\r\n\tCongenital hearing loss means hearing loss that is present at birth. I have managed children with hearing loss for many years, and the most touching thing is the light that blooms on the face while the hearing-impaired child heard his mother's voice at first time. The scene of "happy tears" impressed me so much. To hear the voice that has not been heard is so pleasant, as if this ordinary listening experience is a supreme listening enjoyment.
\r\n\r\n\tAge-related hearing loss means a progressive loss of ability to hear high frequencies with aging, also known as presbycusis. Among them are the influence of internal and external factors such as genes, drugs and noise exposure. The studies pointed out that the brain stimulation of the hearing-impaired person is greatly reduced compared with subjects with normal hearing. The connection of auditory cortex and other brain areas has declined a lot, which is probably one of the important causes of dementia or even depression in the elderly.
\r\n\r\n\tNoise-induced hearing loss is hearing impairment resulting from exposure to loud sound. There is actually continuous and endless noise in many workplaces, which may cause chronic and cumulative damage. Some young people often work hard but easily neglect to protect themselves. In addition, in recent years, entertainment noise (such as nightclubs, concerts, and personal listening devices) has caused hearing impairment in young people. These should be avoidable and preventable.
\r\n\r\n\tHearing Science is the study of impaired auditory perception, the technologies and other rehabilitation strategies for persons with hearing loss. Public health has been defined as "the science and art of preventing disease", improving quality of life through organized efforts. To avoid the “epidemic” of hearing loss, it is necessary to promote early screening, use hearing protection, and change public attitudes toward noise.
\r\n\r\n\tBased on these concepts, the book incorporates updated developments as well as future perspectives in the ever-expanding field of hearing loss. Besides, it is also a great reference for audiologists, otolaryngologists, neurologists, specialists in public health, basic and clinical researchers.
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Introduction
African American communities are disproportionally affected by the opioid epidemic. The CDC estimates that from 2014 to 2016 opioid overdose deaths increased by 45.8% for whites but 83.9% for African Americans [1]. Although white and rural communities have reported alarming overdose rates, African American communities in urban and suburban communities have seen a steady growth of overdoses over a longer period. In particular, the opioid epidemic has disproportionately affected African-American communities, who are most likely than whites to be uninsured or underinsured and unable to enter and stay in opioid use disorder (OUD) treatment.
It is well established that African Americans are more likely than whites to experience difficulty entering and staying in outpatient SUD treatment [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Researchers have examined wait time to enter treatment and retention in treatment to develop strategies to improve treatment engagement and improve the likelihood of maintaining clients in recovery from opioid use. Wait time to treatment entry is the most commonly cited barrier, and most studies show that African American clients wait more days to enter SUD treatment than non-Hispanic white clients [6, 7, 8]. Treatment retention, or time spent in treatment, is a robust predictor of reduced post-treatment substance use [9]. National studies show that treatment programs that provide care to minority populations used fewer approaches to maintain client retention [10, 11, 12, 13]. In addition, the importance of insurance coverage to enhance access to OUD treatment for African Americans is noted.
However, since the implementation of the Affordable Care Act, the percentage of clients without insurance in predominately African-American opioid treatment programs (OTPs) dropped from 45% in 2014 to 20% in 2017, which is promising [14, 15]. Delivering culturally responsive care is also critical to engaging African Americans in OUD treatment and reducing the negative effects of the opioid epidemic. In particular, investing in a diverse workforce that is qualified to respond to the technical aspects of medication-assisted treatment and the cultural services needs of African-Americans is critical [16, 17].
The information in this chapter can help policy makers and program managers to make informed decisions about how to allocate scarce resources to help African Americans access effective OUD treatment. Although there are a variety of practices to support treatment access, engagement, and recovery, this chapter focuses on robust approaches to help African Americans considering the current healthcare environment. In this chapter, I describe the evidence supporting Medicaid coverage and delivery of cultural competence in OUD treatment.
2. Cultural competence to enhance access and engagement in OUD treatment for African Americans
Cultural competency is theoretically justified, and mounting evidence supports some of the multiple components or practices to improve engagement and OUD treatment outcomes [18]. However, standardized and empirically validated comprehensive scales through which to measure organizational cultural competence have been lacking [19]. Yet, workforce diversity, which allows matching clients and providers based on language and cultural background and ensuring connections with minority communities have received empirical support [7, 20]. These measures of workforce diversity based on matching have been associated with higher treatment access and retention. A meta-analysis also showed a small, but significant treatment effect of culturally adapted interventions on substance use behaviors among African Americans and Hispanics [21]. This previous research shows promise but requires policy and program investment in tailoring services to the needs of African Americans.
Workforce diversity has become an effective practice to address healthcare disparities in treatment outcomes [22, 23, 24]. Following Brach and Fraser, I define workforce diversity as the demographic and cultural representation of health workers and managers that reflect inclusion of backgrounds that are representative of the client population [25]. A diverse workforce is one of the main practices of cultural competence, which is defined as a set of behaviors, attitudes, and policies that enable a system, organization, or individual to function effectively with culturally diverse clients and communities [18]. I draw from the culturally and linguistically appropriate services (CLAS) denomination used by federal health agencies [26, 27, 28], which has six main components, Leadership, Quality Improvement and Data Use, Workforce, Patient Safety and Provision of Care, Language Services, and Community Engagement. For a complete list of CLAS practices, please refer to the US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), Office of Minority Health. This comprehensive approach describes a healthcare system responsive to the cultural and linguistic service needs of members of racial and ethnic minority individuals.
Workforce diversity as a key practice in CLAS may help OTPs engage African-Americans who are most likely to drop out of treatment. Previous cross-sectional analyses of national representative databases show that SUD treatment programs that cater to minority populations experience decreased retention in treatment or employed methods to maintain retention [9, 10, 11, 29, 30]. In contrast, SUD treatment programs with African American supervisors [16] predicted highest degrees of cultural competence. As culturally competent practices can encompass a wide array of organizational arrangements, practices, and services, it is critical for program administrators and counselors to determine which components of CLAS are needed to engage African Americans in OUD treatment.
The importance of diversifying the workforce and delivering CLAS in the SUD treatment system stems from disparate research suggesting that the discordance between the racial background of clients and treatment staff may contribute to health and healthcare disparities [16, 31, 32, 33, 34]. Congruence between the cultural and the linguistic backgrounds of staff and clients is thought to elevate the competencies of healthcare providers and improve client treatment adherence via the use of racial/ethnic history and cultural norms, as well as the reliance on client’s native language [16, 35, 36, 37]. Furthermore, having a diverse workforce may create a conducive climate for implementing CLAS [38, 39] and addressing treatment outcome disparities among minorities [16, 40, 41, 42]. The field has seen an increased diversity among SUD clients, but it is not clear how reliably provider/client matching yields positive results [16, 17, 43, 44, 45].
Federal, state, and professional organizations have promoted cultural competence to improve SUD treatment engagement (see DHHS Office of Minority Health). Federal regulation, through Medicaid payments of healthcare service has strengthen the focus on delivering services that respond to the cultural and linguistic services needs of clients (DHHS, Medicaid). The National Institute of Medicine, National Institute of Nursing, and the National Association of Social Workers have promoted workforce diversity strategies, as well as developed training standards for cultural competency [46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. Regulation at the federal, state, and professional certification levels has incorporated cultural competence in healthcare services [51, 52, 53, 54]. More directly to the proposed research, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration called providers to rely on CLAS because the majority of SUD counselors are non-Hispanic whites even as almost half who seek treatment are non-white.
Prior research shows that the minority background of managers and counselors is associated with higher rates of treatment access and retention among Latino and African American clients [55, 56, 57]. The use of the proposed conceptual framework may expand understanding of drivers of workforce diversity and treatment outcomes. To improve the quality of care provided to African American communities, it is critical to ensure that the different stakeholders understand the service needs of African Americans. This includes engaging policy makers, healthcare administrators, program directors, as well as treatment providers, clients, and people living in the service area who are not clients of the healthcare organization. This comprehensive approach to improve the cultural competency of OUD treatment can have a significant impact on access, retention, and recovery rates of African Americans struggling with OUDs.
3. Medication-assisted treatment and ensuring adequate dosages of opioid maintenance medication
Medication-assisted treatment (MAT) is a pharmacological intervention that relies on specific drugs (e.g., methadone, buprenorphine, or naloxone) to reduce the cravings or block the effects of opioid use. Unfortunately, only one-third of SUD treatment programs offer MAT in the United States, while those opioid treatment programs (OTPs) who provide these medications may not deliver them in adequate dosages compromising the recovery of clients.
Methadone is the most common opioid maintenance medication in the United States. It is used as a replacement for illicit opioid use, such as heroin, in medically supported opioid substitution maintenance programs, referred here as OTPs [58]. Buprenorphine, introduced after methadone, has received significant support to reduce illicit opioid use but has not been widely implemented in OTPs. The effects of buprenorphine may last longer than methadone as it can be taken once every 2 days.
The issue of OTPs providing adequate dosage has been an increasing concern considering the high regulation of medication-assisted programs and the impact on the client population. Emerging research suggests that Methadone doses higher than 60 mg/day are associated with significant declines in heroin consumption [58] and other drug use, as well as with longer retention in treatment and lower rates of relapse [59, 60, 61, 62, 63].
However, 41% of patients received lower doses [64] with African Americans more likely to receive doses less than 40 mg/day [17]. This initial findings are concerning as African American communities are disproportionally affected by the opioid epidemic and face significant barriers to access OUD treatment.
Significant evidence shows that buprenorphine at high doses (15 mg) can reduce illicit opioid use effectively [65]. There is limited evidence of African Americans receiving inadequate dosages of buprenorphine, but research has showed that African American communities have less access to buprenorphine treatment compared with White communities.
Adequate dosage of naltrexone is suggested at 50 mg/day [65, 66], but similar to buprenorphine, evidence is limited regarding the adequate dosage of naltrexone in African American communities, while there is some evidence that these communities have less access to naltrexone compared to white communities. Enhancing African American communities’ access to MAT and ensuring that maintenance dosages are adequate to maintain recovery should be a primary goal of public health leaders to abate the opioid epidemic.
4. Conceptual framework
The sociocultural framework of substance abuse service disparities [67] suggests that racial disparities in treatment service use originates when healthcare system factors, such as policy, community, and providers differently respond to individuals partly based on their racial/ethnic background. For instance, different stratified conditions emerge when healthcare markets fail in minority communities creating different pathways to access treatment. At the provider level, poor patient-provider communication, lack of trust, and poor workforce availability or competency further differentiates services to minority from services to white clients. As a result of these differences in service provision, racial minorities face greater risk than non-Hispanic whites of dropping out of care and receiving lower quality of care, resulting in worse treatment outcomes [68]. Growing evidence in differences in implementation of health policy in minority communities, provider discrimination, and provider resources offer support for this framework.
I also draw from a diversity and inclusion and funding and regulatory frameworks to describe how racial disparities in OTP may emerge and how to eliminate them. The diversity and inclusion framework proposes that by increasing racial diversity of the OTP workforce, OTPs will be able to be respond to the barriers to access and engagement in treatment [69]. Developing a diverse workforce may enhance OTPs’ capacity to deliver CLAS, but OTP’s organizational and client factors may determine when OTPs workforce diversity and delivery of culturally responsive care have an impact on process outcomes.
Opioid treatment programs (OTPs) rely heavily on their regulatory and funding environment for financial and nonfinancial (i.e., professional expertise) resources, making them vulnerable to funding and regulatory expectations [7, 70]. OTPs also rely on having a high staff to client ratio to respond to client service needs. The racial/ethnic diversity of the client population is also critical for OTPs to invest in cultural competency and improving process outcomes [16]. These dynamics are consistent with resource-dependence theory [71], which posits that high dependence on necessary resources (Medicaid funding, staffing, and diverse base) determines an organization’s practices (e.g., workforce diversity) and selection of core service technologies (e.g., CLAS).
By accepting Medicaid funding, OTPs increase their revenue, but also are pressured to comply with government-endorsed culturally responsive care [72, 73]. Because accepting Medicaid payments may be a proxy for institutional pressures to deliver CLAS and enhance access to healthcare, Medicaid acceptance and the delivery of CLAS may potentially reduce disparities in process outcomes among OTPs primarily serving African Americans and Hispanics. Delivering CLAS may improve OUD treatment programs access, increase retention, and increase percent of clients receiving adequate MAT maintenance dosage when OTPS accept Medicaid payments and when staff/client ratios are high.
Providing African Americans with adequate dosages of methadone, buprenorphine, and or naltrexone is likely to support their commitment to maintenance medication and improve their recovery efforts. A consistent and adequate dosage of these maintenance medications is associated with positive psychosocial, emotional, and labor outcomes. Hence, it is critical to develop the health policies, insurance coverage, service practices, and workforce competencies to deliver culturally responsive and adequate dosing of opioid maintenance medication.
4.1 Organizational factors improving cultural competence and recovery
Prior research on cultural competence in SUD treatment using national data has found that SUD treatment organizations with the highest degree of cultural competence have clinical supervisors and staff who are African American [16]. Studies also show that SUD treatment, when provided using different CLAS, is associated with reduced racial disparities in client access and engagement [7]. For instance, in one of the largest studies on cultural competence, Dr. Guerrero and colleagues included measures from more than 110 treatment organizations and clinical records from 28,000 clients from minority backgrounds. Using these data, they showed that culturally responsive practices are significantly related to client access to treatment services, retention in treatment, and treatment completion [74]. The comprehensive set of organizational practices, (culturally responsive policies and practices, outreach to minority communities, workforce diversity, involvement in minority communities, etc.) make a differences in enhancing treatment access and engagement, as well as ensuring clients meet their treatment plan goals to be successfully discharged.
A critical aspect of OUD treatment is medication dosage. Growing evidence suggests that OTP client characteristics and organizational factors are associated with methadone dose levels [73, 75]. Characteristics of patient mix (percentage of African American patients), employment status (percentage of patients who are currently unemployed), and patient age (percentage of patients aged 40 or above) are associated with dosage levels above 60 mg/day. Program factors associated with methadone dose levels below 60 mgs/day also include program ownership (public, private for profit, and private not-for-profit) accreditation by either the Joint Commission (TJC) or the Commission on Accreditation of Rehabilitation Facilities (CARF), the percentage of staff members who are ex-addicts [75] and African American director, particularly in programs serving populations with higher percentages of African American patients [17, 64, 76]. It is critical to understand the extent to which CLAS may improve OTPs’ likelihood of providing adequate MAT dosages in programs serving African American and Latino clients.
Altogether, organizational factors play an important role in the delivery of quality of care for African Americans. When treatment programs provide culturally responsive care, clients engage and respond to treatment. This means that if OTP services are delivered by African American staff with competencies to understand and address the cultural, linguistic, and social service needs of African American clients, these clients are likely to enter, stay, and benefit from OUD treatment.
5. Conclusions
African Americans seeking to enter SUD treatment face significant challenges to engage, stay, and benefit from treatment. Increasing evidence suggests that culturally responsive practices that include workforce diversity as well as policies, practices and services that are responsive to the service needs of African Americans may improve the effectiveness of SUD treatment. African American clients struggling with OUDs may benefit from MAT, in particular three of the most effective medications to address OUD, methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone, but ensuring that OTPs deliver MAT, adequate dosages to help African American clients achieve medication maintenance and recovery is critical.
The socio-technical and cultural framework offered in this chapter highlights several factors that may improve treatment of OUD among African Americans. The health policy like Medicaid expansion coverage will ensure effective access to treatment by ensuring ability to pay. This funding also regulates the quality of care, including provision of culturally responsive practices, which include having staff that represent the racial background of clients. The assumption is that the provide-client matching will elevate the cultural understanding of client’s OUD issues and address them effectively. The provision of MAT is critical to address OUD, but ensuring adequate dosage of the right type of maintenance medication is necessary. Healthcare system administrators, program managers, and addiction counselors should ensure that African Americans have effective access to the right medication at adequate dosages, and that outcome reporting is available.
5.1 Implications for OUD treatment for African Americans
Opioid use disorder treatment for African Americans may become more effective when investing in program design, a diverse workforce, and MAT. Because research has showed that culturally competent units are typically public, federal-funded organizations and with highly trained staff, in terms of college-educated and professionally certified, it is critical to rely on public funding (Medicaid), professional accreditation standards, and build on staff competencies to deliver OUD treatment that is effective. Culturally competent programs also have a high percent of clients with high severity of illness and social issues [16]. To increase the effectiveness of OUD treatment for an African American population that struggles with other health-related issues, it is critical to integrate MAT and medical services.
Because SUD treatment programs that invest in cultural competence are more likely to invest in ancillary servicessuch as employment counseling, spiritual strength, and physical health, it is also critical for Medicaid reimbursement policies, insurance coverages, program management, and services delivery to respond to the multiple service needs that compromise the recovery of African Americans from opioid use [16, 17].
Policy makers, healthcare administrators, program managers, and counselors need to work conjointly to use their unique knowledge to tailor policies, adjust budgets, design healthcare coverage, and services and prepare the workforce to response to the services needs of African Americans. To reduce the impact of the opioid epidemic on African American communities, public health systems need to improve access to culturally responsive and evidence-based care including effective MAT. Tailoring policies and services to the needs of the racial minority group most represented in OUD treatment has benefit to all members of society.
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge Dr. Thomas D’Aunno for all of his mentorship, assistance, expertise, and collegiality over the many, many years. His support and guidance when I was a student are the primary reasons behind my interest in the topic of African Americans and substance use disorders. I am eternally grateful for the impact that he has had on my professional life.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Thanks
I would like to especially thank Dr. Erick Guerrero for the invitation and opportunity to contribute to this important book.
Acronyms and abbreviations
CARF | Commission on Accreditation of Rehabilitation Facilities |
CLAS | culturally and linguistically appropriate services |
EBPs | evidence-based practices |
NIATx | network for the improvement of addiction treatment |
OUD | opioid use disorder |
OTP | opioid treatment program |
SUD | substance use disorder |
TJC | The Joint Commission |
\n',keywords:"African Americans, opioid use disorder treatment, Medicaid, cultural competence, treatment effectiveness",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68923.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68923.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68923",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68923",totalDownloads:317,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"March 5th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 8th 2019",datePrePublished:"September 16th 2019",datePublished:"March 11th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The current opioid epidemic substantially affects African Americans given their historical rate of disparities in access to effective substance use disorder (SUD) treatment. Yet, there is limited information about factors that may improve access to effective opioid use disorder (OUD) treatment for members of this racial group. This chapter describes policy, management, and treatment practices that may enhance access and engagement of African Americans in OUD treatment considering the current opioid epidemic and the state of public treatment systems in the United States. Drawing from a sociocultural framework on disparities in access to care, I present a comprehensive approach based on culturally competent and medication-assisted treatment that may reduce the wait time to enter treatment and increase treatment engagement and recovery rates among African Americans seeking OUD treatment. I focus on the role of public insurance (i.e., Medicaid), the diversification of the workforce, as well as delivery of adequate dosages of maintenance opioid medications (methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone) to improve engagement and recovery. Implications for health policy, program design, and service delivery are discussed to abate the effect of the opioid epidemic on African American communities.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68923",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68923",book:{slug:"effective-prevention-and-treatment-of-substance-use-disorders-for-racial-and-ethnic-minorities"},signatures:"Daniel L. Howard",authors:[{id:"297920",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"L.",surname:"Howard",fullName:"Daniel Howard",slug:"daniel-howard",email:"dannhoward@tamu.edu",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Cultural competence to enhance access and engagement in OUD treatment for African Americans",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Medication-assisted treatment and ensuring adequate dosages of opioid maintenance medication",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Conceptual framework",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Organizational factors improving cultural competence and recovery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.1 Implications for OUD treatment for African Americans",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Thanks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acronyms and abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'[Bebinger M. 2018. Opioid Overdoses are Rising Faster Among Latinos than Whites or Blacks. Why? Kaiser Health News. May 17, 2018. Available from: https://khn.org/news/opioid-overdoses-are-rising-faster- among-latinos-than-whites-or-blacks-why/]'},{id:"B2",body:'[Friedmann PD, Lemon SC, Stein MD, D’Aunno TA. Accessibility of addiction treatment: Results from a national survey of outpatient substance abuse treatment organizations. 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1. Introduction
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Proprietary or “paywall” publishing mode dominated the scholarly world throughout the late 20th and early 21st centuries. This is for-profit commercial publishing where publishers make their returns by the collection of research of scholars, application of peer-review, offering of editorial and formatting services, the collation of this research into subject-specific journals, and then selling subscription-based access of these works to academic libraries, scholarly societies and individual researchers. Access to individual articles on a short-term basis (typically 24 hours) is also supplied on a pay-for-use model. Commercial publishers also provide publishing facilities for books and monographs, although these have been on the decline [1]. The advent and wide use of the internet have strongly affected the process of scholarly publishing worldwide. A new mode of publication has emerged and widely employed by scholars and researchers. This new mode is Open Access (OA) publishing of scholarly work. This chapter will discuss OA focusing on its benefits to all the stakeholders and presenting other aspects of this new way of scholarly communication including its definition, types, development, its pros and cons and the myths and misconceptions surrounding it.
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2. Definition and types of open access
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2.1 Definition
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Open access refers to free, unrestricted online access to research outputs such as journal articles and books. OA content is open to all, with no access fees. Open access is more than free access. When people think about open access (OA), they immediately relate it with free access. Providing reuse rights is another important asset of open access. Open access in its purest form is “digital, online, free of charge, and free of most copyright and licensing restrictions”. Open access entails a new model of publishing wherein the author, supported by an institution or funding agency, pays the publishing costs and owns the copyright. The publisher manages the peer review process and publishes directly to the Internet, where content is accessible free of charge to the public. Open access publishers take full advantage of available computing technology to streamline the publishing process [2]. Open Access aims to provide users with information that is unconstrained by the motive of financial gain or profits [3]. Furthermore, Open access implies that “users must be able to copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship” [4, 5].
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In subscription-based publishing, authors are required to transfer the copyright of their works to the publisher who makes profits via the dissemination and reproduction of the works. Contrary to this, with OA publishing, authors can retain copyright to their work and license its reproduction to the publisher. The most commons licenses used in open access publishing are the Creative Commons (CC) licenses. The widely used Creative Commons By Attribution (CC BY) license is one of the most permissive, only requiring attribution to be allowed to use the material (and allowing derivations and commercial use). A range of more restrictive creative commons licenses are also used. More rarely, some of the smaller academic journals use custom open access licenses. Some publishers (e.g. Elsevier) use “author nominal copyright” for OA articles, where the author retains copyright in name only and all rights are transferred to the publisher [6].
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2.2 Brief background of the development of the OA movement
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The OA movement can be said to have started in the year 1971 with Project Gutenburg Founded by Michael Hart [7]. This project is now providing free public domain text files with more than 60,000 eBooks. However, the modern open access movement began in the 1990s with the wide availability and access to the World Wide Web and online publishing became the norm. Starting in the early years of the 21st century there was a significant momentum towards making access to published research free of charge to scholars and universities through the Open Access movement. Three pioneering initiatives laid the foundation for the ideas and principles of OA movement. These are The Budapest Open Access Initiative on Feb. 14, 2002, The Bethesda Statement on Open Access Publishing on Apr. 11, 2003, and The Berlin Declaration on Open Access on Oct. 22, 2002 [8]. The Budapest Open Access Initiative was worked out during the human rights proponents gathering for the Open Society Institute meeting in December 2001. During the meetings a number of participants suggested that a global support is needed to create open information access within the scientific community. A draft was created during that meeting, and formalized two months later, in February 2002 as the Budapest Initiative. In April 2003, the United States and the United Kingdom based biomedical community convened and drafted a set of publishing principles guiding scientific dissemination. These principles were finalized and published in June 2003 as the Bethesda Statement. In October 2003, the European scientific community called for support by European researchers to engage in Open Access, with the Berlin Declaration [9].
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Many stakeholders contributed to building institutions and resources for shaping up the global OA movements. Some of the institutions emerged during the first two decades of the third millennium are namely, Public Library of Science (PLOS), BioMed Central (BMC) – publishers of peer-reviewed OA journals, the Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC), and Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) [10]. In addition to the previously mentioned (BBB); the Budapest, Berlin and Bethesda OA declarations or statements got signed by the scholarly communities, particularly by the funding agencies, research councils, learned societies, institutions, universities, and scientists for the OA dissemination of public funded research.
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The latest strong support for the OA movement is represented by what is known as PLAN S where the s could stand for “science, or shock” but “speed” is the most relevant where it refers to speed with the transition to direct and open access [11]. Plan S is an initiative for Open Access publishing that was launched in September 2018. The plan is supported by cOAlition S, an international consortium of research funders. Plan S requires that, from 2021, scientific publications that result from research funded by public grants must be published in compliance with Open Access journals or platforms.
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2.3 Types of open access
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There are three basic types of open access publishing. These are Green Open Access, Gold Open Access, and Hybrid Open Access [12].
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2.3.1 Green open access
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Green Open access publishing refers to the self-archiving of published or pre-publication works for free public use. Authors provide access to preprints or post-prints of their works with publisher permission in an institutional or disciplinary digital repository. Thus, Green open access refers to the practice of republishing a publication in an open access institutional or disciplinary repository. In this case the publication is first published in a traditional, closed-access journal. These materials are then made available to all via the internet, without restrictions or pay walls. In the “Green Route” of open access, institutions create repositories for their own research which is made open after an appropriate embargo period agreed upon with commercial publishers. As such Green Open Access generally refers to the post-print of an article [1]. In this context, there are three basic version types that can be self-archived in repositories: These are:
Pre-Prints – The author’s copy of article before it has been reviewed by the publisher, or pre-reviewed.
Post-Prints – The author’s copy of article after it has been reviewed and corrected, but before the publisher has formatted it for publication, or post-reviewed.
Publisher’s Version – The version that is formatted and appears in print or online.
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2.3.2 Gold open access
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Gold open access publishing refers to works published in an open access journal and accessed via the journal or publisher’s website. The Gold Route involves publishing in an open access journal, which then provides the dissemination and curation services in the same way as current proprietary publishers. This form of publishing is funded through government, society or institutional grants, and sometimes through charging authors a fee for deposit, known as an article processing charge (APC). However, the latter practice is implemented by a minority of open access journals and most journals do not charge any fees at all [13].
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2.3.3 Hybrid open access
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Hybrid open access publishing is mostly associated with gold open access. It takes place in journals that offer authors the option of making their articles open access, for a fee. Hybrid journals are subscription-based journals that make individual articles openly available in return for a fee. The hybrid route has been suggested as a means for traditional publishers to make a transition to open access publishing without significantly decreasing revenue, by charging fees for open access articles equal to the average subscription revenue per article. In the Hybrid Open Access publishing type, sometimes called Paid Open Access, the fee is paid to the publisher or journal by the author, the author’s organization, or the research funder [14, 15].
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There are a number of other variations of these major types of open access publishing types. These include the Diamond Open access and the Platinum Open Access. The Diamond Open access journals provide scholarly publishing free of fees and access charges. They have direct or indirect subsidies from institutions like universities, research centres, government agencies etc. Whereas the Platinum model of open access publishing refers to the situation in which journals are published directly by the research or funding institutions themselves.
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In Gold and Hybrid OA models, publishers usually publish articles with Creative Commons (CC) licenses. Open Access does not imply there is no copyright attached to the open document; rather, in most cases the Creative Commons Attribution License (CCAL) model is used. Founded in 2001, the CCAL states that users are free to share, adapt, or use the work as long as they give attribution in the manner specified by the author or licensor [16]. The Attribution License is one of six codes under the Creative Commons License. Thus Open Access journals do not charge subscription or pay-per-view fees compared to traditional journals. The authors, their institutions, or the research funders pay the “open access” fee to make it free to readers; authors retain copyright for the article and most permission barriers are removed [17, 18].
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There is a controversial type of open access called the Bronze Open Access. In the Bronze model no open access Fee is paid but the publisher chooses to make a publication freely available to read. Many Open Access advocates and research funders would not regard Bronze as truly Open Access because the publisher can stop the publications being freely available at any time, whereas genuinely Open Access publications have a specific licence that means the publication is irrevocably open access and the terms of use and reuse are clearly stated [19].
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Although bronze OA lacks a license, it is temporarily free to read only on the publisher’s website, and Publishers can deny access to the majority of open-access articles at their discretion [20].
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2.3.4 Gratis vs. libre open access
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These two terms are interlinked to the basic three types of open access. But in contrast to Gold, Green and Hybrid OA, they do not describe forms of publication, but define the attributes of an article published in OA. Therefore an article might be described jointly as Gratis Open Access, or Gratis Gold or Green Open Access, etc. [21]. Gratis Open Access means free of charge Open Access. This means that price barriers alone are removed from access to the publication. It allows no uses beyond what is considered legitimate under copyright and fair use. Libre Open Access, on the other hand, means free of charge and free of at least some permission barriers. This means that the article is free for some kinds of further use and reuse, and presupposes some kind of open licence that allows types of uses that are not permitted by default [22].\n
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3. Advantages and disadvantages of open access publishing
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3.1 Advantages and benefits
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Open access publishing has a plethora of advantages for authors, institutions and readers across all sections of society. These advantages can be summarised as follows [8, 23]:
Increased accessibility of research work by users and other researchers. This leads to the enhancement and acceleration of the research cycle when results are available on an Open Access basis, where work is published, read, cited and then built upon by other researchers.
Increased visibility for authors and institutions, resulting in a higher impact of the research. There are no financial or copyright barriers so the readership continues to increase, enhancing the visibility and impact of the author’s Work. There is a greater chance of research results being seen when scientific journals are free to read and use, thus influencing the thinking of others. This state of affairs results in the increase of the academic’s impact factor.
Immediacy and Shorter publication times compared to non-open access publishing. Open access publishing takes shorter period of time from the date of submission of an article to a journal to its publication date.
Increased citations. A number of studies revealed that open access publishing leads to a greater number of citations. There is accumulating evidence showing that open access research articles are cited more often than those closed access articles. The studies reveal that across most subject areas there is at least a twofold increase in citation rate and that in some subject areas it is even higher [24].
Removing of price barriers. Open access removes price barriers and that openly accessible works are often full-text indexed, helping potential readers easily locate a work using a search engine, and access the work without being turned away by pay walls.
Contribution to author royalties. Some authors found that widespread dissemination of their openly accessible works stimulates demand for print copies of their works, contributing to royalties for these authors [23].
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Those seeking wider visibility of their research work, higher impact for their research, less publication cost, and a shorter period of time from the date of submission to the publication date, should opt for publication in an OA journal [25].
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3.2 Disadvantages
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The most prominent and prevalent disadvantage of OA publishing is the emergence of predatory publishers and predatory journals. A predatory journal will not maintain the academic standards that are expected of a reputable scientific journal. The objective of the predatory journal is to make money for the owners without concern for the quality of the research published. A predatory journal will pretend to follow the essential editorial processes required for authentic academic publishing, but will not so do. Thus the quality of the research published in a predatory journal is likely to be low. Predatory journals can be identified by a number of characteristics, the most important of which may be the fact that they tend to market themselves through intensive e-mailing to invite selective victims who might otherwise have difficulty in having their research published in reputable journals. This lead to the development of what has become known as the predatory journal, which for a fee paid by the author delivers an un-scrutinised and unedited piece of writing purporting to be a high quality report on a piece of rigorously conducted scientific research. These journals are then presented to the public as Open Access journals [8, 26, 27].
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Another claimed disadvantage of Open Access publishing is that some OA journals do not have high impact factors and this is considered detrimental to a researcher, though this is questionable as many OA journals are new and have not yet received their first impact factor (IF). However, high-IF OA journals are available in a variety of fields [25].
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4. Myths and misconceptions about OA
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There are a number of myths and misconceptions surrounding open access publishing mode. Some of the most common myths include the following:
Myth 1: “open access journals are not peer reviewed”.
Myth 2: “all open journals charge publication fees”.
Myth 3: “authors must choose between prestigious publication and Open Access publication”.
Myth 4: “post-print archiving violates copyright”.
Myth 5: “OA invites plagiarism.”
Myth 6: “OA helps readers but not authors.”
Myth 7: “All OA is gratis OA.”
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Below is a discussion of these myth and misconceptions about open access publishing with points that help dispel them.
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4.1 Myth 1: “open access journals are not peer reviewed”
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Studies show that the majority of OA journals are peer-reviewed with the same or higher standards as traditional scholarly journals. However, it takes time for a new OA journal to build a high impact factor [18, 28]. Indexing of a journal in a major citation database is also considered a reflection of a journal’s quality. Indexing newly established OA journals in major citation databases is complex and time-consuming, furthering existing misconceptions of quality [8]. This myth entails that Open access journals are intrinsically low in quality. But as early as 2004, it was found that in every field of the sciences there was at least one open access title that ranked at or near the top of its field in citation impact. It’s quite normal that open access journals can be of high quality and first-rate: the quality of a scholarly journal depends on its authors, editors, and referees, not its business model or access policy [29, 30].
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4.2 Myth 2: “all open journals charge publication fees”
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There are a number of OA journal business models and a number of OA book business models available. The models include the following options and variations:
\nAuthor-Pays model, author pays publishing fee.
\nResearch funder subsidies, funding organisations pay author fees.
\nInstitutional membership, author fees are paid as a lump sum.
\nPublishing support funds, institutions reserve funds for author fees.
\nHybrid business model, journals mix subscription based and author pays content.
\nCommunity-fee model, societies fund journals by both subscriptions and membership fees.
\nInstitutional subsidies, institutions support their own university presses.
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Charging publication fees in the form of author fees or article processing charges is the best-known business model for open access journals, but it is not the most common. Most peer-reviewed open access journals nowadays charge no fees at all. The Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) [31] provides information about open access journals that do and do not charge fees. It is also well known that most conventional or non-open access journals do charge author-side fees, on top of reader-side subscription fees.
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4.3 Myth 3: “Authors must choose between prestigious publication and Open Access publication”
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OA is compatible with prestige for two reasons: First, a growing number of OA journals have already earned high levels of prestige, and others are earning it. The second reason is that most pay wall (Toll Access) journals allow OA archiving. When authors retain the right to self-archive, all journals willing to publish their work also allow self-archiving. The current misunderstanding has some negative effects. When scholars know about OA and don’t choose it, they are generally not opposed to it; many support it strongly. They are simply giving higher priority to prestige. But because OA is compatible with prestige, authors rarely have to choose. But they have to choose only when a prestigious journal doesn’t already permit post print archiving and when it rejects the authors’ individualized request for permission. Authors rarely have to choose between them, but to have both at once they will often have to choose to self-archive [32].
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4.4 Myth 4: “post-print archiving violates copyright”
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Most publishers allow their authors to self-archive their articles in institutional repositories or on their own personal websites. However, conditions and restrictions are frequently imposed. For example, authors are often obliged to observe an embargo period between the publication date and the date on which the document is made openly accessible online. The SHERPA/Romeo Listings provide information on the self-archiving policies of individual publishers. They used to classify publishers in different colours depending on their archiving policies; green publishers let authors archive preprint and post print or publisher’s version/PDF, blue publishers let authors archive post print or publisher’s version/PDF, yellow publishers let authors archive preprint, and white publishers do not formally support archiving. But they recently stated that they have now retired the Romeo colours, as open access policies have become more complicated and the colours no longer gave a clear overview [33]. Many of those authors, whose publishers do not allow self-archiving, supplement their standard publishing agreements with contract addenda which enable them to provide open access to their work in parallel with publication [34].
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4.5 Myth 5: “OA invites plagiarism”
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In the early days of the OA movement some authors worried that OA would increase the incentive to plagiarize their work. On the contrary, OA might make plagiarism easier to commit, for people trolling for text to cut and paste. But for the same reason, OA makes plagiarism more risky to commit. Plagiarism from OA sources is the easiest kind to detect. Some of the misunderstanding here may arise from confusing plagiarism and copyright infringement. Plagiarism and infringement are two separate things although they are overlapping offenses. “Someone can commit plagiarism without infringing copyright (by copying a fair-use excerpt and claiming it as one’s own) and infringe copyright without committing plagiarism (by copying a larger excerpt but with attribution). One can also commit both together (by copying a large excerpt and claiming it as one’s own)” [32].
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4.6 Myth 6: “OA helps readers but not authors”
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OA articles are accessible to everyone with an internet connection, a vastly larger audience than any scholarly journal can claim. Not all internet users will care to read your research, of course. But making your work universally accessible to the connected guarantees that it will be accessible to the subset which does care. If there’s an exception for the digital divide, there’s a larger exception for the non-digital or print divide. Moreover, there’s abundant evidence that OA articles are cited more often than non-OA articles, even more than non-OA articles from the same issues of the same journals [35, 36]. Many different studies have tackled this phenomenon, taking on different bodies of literature, using different methods, controlling different variables. They disagree on whether the OA impact advantage is large or small, and whether OA causes the increase in citations or is merely correlated with it. But they agree that OA articles are cited more often than non-OA articles. Authors\n may hope to earn royalties from their books, but they write journal articles for impact, not for money [37].
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4.7 Myth 7: “All OA is gratis OA”
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Gratis OA removes price barriers but not permission barriers. It makes content free of charge but not free of copyright or licensing restrictions. It gives users no more reuse rights than they already have through fair use or the local equivalent. Libre OA removes price barriers and at least some permission barriers. It loosens copyright and licensing restrictions and permits at least some uses beyond fair use [38]. There is some excuse for the opposite view, that all OA is libre OA. The Budapest, Bethesda, and Berlin definitions of OA all describe forms of libre OA. The current misunderstanding accepts that gratis OA is a kind of OA, but goes one step too far and assumes that gratis OA is the only kind of OA. The misunderstanding is that there is no libre OA, that libre OA adds nothing to gratis OA, or that what libre OA adds isn’t necessary or desirable. In general, OA repositories have good reasons to stick to gratis OA but OA journals don’t. Repositories can’t generate the needed permissions on their own, but journals can [37].
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5. Future of open access
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5.1 Prevalence of open access
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A large-scale study that investigates the prevalence and impact of OA publishing found that almost half of the scholarly papers that people attempt to access online are now freely and legally available [39]. The study tracked 100,000 online requests for journal papers in 2017. It examined reader data from a web-browser extension called Unpaywall which finds free-to-read versions of pay-walled papers in the Internet. The study authors analysed server logs of 100,000 papers that Unpaywall users tried to access during one week, and found that 47% of accessed studies were legally available to read for free somewhere on the web, and that around half the content being accessed was published in the previous two years. Their study also revealed that more than 20% of scholarly articles searched for through Unpaywall were available directly from journals, with clear licences describing whether the papers were free not just to read, but also to download or redistribute. Another 9% of the papers were still published behind a pay-wall, but authors later uploaded their paper to an online repository. The most intriguing category of papers was the 15% that were posted on a publisher’s site as free to read, but without any explicit open licence. The authors say this type of open-access — which they call ‘bronze’, in contrast to the widely used ‘gold’ and ‘green’ definitions — has been scarcely discussed. Of papers published in the most recent year examined −2015- 45% were freely available, which suggests that newer articles are more likely to be open. The authors of the study concluded that the percentage of literature that is OA continues to grow steadily, and that “In the next few decades, we’re going to be seeing nearly all the literature available freely.” [39].
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5.2 Plan S and the future of open access
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Plan S is the latest initiative to promote and support open access publishing. Below is an excerpt from the Coalition website [40] which is the body responsible for the Plan S, revealing the target of this open access plan:
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\n\nWith effect from 2021, all scholarly publications on the results from research funded by public or private grants provided by national, regional and international research councils and funding bodies, must be published in Open Access Journals, on Open Access Platforms, or made immediately available through Open Access Repositories without embargo [41].
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6. Conclusion
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This chapter presented an overview of the basic principles and common practices of open access publishing as an emerging and expanding mode of scholarly publishing. The chapter started with an introduction to the concept of open access publishing with a brief background of the development of the open access movement. The different types of open access publishing are then highlighted and defined. These types include Gold Open Access, Green Open Access, and Hybrid Open Access, in addition to other variations of these basic types namely, the Diamond Open Access and the Platinum Open Access. The concepts of Gratis vs. Libre Open Access are also defined and explained. The chapter then discussed the advantages and disadvantages of open access focusing on the various advantages of this mode of scholarly publishing to authors and readers as well. The chapter then proceeded to discuss and refute the most common myths and misconceptions about open access publishing. The chapter is concluded with some views on the prevalence and future of open access publishing.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"open access publishing, types of open access publishing, open access and copyright, creative commons licenses, benefits of open access publishing",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74582.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74582.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74582",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74582",totalDownloads:84,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 4th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 3rd 2020",datePrePublished:"December 25th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"December 25th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter provides an overview of the principles and practices of open access (OA) publishing. It discusses various aspects of this emerging mode of scholarly publishing, including the definition of Open Access and its different types and models in addition to its growth and impact. The chapter also highlights the implications of open access publishing on copyright issues and how creative commons licenses are used to deal with this issue. The main focus of the chapter is to outline and discuss the different advantages and benefits of open access publishing, refuting a number of myths and misconceptions about OA publishing, and to highlight how authors and researchers can benefit from publishing their intellectual works in an open access channel. The chapter adopts the literature review as a methodology and a tool of data collection.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74582",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74582",signatures:"Omer Hassan Abdelrahman",book:{id:"9975",title:"Digital Libraries",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Digital Libraries",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sadia Vancauwenbergh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9975.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"235835",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",middleName:null,surname:"Vancauwenbergh",slug:"sadia-vancauwenbergh",fullName:"Sadia Vancauwenbergh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Definition and types of open access",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Definition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Brief background of the development of the OA movement",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Types of open access",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.3.1 Green open access",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.2 Gold open access",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.3.3 Hybrid open access",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.3.4 Gratis vs. libre open access",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Advantages and disadvantages of open access publishing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.1 Advantages and benefits",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2 Disadvantages",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Myths and misconceptions about OA",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.1 Myth 1: “open access journals are not peer reviewed”",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.2 Myth 2: “all open journals charge publication fees”",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.3 Myth 3: “Authors must choose between prestigious publication and Open Access publication”",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.4 Myth 4: “post-print archiving violates copyright”",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.5 Myth 5: “OA invites plagiarism”",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.6 Myth 6: “OA helps readers but not authors”",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"4.7 Myth 7: “All OA is gratis OA”",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"5. Future of open access",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.1 Prevalence of open access",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.2 Plan S and the future of open access",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'[\nAlma Swan, Michelle Willmers & Thomas King. Costs and Benefits of Open Access: A Guide for Managers in Southern African Higher Education [Internet]. 2014. Available from: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.899.9086&rep=rep1&type=pdf [Accessed: 2020-07-08]\n]'},{id:"B2",body:'[\nGale Oren. The Crisis in Scholarly Publishing: Open Access to the Rescue? Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology. 2008;1:1-4. DOI: 10.1097/WNO.0b013e3181678618\n]'},{id:"B3",body:'[\nDevika P Madalli. Concepts of Openness and Open Access [Internet]. 2015. Available from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000232207 [Accessed: 2020-07-09]\n]'},{id:"B4",body:'[\nBethesda Statement on Open Access Publishing [Internet]. 2003. Available from: https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/4725199/suber_bethesda.htm?sequence=1&isAllowed=y [Accessed: 2020-07-08]\n]'},{id:"B5",body:'[\nBerlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities [Internet]. 2003. Available from: https://openaccess.mpg.de/Berlin-Declaration [Accessed: 2020-07-08]\n]'},{id:"B6",body:'[\nWikipedia. Open Access [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access [Accessed: 2020-08-05]\n]'},{id:"B7",body:'[\nPaul Royster. A Brief History of Open Access [Internet]. (2016). Available from: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/library_talks/123 [Accessed: 2020-07-12]\n]'},{id:"B8",body:'[\nS Singh and D Remenyi. Researchers Beware of Predatory and Counterfeit Journals: Are Academics Gullible? The Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods. 2016;1:50-59.\n]'},{id:"B9",body:'[\nMeenu Kumari. Open access to scholarly communication: Issues and challenges. International Journal of Advanced Educational Research. 2017;6:117-122.\n]'},{id:"B10",body:'[\nUNESCO. Introduction to Open Access [book on the Internet].Paris: UNESCO. Available from: https://wiki.lib.sun.ac.za/images/e/ed/L1.pdf [Accessed: 2020-08-14]\n]'},{id:"B11",body:'[\nJacqui Thornton. Transition to immediate open access publishing under Plan S will be smooth, promise backers. BMJ. 2018;363. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k5019 .\n]'},{id:"B12",body:'[\nLaura Burtle. Open Access: Types of OA [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://research.library.gsu.edu/c.php?g=115588&p=754380 [Accessed: 2020-08-14]\n]'},{id:"B13",body:'[\nWitold Kieńć. Green OA vs. Gold OA: Which one to choose? [Internet]. 2015. Available from: https://openscience.com/green-oa-vs-gold-oa-which-one-to-choose/ [Accessed: 2020-09-03]\n]'},{id:"B14",body:'[\nThomas J. Walker. Electronic reprints -- segueing into electronic publication of biological journals. BioScience. 1996;46;3:171. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bioscience/46.3.171\n\n]'},{id:"B15",body:'[\nBo-Christer Bjork. The hybrid model for open access publication of scholarly articles: A failed experiment? Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology. 2012;63:1496-1504. DOI: 10.1002/asi.22709\n]'},{id:"B16",body:'[\nCreative Commons Attribution License. About the licenses [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ [Accessed: 2020-09-03]\n]'},{id:"B17",body:'[\n\nJan M. Nick . Open Access Part I: The Movement, The Issues, and The Benefits. OJIN [journal on the internet]. 2012; 17;1. DOI: 10.3912/OJIN.Vol17No01PPT02.\n]'},{id:"B18",body:'[\nDarshana T. Shah. Open Access Publishing: Pros, Cons, and Current Threats. Marshall Journal of Medicine. 2017;3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18590/mjm.2017.vol3.iss3.1\n\n]'},{id:"B19",body:'[\n\nBrookes O.A. The different models of Open Access [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://brookesoa.blog/open-access/the-different-models-of-open-access/ [Accessed: 2020-08-20]\n]'},{id:"B20",body:'[\nJon Brock. ‘Bronze’ open access supersedes green and gold [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www.natureindex.com/news-blog/bronze-open-access-supersedes-green-and-gold [Accessed: 2020-08-12]\n]'},{id:"B21",body:'[\nKamil Mizera. Green, Gold, Gratis and Libre Open Access: brief overview for beginners [Internet]. 2013. Available from: https://openscience.com/green-gold-gratis-and-libre-open-access-brief-overview-for-beginners/#:~:text=“Libre”%20access%20is%20free%20of,(or%20the%20local%20equivalent) [Accessed: 2020-09-04]\n]'},{id:"B22",body:'[\nMeg Hunt and Alma Swan. Briefing paper: Open Access [Internet]. 2012. Available from: http://www.pasteur4oa.eu/sites/pasteur4oa/files/resource/Open%20Access%20-%20basic%20briefing%20.pdf [Accessed: 2020-12-01]\n]'},{id:"B23",body:'[\nLexi Rubow, Rachael Shen and Brianna Schofield. Understanding Open Access: When, Why, & How to Make Your Work Openly Accessible [Internet]. 2015. Available from: https://authorsalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/Documents/Guides/Authors%20Alliance%20-%20Understanding%20Open%20Access.pdf [Accessed: 2020-09-03]\n]'},{id:"B24",body:'[\nAlma Swan. JISC Open Access Briefing Paper [Internet]. 2005. Available from: http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/id/eprint/261005 [Accessed: 2020-12-01]\n]'},{id:"B25",body:'[\nSarah Conte. Making the Choice: Open Access vs. Traditional Journals [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www.aje.com/en/arc/making-the-choice-open-access-vs-traditional-journals/ [Accessed: 2020-09-01]\n]'},{id:"B26",body:'[\nJeffrey Beall. Predatory Publishers Are Corrupting Open Access [Internet]. 2012. available from: https://www.nature.com/news/predatory-publishers-are-corrupting-open-access-1.11385 [Accessed: 2020-08-25]\n]'},{id:"B27",body:'[\nRosanna Tamburri. Publishers with questionable practices prey on academics: Canadian researchers are being inundated with offers to publish their work by dubious online publishers [Internet] 2013. Available from: https://www.universityaffairs.ca/news/news-article/publishers-with-questionable-practices-prey-on-academics/ [Accessed: 2020-08-25]\n]'},{id:"B28",body:'[\nB C Björk and D Solomon. Open access versus subscription journals: a comparison of scientific impact. BMC Med.2012;10;73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-10-73\n\n]'},{id:"B29",body:'[\nOpen Access: Benefits of Open Access [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://subjectguides.library.westernsydney.edu.au/c.php?g=165246&p=667613 [Accessed: 2020-08-05]\n]'},{id:"B30",body:'[\nMarie E. McVeigh. Open Access Journals in the ISI Citation Databases: Analysis of Impact Factors and Citation Patterns a citation study from Thomson Scientific [Internet]. 2004. Available from: https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39476484/openaccesscitations2.pdf?1445994076=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DOpen_Access_Journals_in_the_ISI_Citation.pdf&Expires=1598855598&Signature=C2UTE7x78ziI~KTDnK4C8VSxstoSrcu3DlDp--rn7UyEV~8ccETnwiaK60b-eH9xJALq~5FserNllyqMrcy8uB3Ipa5BcXabehVigz1YHobs76WNhYtezVZzg5e-7vjxrsjioZ2kqJSa~kB~x-L4A~TJTsMfBzKy9NIMKmiFehIGH687siXNlnGo5EPQVmlz2~9S~~t2F4bwxnaU17by4xCtXy5ThG7IQ5TeJvrvq66S~fRpfqFscNSIZAbwc1jhGq6mYfA0tsB218y9pX2uoI1F3RtrgSt1bU~ePGjmihEHHLp17LuOBWt0iTTxlpGqf8lHoAlvtqf5Knc1EpBHw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA [Accessed: 2020-12--2]\n]'},{id:"B31",body:'[\n\nDirectory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://doaj.org [Accessed: 2020-07-25]\n]'},{id:"B32",body:'[\nPeter Suber. A field guide to misunderstandings about open access [Internet] 2009. Available from: http://legacy.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/newsletter/04-02-09.htm#fieldguide [Accessed: 2020-07-18]\n]'},{id:"B33",body:'[\nSherpa Romeo 2020 [Internet] 2020. Available from: https://v2.sherpa.ac.uk/romeo/ [Accessed: 2020-12-02]\n]'},{id:"B34",body:'[\nElizabeth Gadd, Jenny Fry and Claire Creaser. The influence of journal publisher characteristics on open access policy trends [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11192-018-2716-8 [Accessed: 2020-09-25]\n]'},{id:"B35",body:'[\nPeter Suber. Gratis and libre open access [Internet]. 2008. Available from: http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/newsletter/08-02-08.htm#gratis-libre [Accessed: 2020-07-10]\n]'},{id:"B36",body:'[\nStevan Harnad and Tim Brody. Comparing the Impact of Open Access (OA) vs. Non-OA Articles in the Same Journals. D-Lib Magazine. June 2004;10:6.\n]'},{id:"B37",body:'[\nPeter Suber. Open access policy options for funding agencies and universities [Internet]. 2009. Available from: http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/newsletter/02-02-09.htm#4 [Accessed: 2020-08-25]\n\n]'},{id:"B38",body:'[\nHeather Piwowar, Jason Priem, Vincent Larivière, Juan Pablo Alperin, Lisa Matthias, Bree Norlander, Ashley Farley, Jevin West and Stefanie Haustein. The State of OA: A large-scale analysis of the prevalence and impact of Open Access articles [Internet]. 2017. Available from: https://peerj.com/preprints/3119/ [Accessed: 2020-08-25]\n]'},{id:"B39",body:'[\nDalmeet Singh Chawla. Half of papers searched for online are free to read: Large study of open research analysed reader data from Unpaywall tool, which finds freely available versions of articles [Internet]. 2017. Available from: https://www.nature.com/news/half-of-papers-searched-for-online-are-free-to-read-1.22418 [Accessed: 2020-09-01]\n]'},{id:"B40",body:'[\nPlan S: Making Full and Immediate Open Access a Reality [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www.coalition-s.org [Accessed: 2020-08-25]\n]'},{id:"B41",body:'[\nPlan S: Principles and Implementation [Internet] 2020. Available from: https://www.coalition-s.org/addendum-to-the-coalition-s-guidance-on-the-implementation-of-plan-s/principles-and-implementation/ [Accessed: 2020-08-25]\n]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Omer Hassan Abdelrahman",address:"omhass@hotmail.com",affiliation:'- Department of Library and Information Science, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan
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