Basic properties of submicron VGCFs [48].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\r\n\tFinally, the book will address core issues related to artificial intelligence particularly focusing on reinforcement learning-based systems. The contributions in the book can be either of three forms - (1) concepts of machine learning explained in a tutorial format for understanding of some concepts, (2) research contributions based on designing new algorithms and applications presenting some novel results, and (3) innovative applications of well-known theories and concepts. The chapters in the book will largely be based on the following topics but not necessarily limited to them: planning, design testing, and deployment of machine learning projects, classification models, regression models, support vector machines, decision trees, ensemble models, multilayer perceptions, training, validation, and testing of models, dimensionality reduction - singular value decomposition, principal component analysis, hyperparameter tuning, model optimization, deep neural networks, autoencoders, restricted Boltzmann machines, convolutional neural networks, recurrent neural networks, reinforcement learning, temporal difference learning etc.
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Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88670",slug:"renewing-management-education-with-action-learning",body:'\nMost organizations and especially the larger ones in the corporate world are encountering very serious people management issues and are suffering from weak or bad human management skills coupled with poor leadership qualities on the part of their executives. These executives are focused primarily on short-term quantitative results that show a surprising “myopia” about these major and growing human management problems that are now jeopardizing the companies’ attractiveness for real talents, image, and also global performances at least in the medium term [1, 2, 3]. The present supposed “panacea” for most management problems and performance improvement, focused on the digitalization revolution and artificial intelligence, is not only often making matters worse in these areas of human management and good leadership but also will not efficiently contribute to the enhancement of the organization’s and companies’ global and sustainable performances.
\nOne of the main reasons and responsibilities behind these serious people management issues (and their very high associated “hidden cost”) lies to a large extent in the mainstream model of management education still based on an old MBA concept. We will see in this chapter not only why this model is outdated and does not adequately answer the organizational world’s present and future human management and leadership challenges but also why this model exhibits a strong resistance to any real profound change.
\nToday, it has become necessary to develop and to promote new approaches and models of management education more capable of bringing about adequate answers to the twenty-first century’s present and real people management and leadership challenges [4].
\nThe action learning approach ([5, 6, 7]) appears as a very promising pathway to effectively and extensively renew and revamp the traditional management education model and to open quite attractive perspectives. The action learning approach helps not only to boost the learning of the needed human and leadership competences of the future “managers-leaders” but also to facilitate the design of new types of less hierarchical organizations and more efficient operating modes based on collaborative intelligence that fosters creativity, initiatives, autonomy, and responsibility of both individual employees and work teams.
\nAfter briefly reviewing the limits of the mainstream management education model and analyzing the main factors of its resistance to profound changes, we will take on the main managerial challenges encountered today in the organizational world—challenges for which the current model is not bringing about adequate human skills. Then we will see how an alternative management education model based on action learning can be a much better response to most of these people management and leadership challenges and can also better suit the aspirations of present and future generations’ new work habits.
\nAs already emphasized and criticized by [8, 9], more than 15 years ago, the mainstream management education model is still based on the American MBA concept designed more than half a century ago. This model was elaborated in a very different context with an emphasis on the management disciplines corresponding to the main managerial functions such as described by Fayol at the beginning of the twentieth century. Paradoxically, this model has not changed much since the “Industrial Age” while everything else has been changing for one century!
\nIt turns out that the mainstream management education is mainly composed of theoretical courses focused on each main management discipline (accounting, marketing, finance, logistics, data analysis, human resources, supply chain, sales, etc.) without many links between each subject. These courses are illustrated by pedagogical cases or exercises with a deductive pedagogical approach. Even the courses on strategy are essentially focused on products/markets/technologies/finance with pure quantitative goals. Employees are only considered as “human resources” with necessary professional skills and the priority to fulfill short-term economic and financial objectives.
\nInstructors or professors who deliver these courses tend to be highly specialized in their respective management discipline with an emphasis put on their theoretical research works which appears to be the most important factor for their academic career.
\nVery often students feel frustrated with management courses which appear to them as too theoretical and not preparing them well for their future necessary operational expertise. In addition, this type of “toolkit” management education mainly based on the learning of techniques in each management discipline has an inadequate outcome: formatting super management disciplined technicians but not preparing them well for the very core of their manager-leader job which is mainly people management and leadership responsibilities [10, 11].
\nThis outcome is due to the very approach of this MBA type of management education for which employees are merely considered as “human resources” that can be tapped to primarily serve the interests of the business at the lowest possible cost!
\nThe MBA philosophy and priority (even if it is a bit hidden today) are to maximize, in the short term, owner (shareholder) profit more than to meet the interests of the main stakeholders despite, for some years now, the increasing trendy talks and courses about CSR and sustainability.
\nThe profound changes that are transforming our present developed societies can no longer be satisfied with this only shortsighted, purely financial goal. Today, sustainability with environmental and social challenges cannot be overlooked. The triple bottom line (economic, environmental, and social) tends—and will be more and more—to become the new mantra of the premium corporate world. Indeed, most MBAs are today trying to offer a better image by incorporating, to various degrees, sustainability issues but are generally much more shy about social and human matters.
\nThe very basic model of most mainstream business schools still remains the same even if these schools have tried to improve their attractiveness in a very competitive market by playing with their image and putting forward the fashionable digitalization of their programs and exercises in their communication strategy as well as the applications of artificial intelligence in the teaching of their various management disciplines and techniques!
\nOne can be struck by the confusion that exists between the modernization of the management education only based on the incorporation of the new information and communication technologies within the same MBA model and the much needed real modernization of the manager-leader function which should be more based on the learning and the development of human skills such as interpersonal communication, listening, sharing informations and reflections with coworkers which create the adequate conditions for individual motivation for each person, delegating responsibilities, empowering individuals and teams, coaching and mentoring the less experienced members, etc.
\nAn important sign of the corporate world in this area is its growing demand and stress put on the “soft skills” of their future managers and the requirement to innovate for people management and leadership practices [12].
\nPreparing future “managers-leaders” adequately can no longer be only about training management disciplines to technicians but accompanying the learning processes of human competences which make up 80% of the real job of an efficient and intelligent “manager- leader”! So we can wonder why is the old and increasingly obsolete MBA model showing so much resistance to the profound changes that would better answer executive profile needs of the corporate world? What are the main reasons of its surprisingly long life despite its increasing inadequacy?
\nThe first one must emphasize a strong business issue for most education institutions offering MBAs (or similar management education degrees) as they are usually quite expensive and thus quite profitable [13]. This is clear with the major marketing efforts made by these institutions including a lot of advertising in business and economic newspapers and magazines, as well as their participation in many educational trade fairs and shows in order to lure candidates.
\nOne can see that this is a very competitive market with major profit stakes for most of the institutions. So as long as the market is there and they can convince enough paying candidates to apply with promises such as “the real booster for your career” or “the best investment to double your salary,” they are not eager to change the present winning formula, even if the real outcomes no longer meet the promises and the studies do not match the true real people management and leadership challenges.
\nThe second major factor that prevents the present management education system from changing in depth is linked to the profiles, training, and selection process of the professors. Academic profiles with doctorates are requested with research capabilities (as their academic publications are the major criteria for their selection and nomination) with a strong discipline-based specialization such as finance, marketing, supply chain, accounting, human resources, etc. Their record of publication is considered to be more important than their pedagogical performances. The academic profiles of most professors usually exhibit only a weak or often no business or organizational experience, which is paradoxical to adequately train future “managers-leaders”!
\nTheir main pedagogical function is to deliver specialized discipline management courses to students and to evaluate their results with quizzes and exams.
\nSo the very academic nature and profile of these instructors appear as a major obstacle to broad transformations of the mainstream management education system, as they would need other instructor profiles as we will see further. We can also notice that the students often criticize the overly theoretical courses which are not very useful for their future management responsibilities. They often feel frustrated by the lack of practical and field experience of the pure academic profiles of these professors, and conversely they much appreciate the interventions and testimonies of practitioners who are fewer and fewer in most business schools because of the requirements of the accreditation norms and audits linked to their priority focus on rankings!
\nIn addition to such a discipline-based management education, students tend to believe that to become a high-performing manager, they only need to master tools and techniques in each main management discipline, as they have to demonstrate in their quizzes and exams to get their degree.
\nBut the instrumental approach of the managerial functions derived from this system is not only deceiving but quite inadequate as generally the students have neither learned nor mastered the very human management and leadership competences which are at the very heart of good and praised “manager-leader” roles.
\nAnother major factor of the surprising resistance of the mainstream management education model is tied to its dominant rational and quantitative orientations relying essentially on figures.
\nThis trend has prevailed for approximately 30 years with a strong finance- and profit-based focus of most top corporate management on answering the often greedy and shortsighted shareholders. This trend has been strengthened by digitalization, big data technologies, and the growing use of artificial intelligence. These trends have emphasized a kind of “engineering approach” to management education exemplified by the growing collaboration with engineering schools.
\nAnd at the same time, we can notice that the human side of management and leadership has been marginalized in many business schools with even some of them abolishing their human resources courses and human resources department!
\nAs far as we know in France, none of the business schools have tried, for example, to develop some links and joint programs with the Human behavioral sciences department of the specialized universities in order to strengthen the human competences of their future “managers-leaders” despite the major importance recognized today by the corporate recruiters for the human competences or “soft skills” for their executives.
\nAnother powerful brake factor that we will mention about any real far-reaching change in the present mainstream management education model is tied to the ranking and to the international accreditation systems. Because of marketing concerns in a very competitive market, most business schools are very eagerly taking care of their image and their good ranking as they think it is a major criterion for their attractiveness and the choice of the candidates. Most of these rankings are linked to national and international standards defined by the accreditation systems such as AACSB, EQUIS, and AMBA. These accreditation labels are supposed to define excellent criteria which are in fact quite aligned with the mainstream management education model and are focusing to a large extent on academic performances with the traditional discipline-based approach.
\nSo this is clearly not an encouragement to experience profound changes and alternative models that will not meet these accreditation requirements. This normative system is in fact not pushing toward major and broad changes in the traditional management education model. Despite the fact that today these changes are necessary to allow managers to better face the real human management and leadership challenges that most corporations and organizations, especially the larger ones, already encounter and are likely to see more of in the future.
\nThese challenges have to be more accurately analyzed and clarified in order to be able to design more adequate management and leadership education systems which can bring about better human, organizational, and leadership competences to the managers-leaders of tomorrow.
\nTo be able to redesign the right management education system, it is necessary to do an adequate analysis of both the internal and the external challenges that most organizations are—and will be—confronted with. This is a logical requirement in a fast-changing organizational world instead of maintaining an old management education system and only adding the modern information and communication technologies as most specialized institutions are presently doing.
\nWe will briefly quote some major organizational and managerial challenges that should question the present mainstream management education and should argue for profound changes.
\nThe first is the growing complexity of organizations, especially the larger ones, with heavy multilayer hierarchies, a lot of bureaucracy, and constraints of many regulations and standards that are limiting their agility, creativity, and global performances and creating many employee frustrations and demotivation [2, 3, 14].
\nThe traditional hierarchical and pyramidal organizational structures and operating modes are increasingly criticized in agreed and widespread talks but indeed are still dominant in most organizations and companies, reflecting the strong resistance of the old top-down management model (as well as its power distribution model) dating from the “Industrial Age,” a century ago! This way of operating and managing is no longer tolerated by the new generation of employees.
\nThe second big managerial challenge is linked to the work behavior of these new generations of millennials used to collaborative and informal work relationships, critical of getting orders from senior executives whose positions are more tied to their status than to their actual competences. They are very reluctant about the traditional hierarchical pyramidal model, and they are yearning for sharing information and reflections and participating in the decisions that have an impact on them.
\nThey praise new collective intelligence methods of teamworks and simple direct relationships. This is why they quite appreciate new leadership models such as the servant leadership, learning organizations, liberation management, etc. that all support new ways of managing people and of leading with far less hierarchy, flatter organizational structures, simpler operating modes, more individual and team autonomy, more possibilities for initiative, and more employee participation in decision- making (at least the operational decisions).
\nAll these new people management and leadership models are fostering another type of power sharing and leadership philosophy within the organizations and other ways of working that requires new competences, new responsibilities, and new roles for “managers-leaders” than those still taught in most mainstream business schools.
\nThe third great managerial challenge has to do with the organization’s so-called “digital revolution” of organizations and the digital relationship processes as well as the development of the “artificial intelligence” approaches which in fact means the use of algorithms to make decisions and to perform various tasks which are supposed to cost less, be faster, and have better solutions.
\nA lot of excitements and literature have been devoted to these issues for some years focusing mainly on their advantages. This technological phenomenon appears as a necessary modernization to remain efficient and competitive in the markets. It reflects the present fascination for these technologies and their instrumental capabilities which are considered as the new panacea for business success!
\nBut far less analysis and reflections have been devoted to its “human” impacts and the related drawbacks which are often far less positive. It leads to a very risky “dehumanization” of the managerial and leadership relationships with putting more stress and more constraints on employees that generate frustrations and professional illnesses.
\nIn addition, one can notice that these information and communication technologies are making a virtual world that tends to reinforce a kind of “neo-Taylorism” with less real human contacts and direct person-to-person exchanges and with more pressure put on employees who are often “prisoners” of their screen and software with less freedom, less initiative, and more real-time control on their performances. The drawbacks of the “digitalization revolution” are in fact very serious and too often overlooked in the present management education system which also tends to focus on these technologies as the new requirement to be modern without having enough critical view on its serious human limits and risks.
\nThis is especially important to adequately prepare the present and future “managers-leaders” to their new roles, real added values, and human responsibilities. One can already notice a weak point of the mainstream business schools which always emphasize a discipline based, instrumental, tools and techniques oriented management education with poor studies in the field of the human behavioral sciences, innovative people management and leadership models, and corresponding operational practices.
\nThis is a paradox in the present organizational and corporate world where the most cutting edge managerial mantra is to put the people first, as exemplified by the famous and praised book of Nayar [15] that emphasizes the needs of enhancing people initiative at all hierarchical levels with more trust, encouraging creativity and innovation and improving social responsibility and real human managerial ethics that is also very inspired by the “servant leadership” model [16].
\nThe fourth major challenge for the corporate and organizational world is the growing importance of CSR and sustainability. This new business philosophy requires a change in the focus on the outcome from only shareholders to the main stakeholders. It is often summarized by the pursuit of the triple bottom line (economic, environmental, and social performances) instead of the purely traditional economic and financial goals of maximizing the profit for the shareholders in the short term.
\nThis is a drastic change that many top managements still have many difficulties to integrate and to implement. One main reason is that most top managers are still nominated and thus very dependent on Boards of directors essentially made up of shareholder representatives.
\nBut new CSR standards are increasingly considered as a major importance for the image and the global sustainable performances of a business. Besides the obvious environmental concerns to which the present society is made aware, one must also look at the social sides of the business which includes managerial aspects.
\nEven if mainstream management education has been developing its CSR teachings for about a decade, one can notice that the social aspects of CSR are still far less developed, and especially its people management and governance principles such as specified, for example, in the ISO 26000 international standard.
\nWhy? Because this standard implies profound changes in most present managerial, organizational, and governance principles.
\nAnother major educational challenge for the mainstream management education system would be to much better incorporate this social and managerial aspects of CSR in their curricula, not only in their human resources management courses but also in their own management processes in order to become a living example for the students of this new approach of people management and leadership practices.
\nTo overcome these main challenges and to much better prepare the students to handle the adequate skills and the best people management and leadership principles and practices, it appears necessary to design new models of management education with new and more efficient learning principles and modes [17, 18]. This task is facilitated by looking at an alternative management education model (which has already existed for many years) and at its very positive results: the remarkable example of the “Team Academy” in Finland.
\nBut may be the most needed field of progress for the present management education system and the mainstream business schools to better face the previous challenges is to put much greater emphasis on student’s learning of the human and leadership competences or “soft skills.” This appears as quite necessary not only because it is a major weak point in mainstream management education delivered by most business schools but also because it has become a top priority and requirement for hiring and promoting managers-leaders as clearly shown in most recent studies [19].
\nLast but not the least, another major effort needed to better develop managerial human and leadership competences of the managers is linked to the process of change in their actual role and the added value that can be summarized as follows: from a hierarchical status and function to a true people leader capable of creating the motivation and the free adhesion of his/her employees or partners to their work and mission. New leadership models will become the right and the best way to manage people in the twenty-first century. One of the main goals of future management education will be to develop current “managers-leaders” instead of training traditional discipline-specialized managers as most business schools are still doing.
\nTo efficiently face the previously mentioned main management education challenges, it appears necessary to profoundly change the mainstream management education model of the business schools still inspired by the old concept of the American MBA.
\nThese changes must take place both at the learning processes level and at the content level of the management education curricula.
\nWe will only lay down some specifications of an alternative management education model and show why action learning principles are especially well adapted to its operational implementation [20, 21].
\nFirst, we must look at the mainstream learning processes and be aware of their capabilities and also of their limits. As already mentioned the traditional management education system is based on specialized discipline courses with an emphasis put on management theories and concepts, with the relevant tools and techniques practiced with exercises and cases. The learning processes are of a cognitive and instrumental nature and proceed with a deductive approach. The instructors or professors are delivering courses and theoretical knowledge supposedly learned by the students and controlled by tests and exams in each management discipline. This kind of teaching leads to the idea that once your “box” is full of the main tools and techniques for each main management discipline evaluated by successful exams, you will then supposed to become a good manager!
\nThis mainly cognitive approach of management education is misleading and does not respond adequately to the actual human management and leadership competences that a good manager-leader’s role involves that are also based on experience [22]. Although some basic knowledge of the main management disciplines is of course necessary, this approach lacks the most important part of the manager-leader’s job that is for 80% for mastering human relations and thus of a behavioral nature. As already mentioned, this is a very serious weak point of the mainstream management education that must be much more efficiently dealt with.
\nAnother feature of this traditional management education model is the very role and main functions of the instructors who are delivering their specialized discipline knowledge with their courses. Today the knowledge related to the basic management disciplines is everywhere on the net, and the roles of these instructors have to dramatically change! They must become coaches and mentors to accompany and to facilitate the learning processes of their students rather than being in the position of a “knower” or expert who delivers their knowledge with slides and PowerPoints!
\nIf efforts are made in some business schools to develop some behavioral competences of the future managers with some coaching, team exercises, videos, theater, etc., this behavioral learning of the current manager’s job remains the weak point of mainstream management education.
\nNot enough efforts and focus of business schools’ mainstream curricula are devoted to the learning and the development of human and relationship competences which are at the very heart of the manager-leader’s job and roles.
\nThis kind of behavioral learning and training can only be achieved with small groups and in a real setting when dealing with real business issues [23]. This is exactly what action learning approach can offer very efficiently. When we mention the Action Learning method, we are referring to the version of Action Learning developed by the World Institute for Action Learning (WIAL) which is the most complete and sophisticated version of action learning. This collaborative intelligence method is a work process in small teams with short sessions based on questioning that allows its participants to quickly find operational solutions to complex and important issues (about two thirds of the topics that organizations have to solve) and at the same time gives participants the opportunity to develop their personal communication and leadership skills as well as their teamwork capabilities. This version of action learning even allows corporate or organizational cultures to change to a more collaborative and reflective spirit.
\nThe main principles of this action learning method could very well inspire a new kind of alternative management education model because they have the capacity to much better develop the human relationship and leadership skills needed to become a good and successful “manager-leader” than the mainstream business school model.
\nThis innovative action learning-based management education model has very distinctive features. These ideas are inspired by a very interesting and powerful model from the Finnish Team Academy that is very successfully training business students ([24]; Team Academy, 2010; [25]).
\nTheir students are very much in demand by the organizational and corporate world because of the very operational business and people management competences that they have acquired with thisS alternative action learning-based management education.
\nWe can briefly quote some of the main features of this very innovative management education model based on an action learning philosophy and principles:
No entry exam based on cognitive matters and knowledge but a selection process with candidate interviews to identify their personality, ability to understand innovative kinds of business studies and their capacity and motivations to work in teams.
Students work in small teams with specific and changing responsibilities, and they create their own business company within the first months of their first year of studies with an actual and profitable business goal. The real business issues that they will come across will become business learning opportunities with the help of the instructors/coaches.
This management learning model is mainly based on an inductive approach starting from real business issues instead of the deductive approach of mainstream business schools with first specialized discipline theories and then applications with cases and exercises.
No more discipline-based professors with academic profiles delivering specialized courses and knowledge but instructors with various profiles (and mainly with real business experience). These instructors are especially trained by the Team Academy to practice a specific coaching mode of the students.
The main role of these instructors/coaches is to accompany the student’s learning processes of the students, asking the right questions and possibly completing and specifying their knowledge and know-how on some issues always with a very operational and real business approach. It is not to deliver a theoretical management course for a specific business discipline.
The basic management knowledge for each business discipline is learned with MOOCs, e-books, and e-learning with a list of compulsory readings. The instructors/coaches are also in a mentor role. Instructors check that the basic concepts are understood well and also discuss links with the real business issues and concrete business decisions to be made by each team.
No exams or quizzes but reports on adequately and efficiently solving real business problems performed by the team and regular evaluations of student take-away by the coaches/instructors.
Each team prepares several week-long trips around the world at the end of their 3 years of studies to study specific business topics they want to explore at an international level. This journey is financed by the revenues earned by their company during their business studies. Then they make a report about this learning journey to their school that is shared with the students and coaches.
With this alternative action learning-based management education model, the students are equipped with very operational managerial competencies and very good human management and leadership capabilities [26]. This explains why they are very pursued by the corporate world and why about one third of these students create successfully their own businesses when they finish their action learning-based business school as they were really trained as entrepreneurs.
\nThe mainstream management educational system based on the old MBA model has become obsolete and inadequate to best prepare the business students for their future people management and leadership responsibilities. It mainly produces good management discipline technicians but poor managers-leaders with a lack of people management and leadership competences or soft skills.
\nMainstream business school endeavors to modernize their offers (and their image) are focused on the development of the information and communication technologies in each management discipline through distance learning, MOOCs, serious games, business simulations, big data analysis, artificial intelligence, etc. But this new input is not only not changing the basic mainstream management education model but tends to strengthen the technical orientation of the present discipline-based management training. There is a big confusion between really modernizing and adapting the management education model to the new challenges of the organizational world and only introducing more trendy new information technologies without changing the basic training and learning model!
\nAs previously described, the action learning-based model of management education which brings about better answers to the present challenges of the new “manager-leader’s” roles requires a completely different educational approach than those offered by the mainstream business schools.
\nThe only realistic approach for this innovative management education model is to set up and to develop a new kind of business schools operating with alternative action learning-based models more capable of equipping students with the needed leadership and human management skills to better face the main managerial challenges of today and tomorrow.
\nThis implies many differences and very profound changes from the present mainstream business school model. This cannot be considered and implemented as a simple revamping or modernizing of the present model with only more sophisticated information and communication technologies. This requires new top management leadership profiles, new school organizations, new student selection processes, new instructor’s profiles, new learning processes based on real business issues, new student’s and instructor’s evaluation systems, etc.
\nAs briefly introduced, this action learning-based management education model has evolved to a very relevant alternative learning philosophy that has already proved its better efficiency and effectiveness in preparing good and smart “managers-leaders,” as demonstrated with the very convincing example from the Finnish Team Academy.
\nThe action learning-based management education model clearly appears as a better approach to develop and prepare the “manager-leaders” of tomorrow who will need to be much more equipped with adequate human management and leadership competences than the present graduates of most traditional business schools or universities. This is a major condition to achieve impressive and long-lasting global and responsible performance and to better respond to the interest and well-being of the company’s main stakeholders.
\nCarbon nanofibers are linear filaments with diameter of 100 nm that are characterized by flexibility and their aspect ratio above 100. Materials as fiber are of extraordinary viable and scientific significance. The blend of high specific area, flexibility and high mechanical strength permit nanofibers to be utilized in our everyday life in addition creating arduous composites for vehicles and aviation. Be that as it may, they ought to be discriminated from conventional carbon fibers [1, 2, 3] in their small diameter (Figure 1). Conventional carbon fibers have a few micrometer-sized diameters.
\nSchematic comparison of the diameter dimensions for various types of fibrous carbons [4].
Likewise, they are not quite the same as notable carbon nanotubes [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Carbon nanofibers could be developed by passing carbon feedstock nanosize estimated metal particles at high temperature [5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15], which is fundamentally the same as the development state of carbon nanotubes.
\nSuch a unique structure renders them to show semi-conducting behavior [16] and to have chemically active end planes on both the inner and outer surfaces of the nanofibers, thereby making them useful as supporting materials for catalysts [17], reinforcing fillers in polymeric composites [18], hybrid type filler in carbon fiber reinforced plastics [19, 20, 21], and photocurrent generators in photochemical cells [22, 23].
\nThough, their geometry is not quite the same as concentric carbon nanotubes containing a whole empty core, since they can be pictured as normally stacked shortened conical or planar layers along the filament length [24, 25, 26, 27]. Such a one of a kind structure renders them to show semi- conducting behavior [16] and to have synthetically dynamic end planes on both the inner and outer surfaces of the nanofibers, in this way making them helpful as supporting materials for catalysts [17], reinforcing fillers in polymeric composites [18], hybrid type filler in carbon fiber reinforced plastics [19, 20, 21], and photocurrent generators in photochemical cells [22, 23].
\nSince the temperature and pressure essential to synthesize a carbon fiber from the fluid stage is at the triple point (Temperature—4100 K, Pressure—123 kbar), it would be practically difficult to get ready carbon fibers from the liquefy under modern preparing conditions. As a result, carbon fibers are arranged from organic precursors. This preparation is commonly done in three stages, including stabilization of a precursor fiber in air (at 300°C), carbonization at 1100°C, and subsequent graphitization (> 2500°C). Fibers undergoing only the first two steps are commonly called carbon fibers, while fibers undergoing all three steps are called graphite fibers.
\nCarbon fibers are commonly utilized for their high strength, while graphite fibers are utilized for their high modulus. Graphitic whiskers were developed under conditions close to the triple point of graphite. At that point, the structural model was proposed, in which the layers comprising of graphene sheets are twisted around the axis like as in rolling up a carpet. These whiskers were utilized as the presentation focus in the beginning times of carbon fiber technology, despite the fact that they have never been manufactured on a large scale.
\nCarbon fibers are
High-strength polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based fiber
A high-modulus PAN-based fiber
A mesophase pitch-based carbon fiber (MPCF).
The PAN-based fibers comprise of little sp2-carbon structural units specially lined up with the carbon hexagonal portions corresponding to the fiber axis. This orientation is liable for the tensile strength of PAN-based carbon fibers [28].
\nBy shifting the preparing conditions (e.g., oxidation conditions, choosing of precursor material, and particularly by increasing the heat treatment temperature) of PAN fibers, a better arrangement of the graphene layers can be accomplished, thus leading to stiffer, higher-modulus PAN fibers, however with lower strength [29]. PAN-based fibers are one of the distinctive hard carbons.
\nMPCFs comprise of perfectly-aligned graphitic layers equivalent to the corresponding fiber axis, and this high level of favored direction is liable for their high modulus or stiffness just as their high graphitizability. The structures depicted above suggest ascent to various physical properties, although each kind of fiber highlights carbon hexagonal systems, having the sturdiest covalent bonds in nature (C▬C bonds). These sturdy interatomic bonds lie in sheets basically corresponding to the fiber axis, and are liable for the high mechanical performance of these carbon fibers.
\nPAN- based fibers have high strength and MPCFs have high modulus, while VGCFs afford fundamentally ultra-high modulus materials. VGCFs have an extremely unique structure like annular-rings and are prepared by something diverse arrangement process than that used to prepare PAN-based and MPCFs. Specifically, VGCFs are not prepared from a fibrous precursor, but instead from hydrocarbon gas, utilizing a catalytic growth process [5, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Ultrafine transition metal particles, for example, iron particles with diameter under 10 nm, are scattered on a ceramic substrate, and a hydrocarbon, for example, benzene diluted with hydrogen gas is introduced at temperatures of around 1100°C. Hydrocarbon decomposition happens on the catalytic particle, showing a ceaseless carbon take-up by the catalytic particle and a persistent output by the particle of efficient tubular filaments of hexagonal sp2 carbon. The swift development rate which is 106 times quicker than that analyzed for the development of normal metal whiskers [30], permits the production of commercially suitable amounts of VGCFs.
\nWhile portraying the production of VGCF, two distinct strategies can be discriminated. In the primary strategy, the fibers are manufactured on catalyst-seeded substrates, in two independent consecutive stages. In the first stage, the impetus molecule, for the most part with iron being the prevalent constituent, starts a long, thin, somewhat graphitic fiber when presented to a hydrocarbon gas close or more 1000°C.
\nA petite fraction of these fibers grows to macroscopic lengths when exhibited to a low carburizing potential gas, while keeping up the outside diameter of the initial catalytic particle. The sizes of these particles, and subsequently the filament diameter, have been considered from 10 to 200 nm [31, 32, 33]. The development of the filament may extend as quickly as 1 mm/min and persevering for a few minutes until the catalytic particle is deactivated [33]. At this stage filament lengths of a few centimeters might be acquired.
\nIn the second stage, when the gas potential is increased, the filament thickens because of the deposition of pyrolytic carbon. Fibers with diameters up to 100 nm have been produced in batch conditions by this method. Pyrolytic carbon is deposited with the basal planes specially arranged corresponding to the surface, the properties of the fiber are moderately graphitic [34].
\nMethane, hydrogen and an inert gas are utilized to develop the fibers at atmospheric pressures on nesting cylindrical substrates inside a growth tube. Lower centralizations of the methane-hydrogen blends are utilized for fiber extending, though higher concentrations are utilized for thickening. As methane is an economical feedstock in certain parts of the world, the production of VGCFs can turn out to be exceptionally financial contrasted with other carbon filaments.
\nOn account of their unique properties, for example, high strength and electric conductivity and special functional properties, researchers have indicated a lot of consideration for the large scale manufacturing of these materials.
The physical properties of vapor grown carbon fibers, with littler diameters across ought to be more grounded than those with larger diameters fume developed carbon filaments and exploratory outcomes demonstrated this expectation.
Furthermore, it was accounted for that the distance across of the nanofibers is represented by the size of the impetus particles.
For the large scale manufacturing of VGCFs the key procedure is the seeding of the impetus particles. VGCFs with distances across of 50–100 nm was created effectively utilizing a blend of ferrocene and fluid hydrocarbon in a vertical heater. The outcomes show that this strategy gives the chance of large scale manufacturing. Be that as it may, in view of the trouble of proficiently scattering little Fe particles in showering impetus arrangement, vague blends of filaments and residue were constantly gotten.
Carbon nanofibers were manufactured with diameters of 50–80 nm from catalytic decomposition of hydrocarbon gas with catalyst metal powder utilizing the support catalyst method. In spite of the fact that the support catalyst technique can create high quality fibers, the preparation and defined scattering of ultrafine catalyst particles are very difficult and are exceptionally troublesome, the yield of this strategy is spendthrift to be in any way marketed. So as to tackle the above issues the floating catalyst technique was created with the help of support catalyst to deliver carbon nanofibers with diameter of 50–100 nm.
\nVapor-grown carbon fibers (VGCFs) have been developed by the deterioration of hydrocarbons, for example, benzene and methane, utilizing transition metal particles as a catalyst at a development temperature of 1000–1300°C [31, 32, 33, 34, 35]. These fibers have been portrayed regarding the profoundly favored orientation of their graphitic basal planes corresponding to the fiber pivot, with an annular ring surface in the cross segment. This structure offers ascend to amazing mechanical properties, high electrical and thermal conductivity, and a high graphitizability of the fibers [32, 33]. In this way, numerous scientists have attempted to arrive at the last objective of large scale manufacturing of these fibers filaments with ease.
\nAmong the different preparing techniques, the most significant one has been the advancement of the floating reactant technique [36, 37], which permits a three-dimensional scattering of the hydrocarbon together with the catalytic particles got from the pyrolysis of organometallic compounds, for example, ferrocene, in a reaction chamber, ensuing about a high yield and a fairly uniform diameter across of the resulting fibers. Thus, the floating reactant strategy is believed to be a promising method for the large scale manufacturing of carbon fibers at generally economical.
\nBecause of their production method, VGCFs arrive in an assortment of morphologies that are fundamental to understand their properties. A few unique morphologies have been accounted in the literature [38]. Somewhat, these morphologies emulate the internal structure of the fiber. The structure of VGCFs looks like that of a tree trunk, with concentric annular rings. The original filament lies in the middle of axis of symmetry. The layers are in part aligned turbostratic carbon, with the average basal plane skewed from the fiber axis by around 10–15° [30]. In thinner fibers, or in fibers submitted to high temperature heat-treatments, cracks are observed between consecutive rings, and the external surfaces are often crenulated. Cracks are seen between consecutive rings when thinner fibers, or in fibers exposed to high temperature, and the external surfaces are frequently crenulated.
\nWhen the pyrolytic carbon is subjected to cooling, it shrinks more quickly in the radial than in the tangential direction. The ensuing radial stress (tension) will be reduced if circumferential cracking between the rings happens. Then again, the contraction in the tangential direction prompts a high compressive pressure that can be halfway eased by the formation of the crenulations.
\nThe uniform geometry and the basically carbon structure of the VGCFs makes the fibers very graphitizable. Swift graphitization increased with increased temperatures [28]. Above 2600°C, VGCFs structure moves toward like a single crystal graphite structure. Evidently, this property will let improvement to a specific level, tailoring of the fiber properties to preferred values. In recent years, a widen interest has been appeared in the surface properties of VGCFs, as this can be identified with the interfacial properties of the fiber in composites. It was pointed out that the surface reactivity of VGCFs is lower than that of ex-pitch or ex-PAN carbon fibers [39]. On the other hand, the surface reactivity can be increased by oxidation treatment to be nearer to that of the other carbon fibers.
\nThe effect of diverse oxidative surface treatments (nitric acid, plasma, air and carbon dioxide) on the fibers surface reactivity has been studied [30].
\nIt was observed that, surface oxidation of carbon fibers is the standard innovation to increase adhesion between fiber and matrix, air and carbon dioxide treatments do not fundamentally expand the fiber’s surface reactivity, in spite of extensive weight reduction. This was ascribed to the presence of traces of iron left on the VGCF from the growth stages, that may have catalyzed carbon gasification by a pitting mechanism [40].
\nCleansing of the VGCFs with HCl to remove the iron can prevent this behavior. Although nitric acid and plasma treatments were found to increase surface reactivity without altering significantly the morphology of the fibers, the latter appeared to be more favorable in improving the adhesion of VGCFs to a matrix.
\nTo expel the iron, VGCFs is cleaned with HCl can obviate this behavior. Though nitric acid and plasma treatments were found to increase surface reactivity without changing fundamentally the morphology of the fibers, the latter gave off an impression of being progressively great in improving the adhesion of VGCFs to a network.
\nThe modulus and the elasticity of VGCFs can be found easily [34]. The calculated modulus value varies from 100 to over 1000 GPa. The stiffness of VGCF depends upon their diameters. Even though the fibers are produced in the same experiment the diameters increased from 6 to 32 nm, the modulus decreases 300–1200GPa [33, 34].
\nThe degree of favored orientation of graphitic basal planes is related to the stiffness of pyrolytic carbon. The stiffness of a graphite fiber is connected as a component of the orientation point of the graphitic plane. This model was fitted to the stiffness-data of VGCFs by measuring their orientation parameter. This model was fitted to the solidness information of VGCFs by estimating their direction parameter. As the main fitting parameter utilized in the model is free of fiber diameter, the dwindle in the solidness of thicker fibers was assigned to the decrease in their graphitic requesting.
\nThis again is because of a swifter deposition of pyrolytic carbon during the thickening period. This is as per the finding that that increasing the graphitization of VGCF by heat-treatment also additionally increases their modulus considerably. In one example, the modulus of vapor grown fibers more than doubled to about 500 GPa when they were heated at 2200°C [30].
\nHeat-treated fibers are unsuccessful more commonly in the “sword-in-sheath” mode and in this mode; grouping of circumferential breaks along the internal rings permits continuous cylinders to slide telescopically inside one another, slowly diminishing the load bearing limit of the fiber. It is obvious from these outcomes that the modulus and the disappointment method of vapor grown carbon fibers are connected to their structure.
\nThe values of the tensile strength of VGCF are progressively reliable, changing from 2.5 to 3.5 GPa for fibers with diameters across just beneath 10 μm. The reliance on the diameter however is strong [33, 34, 41]. This was clarified by accepting that thicker fibers have a larger flaws population, and a more prominent likelihood of failure, than thinner ones.
\nThe carbon structure and potential graphitization of VGCFs by heat-treatment makes them a fascinating possibility for thermal and electrical applications. VGCFs are known to have the most noteworthy electrical and thermal conductivities among carbon fibers because of their conceivable high structural perfection [42].
\nIt was verified that VGCFs heat-treated at lower temperature have a resistivity that is practically constant with temperature. The resistivity of fibers heat-treated at higher temperatures decreases with the operating temperature. At the most elevated temperatures, the resistivity of the VGCFs approaches that of single crystal graphite, with a resistivity of about 5 × 10−7 ohm cm at 300 K. Besides, the decrease in resistivity with fiber diameter across is ascribed to the expanded arranged graphite regions as the diameter increases.
\nThe thermal conductivity of VGCFs is astoundingly high [31]. The thermal conductivity of both s-grown VGCFs and the other VGCFs heat-treated to 3000°C were evaluated through a temperature range of 10–300 K. It was demonstrated that the heat treatment expands the fiber conductivity by a factor of 50. The heat-treated fibers rank among the best thermal conductors available, at room temperature.
\nBesides, it was demonstrated an immediate connection between electrical resistivity, thermal conductivity and tensile modulus of carbon fibers. The strong correlation between thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity was elucidated by comparative fiber structural effects dominating these properties. This, in blend with the recently pointed out connection between fiber structure and tensile modulus [34], could prompt the expectation of the properties legitimately from fiber structural considerations.
\nIn recent times, there has been a developing enthusiasm for the utilizations of VGCF in carbon and polymer matrix composites. The primary thermoplastic submicron-size VGCF composites, utilizing polycarbonate and nylon as a matrix was reported [36]. The growing mechanical and thermal properties were calculated with fiber volume fraction, despite the fact that this increase is less than could be theoretically expected. The composites were compression molded utilizing a straightforward set-up bringing about a fiber arrangement that was believed to be irregular in three dimensions. It was anticipated higher properties if a process like injection molding was utilized to stimulate fiber alignment.
\nThe process ability of submicron VGCFs in thermoplastic matrices was analyzed by extruding polycarbonate-VGCF composites in a single screw extruder and subsequently melt-drew the composites to induce fiber orientation. It was concluded that the dispersion of the fibers in the matrix was very poor at 2 vol% fiber fraction and turned out to be much less fortunate when the fiber content was expanded to 5 vol%. It was recommended that grinding or melt-blending the fiber with the polymer before extrusion may bring better result in better dispersion.
\nThe utilization of submicron VGCFs as arbitrary layers between layers of ceaseless carbon fibers in an epoxy matrix was studied [43] and it was found that the VGCFs improve appreciably the damping capacity of the composites at fiber fractions as low as 0.6 vol%.
\nThe utilization of VGCFs for fabricating thin paper was made effectively by supplanting the generally utilized commercial chopped ex-PAN and ex-pitch fibers to acquire planar isotropy [44].
\nSubmicron VGCFs were used in cement-matrix composites, an application wherein they could be amazingly valuable, because of the relative minimum cost and simple process ability [41]. With a fiber heap of just 1.5 vol%, they accomplished the most noteworthy electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding effectiveness ever achieved for a cement-matrix composite.
\nComposites based on VGCF-mats were made and heat-treated at 2800°C and their thermal conductivity was studied [45]. It was acquired that the 36 vol% composite exhibited a room-temperature thermal conductivity of 564 W/mK. This value is some extent higher than that of copper (+/− 450 W/mK) and it was ascribed to the greatly graphitic nature of the VGCF mats.
\nAluminum matrix and carbon-carbon composites based on VGCFs were fabricated and compared [46]. For the aluminum-VGCF composites at 36.5 vol% the thermal conductivity of 642 W/mK was found. An outstanding value of 910 W/mK was observed for a 70 vol% carbon-VGCF composite which is double the value of copper.
\nThe mechanical properties of VGCF-carbon composites was studied and arrived the result that the tensile properties of these composites are lower than anticipated It was concluded that the thermal properties of VGCFs are preferred and converted into composites.
\nThe fibers acquired by the floating reactant method have a thin diameter distribution (from 0.1 to 0.2 mm), indicating nearly a similar morphology when contrasted with that of normal VGCFs (10–20 mm), which comprise of a central filament and an external deposit of pyrolytic carbon with the annular structure of a tree. Moreover, these fibers have a high possibility for application as filler in composites and as an anode material in lithium ion batteries, including additives to anode materials, because of incredible conductivity and high surface to volume ratio.
\nFor s-VGCFs acquired by a floating reactant technique, the fundamental properties and micro structural development of these fibers with Heat Treatment Temperature (HTT), the physical properties of a solitary fiber and in the massive state were assessed to apply this material as the filler in electrodes of lead acid batteries and in the Li-ion battery system. Graphitized s-VGCFs showed attractive desirable properties when utilized as filler in electrodes, for example, genuinely high mechanical strength and electrical conductivity in a single fiber, a high degree of resiliency and good volume conductivity in the bulky state. These desirable properties should yield improved execution performance in actual batteries (Table 1) [47, 49, 50, 51].
\nS.No | \nProperties | \nCarbonized s-VGCFs\na\n\n | \nGraphitized s-VGCFs\nb\n\n | \nMethod needed for characterization | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nLattice constant | \n6.900 A | \n6.775 A | \nXRD | \n
2 | \nDiameter of fiber | \n0.2 mm | \n0.2 mm | \nSEM | \n
3 | \nLength of fiber | \n10–20 mm | \n10–20 mm | \nSEM | \n
4 | \nVolume density | \n0.02–0.07 g/cm3\n | \n0.02–0.07 g/cm3\n | \nTapping | \n
5 | \nReal density | \n1.9 g/cm3\n | \n2.1 g/cm3\n | \nPycnometer | \n
6 | \nSurface area (BET) | \n37 m2/g | \n15 m2/g | \nN absorption | \n
7 | \nAsh content | \n1.5% | \n0.03% | \nSDK | \n
8 | \npH | \n5 | \n7 | \nPH Meter | \n
9 | \nStarting temperature of oxidation | \n550°C | \n650°C | \nTGA | \n
Basic properties of submicron VGCFs [48].
Carbonized s-VGCFs indicate the sample heat treated at 1200°C.
Graphitized s-VGCFs indicate the sample heat treated at 2800°C.
Vapor grown carbon fiber composites for batteries and supercapacitors have been extensively studied worldwide. The CNFs and their composites can be utilized in numerous fields; they have unique mechanical, electrical and thermal properties that may be useful in making composite materials like polycarbonate-VGCF, epoxy-VGCF, PAN-VGCF and aluminum-VGCF and filler in electrodes of lead-acid batteries and the Li-ion battery system.
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