cut fabrics are obtained by cutting fabrics containing metal fibers or metallized fibers into different shapes. The planar fabrics are formed into the three-dimensional structure through some support, and the cut flower units of fabrics become scattering units for radar waves, which are a kind of flexible, lightweight, wide-band radar stealth fabric.
\nThe stainless steel/polyester/cotton blend fabric with a stainless steel content of 20% is cut as shown in Figure 24. The reflection coefficient of the fabric in the three-dimensional state and the state in which the fabric is flattened is as shown in Figure 25.
\nCut flower structure fabric. (a) Three-dimensional cut flower fabric and (b) Flat cut flower fabric.
The reflection coefficient of cut flower structure fabric. (a) The reflection coefficient of three-dimensional cut flower fabric and (b) The reflection coefficient of flat cut flower fabric.
From the test results, it can be found that the reflection coefficient of the flat structural unit and the uneven structural unit are very large in a wide frequency range, and the coefficient of the uneven cut flower fabric can reach −10 dB at 2 GHz, and the flat cut flower fabric is −5 dB. In the test results, mainly because of the antenna used in the test, the results of the test in the frequency bands less than 3 GHz and greater than 17 GHz are not regular enough. The irregularity of the structural unit produces a strong scattering for electromagnetic waves, making the reflection coefficient smaller. However, the main difference in the structural unit of unevenness and flatness is the difference in the position of the resonance peak that appears. This is because when the mesh structure becomes flat, the size of the unit structure becomes small, so that the resonance peak shifts toward the higher frequency.
\nBy adopting the method of embedding the heat shrinkable yarns, the textured structure containing metal fibers or metallized fibers can be obtained, which imparts good electromagnetic wave scattering properties to the fabric.
\nThe stainless steel fibers and the cotton fibers in a ratio of 40/60 were blended into a yarn of 116dtex linear density, and high heat-shrinkage polyester yarns with a shrinkage ratio of 53.7% in the boiling water and a linear density of 167dtex are embedded in the warp and weft directions. Mixed yarns and polyester yarns are woven into a plain fabric with a square weight of 127 g/m2 (as shown in Figure 26). The fabrics are treated at different temperatures to obtain fabrics with different concave and convex structures, as shown in Figure 27.
\nThe original plain weave.
Stainless steel fabrics with concave structure embedded with high heat shrinkage wires.
It can be seen from Figure 27 that the fabrics have different degrees of unevenness at different heat processing temperatures. The higher the treatment temperature, the more obvious the uneven structure; the lower the treatment temperature, the smaller the uneven structure. At 58°C, the fabric has a smaller degree of shrinkage.
\nAs Figure 28 shows, in the range of 2–18 GHz, for the fabrics containing the heat shrinkage yarns in both directions, as the processing temperature is lowered, the degree of the uneven structure of the fabrics is reduced, the unit size of the concave and convex structure becomes larger, which make the fabrics have poor scattering performance for radar waves. Besides, the reflection coefficients are becoming more and more higher and the difference is obvious. At a frequency of 14 GHz, the reflection coefficients of fabrics having heat treatment temperatures of 97, 75, 65, and 58°C and untreated fabrics, respectively, are −39, −27, −24, −10, and −4 dB. It can be seen from the shrinkage structure at different temperatures that the degree of wrinkles of the fabrics after treatment at 97°C is significantly higher than that of the wrinkles treated at other temperatures. The unevenness of the fabric structure causes the electromagnetic waves to form the diffuse reflection in the structure; meanwhile, the electromagnetic wave scattering forms multiple absorptions on the adjacent two intersecting slopes.
\nComparison of reflection coefficients under different conditions.
Frequency selective surface (FSS) is an infinitely large periodic array structure that is one-dimensional, two-dimensional, etc. It is mainly divided into two types: patch type and aperture type, which have frequency selective characteristic for the propagation of electromagnetic wave in space. The patch type can totally reflect electromagnetic waves of a specific frequency, and the aperture type can transmit all electromagnetic waves of a specific frequency.
\nThe textiles are light, soft, and flexible in processing. Relying on the media of textile materials, textile processing technology will qualify the textile products to attain the filtering characteristics and light, soft, and other characteristics, which can be applied in more fields [13]. Flexible periodic array structure prepared by textile processing technology is called frequency selective fabric (FSF). According to the filtering characteristics, the frequency selective fabric can be divided into four frequency response characteristics: high pass, low pass, band pass, and band stop, as shown in Figure 29.
\nThe four frequency response characteristics of the frequency selective surface. (a) High pass; (b) low pass; (c) band stop; and (d) band pass.
The researches mainly focus on the preparation of frequency selective fabrics with high-precision two-dimensional periodic structure produced by different textile processing techniques, which can be roughly divided into four categories [14].
Continuous conductive yarns form a periodic structure in the fabric. The continuous carbon fibers are directly woven into a square or rectangular periodic structure, as shown in Figure 30. Since the conductive carbon fibers are continuously present in the fabric, the structure is actually a conductive grid formed by the conductive yarns in the woven fabric. This structure is more suitable for the preparation of isotropic electromagnetic shielding fabrics, not a true frequency selective periodic structure, which is confirmed by the absence of resonance peaks in the test curves reported in the article.
The cut commercialized conductive material unit is directly bonded to the nonconductive fabric substrate, as shown in Figure 31.
Depositing conductive materials on the surface of fabrics by screen printing, inkjet printing, and other textile finishing techniques can form the conductive structural unit, as shown in Figure 32.
The high conductive yarns are formed into a periodic structural unit by textile weaving processing techniques such as weaving, weft knitting, embroidery, and so on, as shown in Figure 33.
Continuous conductive yarns form a periodic structure in the fabric. (a) Woven in a square structure and (b) Woven in a square structure rectangle.
The conductive material is adhered to the substrate to form a periodic structure.
Screen printing and inkjet printing form a periodic structure. (a) The screen printing and (b) The inkjet printing.
The periodic structures produced by knitting and embroidery processes. (a) The samples of woven fabrics and (b) The samples of knitted fabrics.
In China, the team that studies the periodic structure of textile materials is mainly a joint research group composed of Professor Meiwu Shi in textile materials and Professor Qun Wang in electromagnetic materials. Based on preliminary sample preparation, theoretical simulation analysis, and the preliminary experimental results and research ideas of special electromagnetic functional textile materials, in the aspect of 2D FSF, various types of bandpass, band-stop filter fabrics, etc. have been prepared by weaving, electroless plating, embroidery, transfer printing, and so on. Through experiments, the effects of cell shape and dimensional changes, periodic spacing, and dielectric materials on transmission and reflection coefficients have been studied.
\nThe preparation of frequency selective surface for flexible materials mainly includes screen printing, laser processing, and computer embroidery [15].
\nThe screen printing is to stretch and fix synthetic fibers, silk fabrics, or mental wire meshes on the frame, using the method of making the hand-painted film or photochemical plate to make the screen printing plate, and the metal ink is squeezed from the mesh of the pattern portion, which is a process for extruding onto a fabric to form a sample. Figure 34 shows a ring-shaped frequency selective surface of a complementary structure prepared by the screen printing method.
\nThe ways of screen printing processing. (a) The patch type and (b) The aperture type.
The complementary cross-type frequency selective surface prepared by the laser processing method is directly produced by laser processing on the flexible medium to which metal materials are pasted. The patch type (slit type) sample torn off the excess metal (patch metal) at the gap to obtain the final sample, thus ensuring the process precision of the patch type frequency selective surface (Figure 35).
\nThe laser engraving. (a) The patch type and (b) The aperture type.
The frequency selective surface with ring patch type is prepared by computer embroidery technology. According to the unit pattern and size of frequency selective surface period designed, the processing personnel uses the sample programming system to make the programming sample, and the needle position data of the design pattern is designed. Using these needle position data to control the computer embroidery machine, the silver-plated yarns are embroidered onto the fabric to produce the fabric material frequency selective surface (Figure 36).
\nThe screen printing technology is more adaptable and can be applied to the flexible medium surface in printing; besides, the process is simple, the cost is low, and the quality is relatively stable. However, the screen printing processing has low production efficiency and is only suitable for small batch production, and the image accuracy produced is not high, which has a certain influence on the frequency response characteristics of the product.
\nThe computer embroidery processing.
The laser processing technology is characterized by high quality, high efficiency, and low cost. The laser processing is a kind of non-contact processing, and the frequency selection surface patterns at the sharp corners such as precise polygons can be obtained, and the products have high precision. Because the excess metal needs to be removed during the sample preparation processing to obtain the desired sample, the production efficiency of the product is affected.
\nThe precision of computer embroidery technology when preparing flexible frequency selective surface is affected by the fineness of the needle, but the process is simple and the production efficiency is the highest. It is suitable for mass production and exhibits better band resistance characteristics at the resonance frequency. The fabric-based frequency selective surface structure can be directly integrated into various textiles such as tents, clothing, and decorative products, and has the advantages of portability, maintenance-free, and low cost.
\nThe single-performance frequency selective surface can no longer meet complex electromagnetic wave environments. Incident angle stability, multi-band, wide passband, miniaturization, flexibility, and active frequency selective surfaces are the research hotspots of frequency selective surface in recent years. The use of various processing techniques to convert a two-dimensional FSF into a three-dimensional structure can bring more performance to the frequency selective surface [16].
\nThe 3D FSF consists of the structural unit (white part in Figure 37), the dielectric unit (black part in Figure 37), and the base medium (gray part in Figure 37). In the z-axis direction, the conical stereoscopic periodic structure composed of the structural unit and the dielectric unit and a composite structure of the dipole plane periodically loaded with a base medium structure. At the same time, the 3D FSF has a multi-scale structure and easily deformable feature, and the electromagnetic parameters can be adjusted at multiple scales or by deformation.
\nThe multi-scale structure of 3D FSF.
Compared with metal periodic structural materials, 3D FSF is characterized by flexibility and can achieve deformation control. During use, the base medium will be the main bearer for external force, especially the elastic base medium with large deformation. The deformation of the substrate medium will cause changes in the size and other dimensions of the various scale structures fixed thereon, further leading to changes in electromagnetic response characteristics [17]. It can be seen that the electromagnetic response of the 3D FSF can be regulated by deformation.
\nThe authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship/or publication of this article: the authors acknowledge support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number 51673211).
\nOver the past decades, many academic libraries have been actively involved in building institutional repositories that comprise books, papers, theses and other works which can be digitised or that were born digital. This offers many advantages in terms of the ease and speed with which users can access the available content. As such, digital libraries are losing their physical boundaries, also in terms of storage space, and can offer a round the clock availability. In addition, academic libraries allow for an easier search through the available content and thus re-use of the knowledge contained. Altogether, this has provided academic libraries with more possibilities to make their content available to the general public, in accordance with the Open Access [1] principles unless conditions are imposed by the publishers that limit access rights. In this way, digital libraries have accelerated the Open Science movement, which in essence started already in the 17th century with the establishment of the academic journal, as a means to share resources and scientific knowledge upon societal demand [2, 3]. Although Open Access is one of the best known components of Open Science, the latter concept in essence comprises all methods to disseminate scientific research results to the public. Thus, Open Science also includes Open Data, Open Research Software/Source, Open Evaluation, Open Educational Resources, Open Advocacy and Citizen Science.
Over the past years, research performing and funding organisations have particularly stressed the importance of Open Data, which aims to make research data freely available to everyone to use and republish, without any restrictions [4]. This movement has urged academic libraries in collaboration with ICT and the research community to develop a new component within their institutional repositories that allows for the storage and retrieval of research (meta)data for the general public, unless conditions are imposed that limit access rights, similarly to Open Access. Moreover, this new role of the academic library also urges the development of digital skills for librarians in order to ensure that they can assist researchers to make the (meta)data FAIR, i.e. findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable, and whenever possible open. This chapter provides an overview of the transformation of academic libraries to act as a leverage for FAIR and Open research metadata, with respect to the research information systems and repositories as well as the skillset of the librarians.
The role of digital libraries in Open Science is well recognised and has been endorsed by several international organisations and stakeholders. In 2012, the European Commission extensively promoted the role of libraries in the Commission’s recommendation on Access to and Preservation of Scientific Information in Europe [5]. In 2015, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) further emphasised the role of the libraries, repositories and data centers as key actors on Open Science together with researchers, government ministries, funding agencies, universities and public research institutes, private non-profit organisations and foundations, private scientific publishers, businesses and supra-national entities [6]. In concrete, the OECD-report assigned the role of enablers to libraries, thereby describing it the libraries ‘
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The eight ambitions of Open Science, as defined by the European Commission [7].
In order to realise these strategic goals, the European Commission has been taking initiatives that allow for defining the general framework for future strategic research, development and innovation activities in relation to Open Science in general, and the European Open Science Cloud in particular. The resulting Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA) of the European Open Science Cloud [8] further stresses the role of research libraries as one of the 6 major stakeholders in developing and implementing EOSC. Throughout the report, digital libraries and research infrastructures are seen as the cornerstones for EOSC, a federated system of data infrastructures. Although the importance of digital libraries is obvious, the reports also provides insights in challenges and boundary conditions for all stakeholders. In what follows, we will focus on what applies for digital libraries in particular.
Many academic libraries have been actively involved in building an institutional repository that makes research output from their affiliated researchers findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable. This is realised through library catalogues and other systems that ensure the storage, management, re-use and curation of hardcopy and digital materials. In order to facilitate these functionalities, digital libraries have to take into account software, which focuses on the preservation, organisation and search functionality on the library’s content. Until now, many software solutions have been developed, either as an Open Source solution or proprietary, that all store metadata, i.e. descriptive information on the digital objects contained in the repository. While the metadata and ontologies on research publications have been developed together with research-related metadata (on researchers, projects, organisations, equipment, etc…) largely in the research information community since the 1980s, the metadata and ontologies on research data have grown organically in (sub)disciplinary or geographically spread (sub)communities, which has resulted in a wide variety of schemes available. A manually curated resource on metadata standards for research data is the FAIRsharing.org initiative, which currently provides information on 72 metadata standards, in addition to other standards on thesauri, markup languages, … (dd 2021-02-21). This high number of metadata standards urges the need for the development of a governance structure to coordinate the work on metadata and ontologies for research data.
In Flanders, Belgium, the Expertise Centre for Research & Development Monitoring (ECOOM)-Hasselt, was contracted to coordinate the creation of a semantically described, generic metadata model for research data. This metadata model will be integrated by the Flemish institutional repositories that provide information to the Flemish Research Information Space (FRIS), an online platform and current research information system (CRIS) governed by the Department Economy, Sciences and Innovation (EWI) of the Flemish government. In addition, FRIS makes Flemish research information publicly available to all stakeholders in science, economy and innovation [9, 10], and will in the (near) future connect with EOSC.
Currently, the FRIS-portal (researchportal.be) contains information on more than 85.800 researchers, 2500 research organisations, 42800 research projects and 457900 publications (Figure 1). This information is provided by the Flemish research universities, higher education colleges, strategic research centers, research institution in an incremental manner. As a common interchange model, the CERIF standard is being used, which is developed and maintained by euroCRIS [11]. Importantly, all information provided (ex. projects, publications, …) is semantically described, where the concepts behind the terminology are semantically aligned between all information providers. Using data and classification governance methodologies, one can ensure that the research information delivered to FRIS is uniform and comparable.
Flemish Research Information Space, researchportal.be [Accessed 2020-12-23].
In line with the growing importance of research data management, and in particular FAIR and Open Data in Europe, the Flemish Government issued in 2018 two decrees, the Special Research Fund (BOF) Decree [12] and the Industrial Research Fund (IOF) Decree [13], that impose on Flemish universities to provide metadata on research data to FRIS the latest by the end of 2021.
Based on the general European need for a coordinated approach towards metadata models and ontologies, and the requirement of the BOF- and IOF-Decree to deliver metadata on research data by 2021, the Flemish Government contracted ECOOM-Hasselt to develop a generic metadata model for research data that would ensure the uniform delivery of information to FRIS.
In accordance with previously developed metadata models for research information, ECOOM-Hasselt used data governance as a methodology to build a semantically described metadata model for research data. Data governance comprises the specification of decision rights and an accountability framework that encourages desirable behaviour in the creation, storage, use, archival and disposal of (research) data [14]. In addition, it includes the processes, roles and standards that ensure the correct use of (research) data by facilitating the incorporation of explicit semantic definitions and, where required concordance table to other metadata models for research data.
In order to apply the data governance methodology, a working group was composed with participation of experts on FRIS from the Department EWI as well as experts on research data (models) from the Flemish research institutions that provide information to FRIS. This group was termed the Flemish Open Science Board (FOSB) working group Metadata & standardisation and in fact is one of the three working groups under the FOSB that unites all Flemish stakeholders in a shared vision for the future with regards to Open Science and the EOSC Association. The FOSB WG Metadata & standardisation first inventoried existing, yet generic metadata models for research data (ex. DataCite [15], re3data [16], …) and examined their scope, their uptake in the European research ecosystem as well as their use purpose. Based on this analysis, the WG decided to build an application profile for the Flemish research institutions based upon DataCite’s Metadata scheme 4.3, a standard that also has been adopted by OpenAIRE, and which was released on August 16th, 2019 [15, 17].
DataCite is an international not-for-profit organisation which aims to improve data findability, accessibility and re-usability through the assignment of persistent identifiers, such as Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs) to datasets and through the development and maintenance of a metadata standard. This metadata standard contains extensive possibilities to describe metadata of research data and, importantly, the metadata fields have been semantically defined in order to clarify the concepts behind the terminology used. In addition, this standard has already been implemented by several European and international organisations and allows for interoperability. As the FOSB WG Metadata & standardisation was assigned to deliver a metadata scheme that ensures the FAIRness of research (meta)data on FRIS, with a uniform semantic understanding by all information providing institutions in line with the Flemish research context, the WG decided to develop a Flemish application profile based on the DataCite standard. Moreover, some extensions on DataCite’s standard were needed to allow the monitoring of indicators on Open Science, including Open Data. Altogether this resulted in the establishment of an application profile [18] consisting of metadata fields on 21 properties, out of which 15 originated from DataCite. Three of the original Datacite properties were deduplicated, i.e. Description, Subject and Rights and 3 new properties were defined, i.e. Open format, Legitimate opt-out and FAIR data label, that are directly related to the monitoring of indicators on Open Science in Flanders. Similar to the DataCite standard, the Flemish application profile included an indication on the obligation to provide the information to the FRIS-portal using the values mandatory, mandatory if applicable, required and optional. Furthermore, the semantics as defined by DataCite were refined according to the Flemish context, only when needed. Altogether, this resulted in the creation of the Flemish application profile for research metadata.
As the Flemish application profile for research metadata will be included in FRIS, the FOSB WG Metadata and standardisation also strived to maximally integrate the information on research-related information that is residing in this system as this adds substantially to the FAIRness of the data, while at the same time keeps the administrative burden for research as low as possible according to the ‘only-once’ principle.
In brief, the WG identified the information on research (meta) data that could be enriched via an elaborated set of additional research-related metadata on researchers, research organisations, projects, publications that are already provided to FRIS by the Flemish research institutions. In addition, some additional metadata fields were added to already existing information objects, such as the addition of a DMP identifier metadata field to the object Project. By integrating the metadata models on existing information objects with the Flemish Application Profile for research metadata, we were able to maximise the reuptake of information already residing in FRIS.
In a next phase, the Flemish information providers have to implement the Flemish application profile for research metadata in their institutional repositories. This not only requires profound knowledge on the institutional repository software, but also knowledge on the institution’s own use purposes with regards to the stored (meta)data and the coinciding processes. Indeed, the Flemish institutions are not merely storing the metadata on research data in their institutional repositories just to comply with the BOF/IOF-Decree that obliges them to deliver this information to FRIS. In fact, it is of huge importance for research institutions themselves to manage their data. In 2018, the Flemish universities together with the Flemish Interuniversity Council (VLIR) conducted a survey on current research data management practices at the Flemish universities [19]. The resulting paper stated that ‘
Next to the development of the (meta)data repository component in digital libraries, it goes without saying that librarians also need to have the necessary skills set for handling research (meta)data, including the processes related to research data management. Although this general need for research organisations, including digital libraries, to strategically develop digital skills for FAIR and Open Science is well recognised [20, 21], a survey by Stoy et al. [22] demonstrated that this is not yet a widespread phenomenon and more investments are needed.
In 2020, an EOSC Executive Board Skills & Training Working Group was composed in order to delineate amongst others the minimal skill set for EOSC including specifications for training catalogue(s) [23]. This Working Group identified 10 roles in the EOSC ecosystem, which are important to enable EOSC, and thus FAIR and Open Data. Out of the 10 roles identified by the EOSC Executive Board Skills & Training Working Group, some roles are associated more frequently with digital libraries, for example the data steward/data librarian, data curator and EOSC educator role. Although there may be differences to which kind of roles are applying to specific digital libraries, depending on the organisational structure, we will focus here on these 3 roles and the required skill set.
The data librarian/data steward role concerns the person who prepares and handles FAIR research data and maintains data and metadata. This maintenance includes the preservation and storage of the (meta)data according to the FAIR and CARE (Collective benefit, Authority to control, Responsibility and Ethics) [24] principles and in line with ethical and legal frameworks on data. Thus data librarians in Europe should also be aware of the Responsible Research & Innovation program [25], the Open Science framework of the European Commission, the European General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) [26], the Nagoya Protocol [27] and the control of trade in dual-use goods (Dual Use products) [28]. In addition, data librarians should develop skills to facilitate the development of the digital library infrastructure, including library services that allow for the easy discovery, curation, preservation and retrieval on the contained digital objects together with ICT and the research community. Finally, data librarians should be acquainted with domain-specific standards and best practices in order to ensure that data can properly take into account the specifics of research disciplines.
The data curator role concerns the person who has a broad overview on the content of the institutional repository and who ensures the long-term and qualitative preservation of data in a consistent manner in line with the FAIR and CARE principles and in compliance with the policy and/or legal frameworks [24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. In brief, data curators should have profound knowledge and technical skills to ensure that data are being stored and archived in such a manner that allows for long-term usage in terms of readability, re-usability and exchange of the data, for instance with third parties.
Next, digital libraries should also include the role of (EOSC) educator, i.e. the person who has a profound understanding of the research data ecosystem (ex. EOSC), its mode of operation and the related principles and frameworks [24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. In particular the (EOSC) educator should have educational and communication skills in order to transfer this knowledge to researchers across disciplines, for example through the development of adequate training material for different target audiences.
As state above, the 3 roles described here in detail do not exclude digital libraries to consider other roles that might be needed according to their specific organisational setting. In fact, qualitative research data management cannot be reached in isolation, but merely requires the embedding of all roles recognised by the EOSC Executive Board Skills & Training Working Group within an organisational setting. However, the three roles described above provide digital libraries with a means to prioritise the development of the required digital skill sets for FAIR and Open Data. Although there are currently no focused training programs for these profiles in Flanders, shifts are taking place that will make training possible on the short to medium term, mainly due to the obligations imposed by the Flemish Open Science Policy as well as the advent of the EOSC Association. In the meanwhile, online courses and training initiatives such as those offered by DCC and others might serve as an interim solution [29].
Since the advent of the digital age, traditional libraries have been transforming to digital libraries. Digitisation has reshaped the structure, format and processes that libraries use to ensure the preservation, curation, publication and dissemination of digital content. While in the early days, digitisation processes mostly took place on (research) publications, the past decades a shift has taken place to all kinds of digital scientific materials, including research data. This shift has been accelerated with the Open Science movement, and Open Data in particular, which aims to make scientific findings freely available to everyone to be used and republished, without any restrictions. Furthermore, the current investment of Europe in the establishment of EOSC has more than ever stressed the importance of managing research data in order to enhance the flow of research data and scientific knowledge between researchers, institutions and disciplines. The importance of FAIR and Open Data in fact acts a lever to further develop the role of academic libraries as hubs of digital information. In order to take on this role, digital libraries must ensure that the infrastructure is in place to store research data, in collaboration with the ICT department and the research community, and that librarians have the required digital skill set for handling FAIR and Open Data.
In order for academic libraries to manage infrastructures for research (meta)data, it is prerequisite to incorporate software and a metadata model for research data that is in line with the research institution’s goals and processes and that allows the interoperable exchange with other digital resources worldwide. Over the past decade, many research communities have been developing metadata models for research data and crosswalks between different models are missing. This prompted the Flemish Government, to contract ECOOM-Hasselt to coordinate the creation of a Flemish application profile for research metadata that will be used by all Flemish research institutions. The resulting application profile is based on the DataCite metadata standard 4.3, yet comprises some minor customisations in terms of properties and semantics, according to the Flemish context and use purposes. The proper implementation of the metadata model in the institutional repositories, can however only be ensured when business and validation rules are developed and implemented that guarantee its correct use. Moreover, it also allows for the uniform delivery of metadata on research data to the FRIS-portal by all Flemish information providers, i.e. the universities, higher education colleges, strategic research centers and research institutions.
Next to the development of digital libraries as infrastructures for research (meta)data in collaboration with ICT and the research community, one obviously also needs to have the required competences in terms of human resources on board. In this respect, digital libraries should focus on the investment in digital skill sets for, in particular data librarians/data stewards, data curators and (EOSC) educators. In brief, these digital skill sets aim to preserve, store and curate research data, according to policy and/or regulator obligations, and enable future use of high quality (disciplinary) research data, in an easily accessible and consistent manner, including the transfer of the knowledge thereof to the research community. Altogether, FAIR and Open research (meta)data can truly act as a leverage for digital libraries and their future perspectives.
This work is carried out for the Expertise Centre for Research and Development Monitoring (ECOOM) in Flanders, which is supported by the Department of Economy, Science and Innovation, Flanders.
The author would like to thank the FOSB WG Metadata & standardisation and in particular Dr. Evy Neyens for their contributions in creating the Flemish application profile for research metadata, and the EOSC Executive Board Skills & Training Working Group for their work on writing the report on Digital Skills for FAIR and Open Science.
CARE | Collective benefit Authority to control Responsibility Ethics |
CRIS | Current Research Information System |
DOI | |
CERIF | Common European Research Information Format |
EOSC | European Open Science Cloud |
EWI | Department Economy, Sciences and Innovation of the Flemish Government |
FAIR | Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable |
FOSB | Flemish Open Science Board |
FRIS | Flemish Research Information Space |
OECD | Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |
SRIA | Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda |
VLIR | Flemish Interuniversity Council |
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