Case studies selected and their relationships with environmental impact categories.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8544",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Food Preservation and Waste Exploitation",title:"Food Preservation and Waste Exploitation",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"One of the biggest challenges facing the food industry and society is the reduction of food waste. Annually, all over the world, millions of tons of agro-food waste are produced, and their efficient management and valorization represents one of the main objectives of EU actions towards sustainable development. The book compiles information on the possibilities of the recovery of valuable compounds from food waste and their valorization in different food and non-food applications, as well as new preservation methods for optimizing food waste reduction.",isbn:"978-1-78985-426-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-425-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-084-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78920",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"food-preservation-and-waste-exploitation",numberOfPages:180,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"510c0be10ee47559ddfd296740e24517",bookSignature:"Sonia A. Socaci, Anca C. F?rca?, Thierry Aussenac and Jean-Claude Laguerre",publishedDate:"February 26th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8544.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4787,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:28,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 24th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 18th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 17th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 5th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 4th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"191241",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sonia A.",middleName:null,surname:"Socaci",slug:"sonia-a.-socaci",fullName:"Sonia A. Socaci",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191241/images/system/191241.jpeg",biography:"Sonia A. Socaci has a PhD degree in Biotechnologies awarded by\nthe University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine\nCluj-Napoca, Romania, and is currently a researcher and associate professor at the Faculty of Food Science and Technology.\nShe has a solid background in the field of extraction and characterization of bioactive compounds from vegetal matrices, food\nwaste exploitation, development of new functional products,\nfood authentication, and quality control. She was involved in multiple national and\ninternational research projects as a member or project leader. Her current research\nis to continue in the previous interdisciplinary direction of characterizing the chemical composition of vegetal matrices and exploiting non-conventional sources of\nbioactive compounds using modern methods and innovative technology.",institutionString:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"191607",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Anca C.",middleName:null,surname:"Fărcaş",slug:"anca-c.-farcas",fullName:"Anca C. Fărcaş",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191607/images/system/191607.jpeg",biography:"Anca C. Fărcaş is currently a postdoctoral researcher and assistant professor in the Department of Food Science, University\nof Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca,\nRomania. She is an active member of the Laboratory for Testing\nof Food Quality and Safety, having a solid background in the\nfield of food waste exploitation, extraction and analysis of bioactive compounds, development of new functional products, food\nauthentication, and quality control. She was awarded a PhD in Biotechnology, and\nis currently working on a project that aims to develop an integrated system for the\nrecovery of bioactive compounds from food waste. She has published more than 60\nresearch articles and several book chapters in the field.",institutionString:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"239638",title:"Dr.",name:"Thierry",middleName:null,surname:"Aussenac",slug:"thierry-aussenac",fullName:"Thierry Aussenac",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239638/images/system/239638.jpg",biography:"Thierry Aussenac is Scientific Director at UniLaSalle Polytechnic\r\nInstitute, France, and since 2016 has been head of a research\r\nunit, Transformations and Agro-Resources (UP 2018.C103). He\r\nreceived his MSc in Production and Transformations of Agro-Resources from ESAP, France, in 1986, and his PhD and HDR (ability to conduct research) in Plant Science and Biochemistry from\r\nthe National Polytechnic Institute of Toulouse (INPT), France,\r\nin 1990 and 1998, respectively. Since 2012, he has been the scientific coordinator of\r\nthe national R&D program OZONE2020 (ozone and food safety). He has published\r\n60 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals in the fields of cereal chemistry, food science, and analytical chemistry. He is a member of numerous\r\ninternational societies, a member of the editorial board of Advances in Biochemistry,\r\nand serves as reviewer of different international journals.",institutionString:"UniLaSalle Polytechnic Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:{id:"260696",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Claude",middleName:null,surname:"Laguerre",slug:"jean-claude-laguerre",fullName:"Jean-Claude Laguerre",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260696/images/system/260696.jpg",biography:"Jean-Claude Laguerre has been working as faculty at UniLaSalle\nsince 1991. He obtained his PhD diploma in Process Engineering\n(1991) from ENSIA of Massy, France (currently AgroParisTech).\nFrom 1995 he has been the coordinator of the specialty «Industrial organization in the agro-food industry,» which is dedicated\nto fifth year agroindustry students at UniLaSalle. He teaches various courses in the field of agro-food processes (i.e. food process\nbasics, unit operations, product design, experimental design, and process optimization). He is a member of the research unit «Transformation and Agro-resources»\nat UniLaSalle. His research activities focus on thermal and microwave processes\n(drying, cooking, pasteurization, and sterilization). He has participated in several European research programs as task manager or scientific leader. He regularly\ncollaborates with food companies by helping them to develop and/or optimize their\nprocesses. He is co-author of 19 articles published in peer-reviewed journals and 19\npapers presented at international conferences. To date he has supervised or co-supervised two postdoctoral fellows, three PhD students, as well as 10 MSc students.",institutionString:"UniLaSalle Polytechnic Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"334",title:"Food Engineering",slug:"food-science-food-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"69349",title:"Introductory Chapter: From Waste to New Resources",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89442",slug:"introductory-chapter-from-waste-to-new-resources",totalDownloads:313,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Anca C. Fărcaş, Sonia A. Socaci and Zorita M. Diaconeasa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69349",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69349",authors:[{id:"191241",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sonia A.",surname:"Socaci",slug:"sonia-a.-socaci",fullName:"Sonia A. Socaci"},{id:"191607",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Anca C.",surname:"Fărcaş",slug:"anca-c.-farcas",fullName:"Anca C. Fărcaş"},{id:"202954",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Zorita",surname:"Diaconeasa",slug:"zorita-diaconeasa",fullName:"Zorita Diaconeasa"}],corrections:null},{id:"65511",title:"Instant Controlled Pressure Drop (DIC) Technology in Food Preservation: Fundamental and Industrial Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83439",slug:"instant-controlled-pressure-drop-dic-technology-in-food-preservation-fundamental-and-industrial-appl",totalDownloads:844,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,signatures:"Mohamad Mazen Hamoud-Agha and Karim Allaf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65511",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65511",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"65345",title:"Microwave Heating for Food Preservation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82543",slug:"microwave-heating-for-food-preservation",totalDownloads:840,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Jean-Claude Laguerre and Mohamad Mazen Hamoud-Agha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65345",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66361",title:"Efficacy of Plant Antimicrobials as Preservative in Food",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83440",slug:"efficacy-of-plant-antimicrobials-as-preservative-in-food",totalDownloads:959,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Romika Dhiman and Neeraj Kumar Aggarwal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66361",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66361",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69461",title:"Extraction, Characterization, and Application of Agricultural and Food Processing By-Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89289",slug:"extraction-characterization-and-application-of-agricultural-and-food-processing-by-products",totalDownloads:629,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Saroat Rawdkuen and Sunantha Ketnawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69461",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69461",authors:[{id:"243616",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Saroat",surname:"Rawdkuen",slug:"saroat-rawdkuen",fullName:"Saroat Rawdkuen"}],corrections:null},{id:"67897",title:"Valorization of Food Processing By-Products as Smart Food Packaging Materials and Its Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86245",slug:"valorization-of-food-processing-by-products-as-smart-food-packaging-materials-and-its-application",totalDownloads:587,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Saroat Rawdkuen and Pimonpan Kaewprachu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67897",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67897",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67701",title:"Comparative Assessment of Shrimp Hydrolyzates as Alternative Organic Fertilizers for Legumes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86914",slug:"comparative-assessment-of-shrimp-hydrolyzates-as-alternative-organic-fertilizers-for-legumes",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"John Rojas, Julian Qunitero, Yhors Ciro, Alfredo Moreno, Javier Silva-Agredo and Ricardo A. Torres-Palma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67701",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67701",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68394",title:"Cellulosic Fibers from Lignocellulosic Biomass for Papermaking Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88388",slug:"cellulosic-fibers-from-lignocellulosic-biomass-for-papermaking-applications",totalDownloads:289,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Faten Mannai, Hanedi Elhleli, Ramzi Khiari and Younes Moussaoui",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68394",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68394",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1128",title:"Structure and Function of Food Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f34c50135f0247fd4120af8b18ee0405",slug:"structure-and-function-of-food-engineering",bookSignature:"Ayman Amer Eissa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1128.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32499",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayman",surname:"Amer Eissa",slug:"ayman-amer-eissa",fullName:"Ayman Amer Eissa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9020",title:"Food Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4ec2cdd3d6127695e24ca587a854e6a9",slug:"food-processing",bookSignature:"Romina Alina Marc, Antonio Valero Díaz and Guiomar Denisse Posada Izquierdo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"275077",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Romina Alina",surname:"Marc",slug:"romina-alina-marc",fullName:"Romina Alina Marc"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8313",title:"Food Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f34f0100db8038cd838a4a03fb56de6a",slug:"food-engineering",bookSignature:"Teodora Emilia Coldea",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220490",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Teodora Emilia",surname:"Coldea",slug:"teodora-emilia-coldea",fullName:"Teodora Emilia Coldea"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"67322",slug:"corrigendum-to-sexual-dysfunction-in-patients-with-systemic-sclerosis",title:"Corrigendum to: Sexual Dysfunction in Patients with Systemic Sclerosis",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67322.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67322",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67322",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67322",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67322",chapter:{id:"66966",slug:"sexual-dysfunction-in-patients-with-systemic-sclerosis",signatures:"Barbora Heřmánková",dateSubmitted:"July 16th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 5th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 3rd 2019",datePublished:null,book:{id:"8269",title:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",slug:"new-insights-into-systemic-sclerosis",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Michal Tomcik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8269.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193284",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",middleName:null,surname:"Tomcik",slug:"michal-tomcik",fullName:"Michal Tomcik"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null}},chapter:{id:"66966",slug:"sexual-dysfunction-in-patients-with-systemic-sclerosis",signatures:"Barbora Heřmánková",dateSubmitted:"July 16th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 5th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 3rd 2019",datePublished:null,book:{id:"8269",title:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",slug:"new-insights-into-systemic-sclerosis",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Michal Tomcik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8269.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193284",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",middleName:null,surname:"Tomcik",slug:"michal-tomcik",fullName:"Michal Tomcik"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null},book:{id:"8269",title:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",slug:"new-insights-into-systemic-sclerosis",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Michal Tomcik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8269.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193284",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",middleName:null,surname:"Tomcik",slug:"michal-tomcik",fullName:"Michal Tomcik"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8174",leadTitle:null,title:"Current Issues and Challenges in the Dairy Industry",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The dairy industry has faced several challenges that have impacted dairy food quality and consumer acceptability. This book presents a different approach to address current issues and challenges facing the dairy industry. The book consists of seven chapters dealing with dairy processing, current issues related to consumers, and probiotic characteristics. We hope that this first edition can build interest among other scientists to join our future effort to write a more comprehensive book on this topic.",isbn:"978-1-78984-356-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-355-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-339-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78123",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"current-issues-and-challenges-in-the-dairy-industry",numberOfPages:124,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"65801e53dbd318f8f50a65e32f6ffcb0",bookSignature:"Salam A. Ibrahim, Tahl Zimmerman and Rabin Gyawali",publishedDate:"May 27th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8174.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2218,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 24th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 14th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 13th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 3rd 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 2nd 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/107905/images/system/107905.jfif",biography:"Dr. Salam A. Ibrahim is a food science research professor in the food and nutritional sciences program at North Carolina A&T State University. Dr. Ibrahim established a research program in dairy starter cultures, food safety, and probiotics. He has successfully conducted projects that were funded by the NIFA-USDA, DHS, other funding agencies, and the private sector. Many of his funded projects have focused on the isolation of beneficial strains and the functional characterization of related health benefits. Dr. Ibrahim became specifically interested in the characteristics of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and the effects it has on the quality of yogurt. Currently, he is interested in isolating novel bacterial strains of L. bulgaricus and other lactic acid bacteria, as well as novel delivery systems and new food applications.",institutionString:"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"280615",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabin",middleName:null,surname:"Gyawali",slug:"rabin-gyawali",fullName:"Rabin Gyawali",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdDQQA0/Profile_Picture_1587473278436",biography:"Dr. Rabin Gyawali is a research scientist (microbiologist) of food science. His research focuses on various aspects of food microbiology and safety. In particular, his research interests relate to dairy science, food fermentation, probiotics and prebiotics, natural antimicrobials, food safety, and human health. To date, he has published more than twenty peer-reviewed articles and six book chapters dealing with these topics.",institutionString:"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"280618",title:"Dr.",name:"Tahl",middleName:null,surname:"Zimmerman",slug:"tahl-zimmerman",fullName:"Tahl Zimmerman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280618/images/system/280618.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tahl Zimmerman is an expert biochemical food scientist and Food and Nutritional Sciences lecturer at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University. His research interests include the functionality and preservation of probiotic bacteria in dairy products and the development of novel food safety applications. Dr. Zimmerman recently identified choline kinase as an antimicrobial target in Gram-positives as well as a new technique for monitoring the activity of this enzyme. He is currently working to apply this new knowledge in the preservation of food products, including dairy products. Dr. Zimmerman has also developed several dairy-based classroom and lab exercises designed to improve students’ understanding of biochemistry and other basic sciences underlying Food Sciences and has worked hard to improve the curriculum at North Carolina A&T.",institutionString:"North Carolina A&T State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"326",title:"Food Industry",slug:"food-industry"}],chapters:[{id:"71114",title:"Introductory Chapter: Overview of Trends in Dairy Science and Technology",slug:"introductory-chapter-overview-of-trends-in-dairy-science-and-technology",totalDownloads:163,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"280615",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabin",surname:"Gyawali",slug:"rabin-gyawali",fullName:"Rabin Gyawali"},{id:"280618",title:"Dr.",name:"Tahl",surname:"Zimmerman",slug:"tahl-zimmerman",fullName:"Tahl Zimmerman"}]},{id:"66241",title:"Study of the Kinetics of Vacuum Drying of Hard and Semihard Cheeses",slug:"study-of-the-kinetics-of-vacuum-drying-of-hard-and-semihard-cheeses",totalDownloads:120,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"283903",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Ermolaev",slug:"vladimir-ermolaev",fullName:"Vladimir Ermolaev"}]},{id:"67442",title:"Milk By-Products Utilization",slug:"milk-by-products-utilization",totalDownloads:712,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"285001",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed",surname:"Mansha Rafiq",slug:"syed-mansha-rafiq",fullName:"Syed Mansha Rafiq"},{id:"285589",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed",surname:"Insha Rafiq",slug:"syed-insha-rafiq",fullName:"Syed Insha Rafiq"}]},{id:"65924",title:"A Synthesis of Risks in Dairy Value Chains in Southern Africa: Cases of South Africa and Zimbabwe",slug:"a-synthesis-of-risks-in-dairy-value-chains-in-southern-africa-cases-of-south-africa-and-zimbabwe",totalDownloads:364,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"282129",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Chari",slug:"felix-chari",fullName:"Felix Chari"},{id:"282426",title:"Dr.",name:"Bethuel Sibongiseni",surname:"Ngcamu",slug:"bethuel-sibongiseni-ngcamu",fullName:"Bethuel Sibongiseni Ngcamu"}]},{id:"67323",title:"Mind, Consumers, and Dairy: Applying Artificial Intelligence, Mind Genomics, and Predictive Viewpoint Typing",slug:"mind-consumers-and-dairy-applying-artificial-intelligence-mind-genomics-and-predictive-viewpoint-typ",totalDownloads:245,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"283534",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Attila",surname:"Gere",slug:"attila-gere",fullName:"Attila Gere"},{id:"283717",title:"Dr.",name:"Petraq",surname:"Papajorgji",slug:"petraq-papajorgji",fullName:"Petraq Papajorgji"},{id:"283718",title:"Mr.",name:"Ryan",surname:"Zemel",slug:"ryan-zemel",fullName:"Ryan Zemel"},{id:"283719",title:"Prof.",name:"Howard",surname:"Moskovitz",slug:"howard-moskovitz",fullName:"Howard Moskovitz"},{id:"321325",title:"Dr.",name:"Somsubhra Gan",surname:"Choudhuri",slug:"somsubhra-gan-choudhuri",fullName:"Somsubhra Gan Choudhuri"},{id:"321326",title:"Dr.",name:"Himanshu",surname:"Upreti",slug:"himanshu-upreti",fullName:"Himanshu Upreti"},{id:"321328",title:"Dr.",name:"Yehoshua",surname:"Deite",slug:"yehoshua-deite",fullName:"Yehoshua Deite"}]},{id:"67249",title:"Development of Functional Cheeses with Fructooligosaccharides",slug:"development-of-functional-cheeses-with-fructooligosaccharides",totalDownloads:402,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"148678",title:"Dr.",name:"Noemi",surname:"Zaritzky",slug:"noemi-zaritzky",fullName:"Noemi Zaritzky"},{id:"290475",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mercedes",surname:"Campderros",slug:"mercedes-campderros",fullName:"Mercedes Campderros"},{id:"296336",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana",surname:"Palatnik",slug:"diana-palatnik",fullName:"Diana Palatnik"},{id:"296337",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Rinaldoni",slug:"ana-rinaldoni",fullName:"Ana Rinaldoni"},{id:"297792",title:"Prof.",name:"María Laura",surname:"Castells",slug:"maria-laura-castells",fullName:"María Laura Castells"},{id:"297793",title:"Prof.",name:"Diego",surname:"Corrales",slug:"diego-corrales",fullName:"Diego Corrales"},{id:"297794",title:"Prof.",name:"María Laura",surname:"Rolon",slug:"maria-laura-rolon",fullName:"María Laura Rolon"},{id:"297824",title:"Prof.",name:"German",surname:"Aranibar",slug:"german-aranibar",fullName:"German Aranibar"},{id:"297826",title:"Prof.",name:"Haydee",surname:"Montero",slug:"haydee-montero",fullName:"Haydee Montero"}]},{id:"67669",title:"Probiotic Characteristics and Health Benefits of the Yogurt Bacterium Lactobacillus delbrueckii sp. bulgaricus",slug:"probiotic-characteristics-and-health-benefits-of-the-yogurt-bacterium-em-lactobacillus-delbrueckii-e",totalDownloads:213,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"321329",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayowole",surname:"Oyeniran",slug:"ayowole-oyeniran",fullName:"Ayowole Oyeniran"},{id:"321330",title:"Dr.",name:"Sulaiman O.",surname:"Aljaloud",slug:"sulaiman-o.-aljaloud",fullName:"Sulaiman O. Aljaloud"},{id:"321331",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",surname:"Krastanov",slug:"albert-krastanov",fullName:"Albert Krastanov"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"205697",firstName:"Kristina",lastName:"Kardum Cvitan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205697/images/5186_n.jpg",email:"kristina.k@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3424",title:"Food Industry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"26d230385a4b7a517b44d60bf75e83de",slug:"food-industry",bookSignature:"Innocenzo Muzzalupo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3424.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"93139",title:"Dr.",name:"Innocenzo",surname:"Muzzalupo",slug:"innocenzo-muzzalupo",fullName:"Innocenzo Muzzalupo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5505",title:"Superfood and Functional Food",subtitle:"An Overview of Their Processing and Utilization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1c054794ab111a6e0a6bfebeb77baa8e",slug:"superfood-and-functional-food-an-overview-of-their-processing-and-utilization",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara and Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5505.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Yashasvi",surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-yashasvi-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Yashasvi Waisundara"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6074",title:"Technological Approaches for Novel Applications in Dairy Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0dfa7481fd3aa113a670d789ca1ae319",slug:"technological-approaches-for-novel-applications-in-dairy-processing",bookSignature:"Nurcan Koca",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6074.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206952",title:"Prof.",name:"Nurcan",surname:"Koca",slug:"nurcan-koca",fullName:"Nurcan Koca"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6911",title:"Milk Production, Processing and Marketing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d0b383fbc5e2a2fcc9da5bd58766529d",slug:"milk-production-processing-and-marketing",bookSignature:"Khalid Javed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6911.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"136829",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",surname:"Javed",slug:"khalid-javed",fullName:"Khalid Javed"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"40928",title:"Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency and Malaria: A Method to Detect Primaquine-Induced Hemolysis in vitro",doi:"10.5772/48403",slug:"glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase-deficiency-and-malaria-a-method-to-detect-primaquine-induced-hemol",body:'Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency is the most common enzymopathological disease in humans. This disease is described as a widespread, heritable, X-chromosome linked abnormality (Reclos, et al., 2000). It is estimated that it affects approximately 400 million people worldwide (Noori-Daloii, et al., 2004). This disease is seen most frequently in approximately all of Africa, Asia, and the countries near the Mediterranean Sea (Frank, 2005). G6PD enzyme was demonstrated to play an active role in survival of erythrocytes. It is known that in the pentose phosphate pathway of erythrocytes, glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) enzyme provides the production of NADPH and GSH. GSH, produced by pentose phosphate pathway can react with H2O2 and reduce it to H2O. This prevents the generation of oxidative stress within red blood cells; oxidative stress can be induced in erythrocytes whose G6PD enzymes are deficient. In this situation, GSH is not produced and H2O2 is not reduced to H2O, leading to oxidative stress and hemolysis. This is the only mechanism available for the erythrocyte in order to generate reducing equivalence, therefore making it essential for the survival of erythrocytes. In individuals whose G6PD enzyme is deficient, different kinds of hemolysis from mild to severe are seen bound to differences in variants of the disease (Beutler, 1983, Luzzatto, 1989).
In epidemiological studies, it was shown that the prevalence of G6PD deficiency significantly related to malaria. Malaria is known as a parasitic disease that affects 300-500 million people all over the world. It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa and American continents. Five different types of Plasmodium species—P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovalae, P. malariae and P.knowlesi—lead to this disease by infecting erythrocytes. Malaria can become a life-threatening condition when it is not treated. Each year, malaria leads to deaths of millions of people all around the world and a large percentage of deaths are seen in Sub-Saharan regions of Africa. As it can be easily seen, malaria and G6PD deficiency share the same geographic distribution. It was shown that G6PD enzyme has various genetic variants and polymorphic frequencies. Highly polymorphic frequencies, which are indicators of G6PD deficiency, are seen in endemic regions for malaria such as Asia, Africa, Central and South America, while in non-endemic regions, these rates decrease, suggesting the relationship between G6PD deficiency and malaria (Haworth, et al., 1988, Organization, 2009, Sutherland, et al., 2010). This relationship reveals two important results. One of them is that G6PD deficiency provides great protection from malaria infection, especially for falciparum infections (Motulsky, 1961, Siniscalco & Bernini, 1961, Ganczakowski, et al., 1995). On the other hand, G6PD deficiency has been recently demonstrated to cause serious problems in fighting against malaria. Primaquine, which is the only drug currently, used in the treatment of Plasmodium infections leads to severe hemolysis in G6PD-deficient patients. This drug may even cause death in G6PD-deficient patients. When primaquine is administered to individuals with G6PD deficiency, its metabolites lead to more severe hemolysis by inducing oxyhemoglobin generation, GSH depletion and stimulation of the hexose monophosphate pathway (Beutler, et al., 1955, Bolchoz, et al., 2002, Beutler & Duparc, 2007).
Therefore, investigations on detection of G6PD deficiency have a vital importance for malaria patients before their treatment with primaquine. On the other hand, the methods that are used for diagnosing G6PD deficiency are unreliable. Even worse is that it is very difficult to distinguish heterozygously-deficient patients from healthy individuals (Peters & Noorden, 2009). All these data indicate that there is an urgent need to develop new methods for reliable detection of G6PD deficiency in order to prevent hemolysis in patients treated with primaquine. Current methods cannot determine primaquine sensitivity in patients with G6PD deficiency every time. However, in our previously researches, we developed a new method for the determination primaquine induced hemolysis in vitro. This method provides the determination of G6PD deficiency patients that are susceptible to primaquine independently from the variants of G6PD deficiency. In our studies, it was determined that this method demonstrated high sensitivity for detection of primaquine-induced hemolysis before treatment of malaria patients with primaquine. This chapter aims to represent the relationship between G6PD deficiency and malaria, and to demonstrate the method that has high sensitivity for detection of primaquine-induced hemolysis in patients with malaria whose G6PD enzyme is deficient before their treatment with primaquine.
This chapter aims to represent the problems in treatment of malaria patients with G6PD deficiency by using primaquine, different methods for determination of G6PD deficiency and a new method to determine primaquine induced hemolysisbefore treatment of patients with G6PD deficiency.
G6PD deficiency was identified in 1956 by Carson et al.(Alving, et al., 1956), and its X-chromosomal inheritance was discerned in the 1950s by Childs et al. (Childs, et al., 1958). G6PD was cloned and sequenced by Persico et al.(Persico, et al., 1986, Persico, et al., 1986) in 1986 and independently by Takizawa and Yoshida (Takizawa, et al., 1986)G6PD (Misumi, et al., 1982) is in the hexose monophosphate pathway, the only NADPH-generation process in mature erythrocytes, which lack the citric acid cycle. Deficiency of this enzyme in erythrocytes causes various forms of illnesses such as favism, anemia, chronic nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia, drug-sensitive hemolytic anemia, primaquine sensitivity and jaundice in newborns (Beutler, et al., 1968).
By virtue of fact that G6PD is found in all cells, functional and structural studies have revealed properties of this housekeeping gene (Luzzatto, 2006). G6PD expression level is regulated by hormonal and nutritional factors in only a few tissues. G6PD expression is regulated in liver and adipose tissue, and its activity depends on the rate of fatty acid biosynthesis (Greene, 1993). The G6PD gene region is one of the first regions of the human genome to be completely sequenced (Chen, et al., 1996). The gene encoding G6PD is located near the telomeric region of the distal arm of the X chromosome (Pai, et al., 1980, Szabo, et al., 1984, Patterson, et al., 1987) (band Xq28) and a valuable X-linked genetic marker for determination of X chromosome inactivations (Migeon, 1983). G6PD has various polymorphism sites at the G6PD locus like the colorblindness, Xg blood group and the hemophilia A locus and has close linkage at the X chromosome (Boyer & Graham, 1965, Adam, et al., 1967). G6PD is one of a group of genes including fragile X, (Oberle, et al., 1987) color vision (Motulsky, 1988, Filosa, et al., 1993) hemophilia A (Boyer & Graham, 1965) clasped-thumb mental retardation syndrome (MASA), (Macias, et al., 1992) and dyskeratosis congenita (Arngrimsson, et al., 1993) existing on the distal long arm of the X chromosome.
The X-linkage of the G6PD gene has important implications. This linkage is very stable and linkage with other group locuses is similar in all mammals (Luzzatto & Battistuzzi, 1985, Group, 1989, Luzzatto, 1989, Beutler, 1990). In mice, X-linkage of G6PD was shown by Epstein (Epstein, 1969). Epstein concluded that the G6PD gene is X-linked in the mouse; its synthesis occurs in the oocyte and is dosage-dependent. G6PD is a sex-linked and very polymorphic gene in populations in which males have only one allele (hemizygous) and females have two G6PD alleles. Thus, females can be either normal or deficient (homozygous), or intermediate (heterozygous) phenotypes, whereas males can be either normal or G6PD-deficient phenotype (Luzzatto, 2006). The frequency of the deficient phenotype is higher in males than females owing to males being hemizygous, in which one allele of the gene expresses the deficient phenotype; to arise in females, G6PD-deficiency needs two deficient alleles. However, hemizygous deficient males and homozygous express the same degree of enzyme deficiency level. Since deactivation of one X-chromosome in embryological development in heterozygous females have two populations of red cells (G6PD-normal and G6PD-deficient), with a wide range of total G6PD enzyme activity depending on the relative proportions. If one of the alleles contains deficiency, as a result of random deactivation of X-chromosomes, about half of the cells will be normal and the other half will be deficient, although there is a wide range of variation around that average (Nance, 1964, Rinaldi, et al., 1976). For this reason, total G6PD activity in heterozygous females can show variability between near-normal to near-deficient (Luzzatto & Battistuzzi, 1985, Segel, 2000). Deactivation of X-chromosome actualizes at random. Correspondingly, binomial distribution would be expected in deficiency level; the extent of this distribution depends on X-inactivation time in embryonic tissue and the number of cells in the embryo. Furthermore, random deactivation of one X-chromosome engenders genetic mosaics in heterozygous females (Luzzatto, 2006). As a result, G6PD mutations show the typical mendelian X-linked inheritance (Adam, 1961), severe G6PD deficiency is much more common in males than in females, and X-chromosome inactivation in heterozygous females for two different G6PDalleles indicate somatic cell mosaicism (Beutler, et al., 1962, Gall, et al., 1965).
The total length of the gene is about 18.5 kb on the X chromosome (xq28) and contains 13 exons.Exon 13 is about 800 nucleotides long and contains the translation stop codon (Nagel & Roth, 1989, Greene, 1993). The protein-coding region is divided into 12 segments, ranging in size from 12 to 236 bp (Martini, et al., 1986). Exon and intron numbers and the exon sizes and sequences are conserved in higher eukaryotes (Nagel & Roth, 1989, Greene, 1993). The first exon contains no coding sequence and intron 2 between exons 2 and 3 is extraordinarily long, extending for 9,857 bp. The function of this long intron is unknown; it may be important for transcription or processing because compressed versions of the G6PD gene still have this largest intron in some species (Chen, et al., 1991, Mason, et al., 1995).
The sequence of the whole G6PD gene is known (Chen, et al., 1991). G6PD sequence analogy between humans and mice or rats is 87%. The analogy between the mouse and rat cDNA sequences is greater than humans with 93% similarity. Most of the sequence dissimilarity is in the 3´- UTR region, which has 600 nucleotides on average and contains a single polyA site (Nagel & Roth, 1989, Greene, 1993). G6PD gene promoter is embedded in a CpG island that starts about 680 nucleotides upstream of the transcription initiation site, extending about 1,050 nucleotides downstream of the initiation site, and ends at the start of the first intron (Chen, et al., 1991). CpG island is conserved between some species (Martini, et al., 1986, Toniolo, et al., 1991), and has highly enriched guanine and cytosine residues, like characteristically in other housekeeping genes and this island appears to be preserved between humans and mice (Toniolo, et al., 1991).
The promoter of the G6PD gene contains a TATA-like, TTAAAT sequence, and a great number of stimulatory protein 1 (Sp1) elements (Philippe, et al., 1994, Rank, et al., 1994, Franze, et al., 1998, Hodge, et al., 1998). These Sp1-binding sites are essential for promoter activity (Philippe, et al., 1994). Deletion analysis has uncovered that the “essential” segment of the promoter is only about 150 bp (Ursini, et al., 1990).
The transcribed region from the initiation site to the poly(A) addition site covers 15,860 bp. (Chen, et al., 1991). The major 5’-end of mature G6PD mRNA in several cell lines is located 177 bp upstream of the translation-initiating codon(Martini, et al., 1986). The G6PD activity and mRNA quantity differ between tissues (Nagel & Roth, 1989, Greene, 1993). S1 nuclease and primer extension analyses of mouse G6PD mRNA indicate that when the transcriptional start site regulated with lipogenesis in liver and adipose tissue, in kidney G6PD is expressed constitutively (Ho, et al., 1988); this quantity potentially depends on oxidative stress, tissue specific differences and reductive biosynthesis reactions (Nagel & Roth, 1989, Greene, 1993). Some different mRNA forms of G6PD mRNA have been found, but their functions are completely unknown. The alternatively spliced form has been documented (Hirono & Beutler, 1988, Hirono & Beutler, 1989, Cappellini, et al., 1993), but this mRNA frame contains 138 nucleotides (Mason, et al., 1988, Persico, et al., 1989, Bautista, et al., 1992, Tang, et al., 1994). Some researchers (Kanno, et al., 1989) suggested that in reality, G6PD translation product made from two separate mRNAs as a result of study to be based on an artifact (Henikoff & Smith, 1989, Beutler, et al., 1990, Mason, et al., 1990, Yoshida & Kan, 1990).
Up to 450 G6PD variants have been identified depending on the enzyme kinetics, physicochemical characteristics, and other parameters (Luzzatto & Battistuzzi, 1985, Chen, et al., 1991). Nearly 300 variants of these have been confirmed by the World Health Organization (1967). Point mutations and small deletions trigger defects in the enzyme structure. These structural defects cause altered activity, instability of the enzyme or decreased affinity of G6PD for its substrates (Luzzatto, 2006).
G6PD is a typical cytoplasmic, housekeeping enzyme and has been found in all cells from liver to kidney and organisms, from prokaryotes to yeasts, to protozoa, to plants and animals (Luzzatto & Battistuzzi, 1985, Antonenkov, 1989, Glader, 1999, Notaro, et al., 2000). Inactive form of G6PD is a monomer with 515 amino acids and has a molecular weight of over 59 kDa (Rattazzi, 1968). The primary structure of the G6PD enzyme in humans has been determined from the sequence of full-length cDNA clones (Persico, et al., 1986). Furthermore, the tertiary structure of the enzyme has been determined (Au, et al., 1999). Dimer structure of the two subunits in the enzyme are symmetrically located across a complex interface of β-sheets (Au, et al., 1999).
Activation of the enzyme requires NADP+ tightly binding to dimer or tetramer formation of enzyme. G6PD catalyses the first step of the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway and controls reaction velocity (Wrigley, et al., 1972). In this first step, while G6PD catalyses the conversion of glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) to 6-phosphogluconolactone, at the same time it reduces NADP to NADPH (Au, et al., 1999, Turner, 2000). Human G6PD has no activity with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) as coenzyme. Also, G6P is very specific for its substrate compared to other hexose phosphates (e.g., galactose 6-phosphate or mannose 6-phosphate) (Luzzatto & Battistuzzi, 1985, Glader, 1999). The G6P binding site is nearby lysine 205 in tertiary structure of the enzyme, and this amino acid has a critical role in electron transfer (Bautista, et al., 1995). The NADP binding site is located nearby 38 to 43 amino acids; this region constitutes the N-terminus in tertiary structure encoded in exon 3. This site is important for stability of G6PD (Au, et al., 1999). As an inhibitory effect, one of the products of G6PD reaction NADPH is an effective inhibitor (Luzzatto, 1967). Increase in NADP and decrease in NADPH as a result of whichever oxidative event in cells effect prepotently to increase G6PD activity (Luzzatto & Testa, 1978). Consequently, G6PD is the most important enzyme in biosynthesis reactions owing to enzyme property as NADPH reducer in its critical role in the cytoplasm (Koehler & Van Noorden, 2003).
Erythrocytes, which contain hemoglobin, are blood cells that perform the transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide between tissues. G6PD is an important enzyme that performs vital functions within all cells of the body (Greene, 1993). The quantity of active G6PD decreases during the life of an erythrocyte and also the older erythrocytes become vulnerable to oxidative stress. G6PD, an enzyme in the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway, converts the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+) into its reduced form NADPH. It is necessary for the protection against oxidative stress in erythrocytes. The cells cannot eliminate this stress, which causes hemolysis of erythrocytes. Because H2O2 and other reactive oxygen species cannot be reduced, oxidation of hemoglobin to methemoglobin and membrane damage occur (Ruwende & Hill, 1998, Peters & Van Noorden, 2009).
G6PD is the key enzyme in the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway. The first step of the pentose phosphate pathway is catalyzed by G6PD. In this step, NADP+ is reduced to NADPH, and ribulose-5-phosphate, a precursor of DNA, RNA, and ATP, emerge from G6P (Turner, 2000). The most important reducing agent in the cytoplasm of cells is NADPH (Koehler & Van Noorden, 2003). The second enzymatic step in this pathway is NADPH production as a consequence of reactions that reduce oxidized glutathione (GSSG) to reduced glutathione (GSH). The only defense against oxidant stress in the red blood cell (RBC) is GSH production (Friedman, 1979, Group, 1989, Peters & Van Noorden, 2009). In unstressed, normal erythrocytes, the G6PD activity is only about 2% of total capacity (Group, 1989, Peters & Van Noorden, 2009). The pentose phosphate pathway’s main function is the generation of reducing capacity through the production of NADPH and ultimately, GSH. This is essential for cell survival and is available in the erythrocyte for generating reducing capacity (Greene, 1993).
More than 400 variants of G6PD have been distinguished based on their biochemical characteristics, enzyme kinetics, physicochemical characteristics, and other parameters (Luzzatto & Battistuzzi, 1985, Chen, et al., 1991, Greene, 1993). G6PD B+ is the most commonly found enzyme type and it is used as a standard for normal enzyme activity and electrophoretic mobility. For identification of other variants, G6PD B+ is used. The rate at which NADP+ is reduced by glucose-6-phosphate with G6PD B+ as the catalyst is the standard for activity. Based on this, enzyme activity relative to G6PD B+ variants are classified as fast, normal, and slow in terms of electrophoretic mobility and as Classes I—V (Luzzatto, 1989, Beutler, 1990, Greene, 1993, Segel, 2000, Betke K, Brewer GJ, Kirkman HN, Luzzatto L,Motulsky AC, Ramot B, and Siniscalco M 1967). There are 5 classes for these variants. Class I includes chronic nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia with a severe enzyme deficiency (e.g., G6PD Minnesota, G6PD Tokyo, G6PD Campinas). Class II variants have severe enzyme deficiency without chronic nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia (e.g., G6PD mediterrian, G6PD Canton, G6PD Union, G6PD Kaiping). Class III variants includes medium or mild enzyme deficiency, with the activity at 10-60% of G6PD B+(e.g., G6PD Aˉ). Class IV variants have a weak or no enzyme deficiency. The activity is 60-100 % of G6PD B+(e.g., G6PD A+). Class V variants have increased enzyme activity (e.g., G6PD Hektoen) (Beutler, 1994, Segel, 2000).
Depending on G6PD enzyme deficiency are: Hemolytic Anemia (Drug-induced hemolysis), Diabetes mellitus-induced hemolysis and Infection-induced hemolysis; chronic nonspherocytic anemia, Favism and Neonatal jaundice.
In some people, for example, the Mediterranean-type, G6PD deficiency from drug intake occurs, although not a permanent hemolytic condition. In erythrocytes, NADPH cannot form with G6PD deficiency and unformed NADPH creates a deficiency in conversion of the oxidized form of glutathione (GSSG), to its reduced form (GSH) (Lachant, et al., 1984, Beutler, 1994). There is normally plenty of GSH in erythrocytes and it protects the cell from oxidizing agents. If G6PD is deficient, hemoglobin is oxidized by oxidative substances to be eliminated and it returns methemoglobin that cannot function normally. Also, hemoglobin precipitates with denaturation in the cytoplasm forms Heinz bodies. These structures attach to the membrane with disulfide bonds and disrupt its normal structure. The erythrocytes that contain Heinz bodies in their cytoplasm are sequestered by macrophages in the spleen and removed from the circulation. G6PD deficiency hemolysis occurs like that in the extravascular compartment and also occurs again as a result of membrane defects (Alving, et al., 1956). Thus, drug-induced hemolysis is the first and best-known morbid effect of G6PD deficiency. After a 1- or 2-day delay in such drug administration, a fall in the hemoglobin (Hb) concentration occurs.
The red blood cell (RBC) membrane was adhered to by Heinz bodies, which are particles of denatured protein. These appear in the early stages of drug administration and disappear as hemolysis progresses. Hemolysis usually occurs in blood vessels and hemoglobinuria follows. The increase of reticulocytes emerges in response to this situation and the hemoglobin level begins to increase again within 8-10 days (Beutler, 1994). In severe hemolysis, the patient may complain of back and stomach pain and the urine turns dark. The hemolytic anemia is self-limited when G6PD deficiency is relatively mild because only the older RBCs are destroyed and the young RBCs have normal or nearly-normal enzyme activity (Beutler, 1994).
Table 1 lists the drugs and chemicals that cause clinically significant hemolytic anemia.
Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency individuals might initiate diabetic ketoacidosis.This situation is not exactly accepted. However, hemolysis formation has been reported when blood glucose levels are normal in diabetic individuals (Beutler, 1994). It has also has been reported that hypoglycemia might precipitate hemolysis in patients with G6PD deficiency (Beutler, 1994).
Infections are probably the most common cause of hemolysis in people with G6PD deficiency.There are numerous reports about the importance of infection in causing hemolytic anemia. A large number of bacterial, viral and rickettsial infections have been reported as predisposing factors. Infectious hepatitis (hepatitis A), pneumonia and typhoid fever are known to trigger hemolysis. Involving the upper respiratory tract and gastrointestinal system, viral infections have been reported to cause a more severe hemolysis (Luzzatto, 2001). The mechanism of infection-induced hemolysis is not clear, but it is thought to be that during the infection, superoxide anion and H2O2 production by macrophages causes the hemolysis (Glader, 1999, Luzzatto, 2001).
Class I G6PD variants, such as the absence of precipitating factors in the occurrence of excessive hemolytic anemia, lower still further the remaining enzyme activity. This is observed in people with chronic hemolytic anemia and oxidative stress, even if unstable conditions occur as a result of insufficient enzyme activity in erythrocytes. Granulocyte dysfunction is seen in some cases. In these cases, more severe hemolysis is due to increased susceptibility to infection (Beutler, 1994, Luzzatto, 2001).
Favism is an illness that occurs in G6PD deficiency individuals with acute hemolysis by eating raw beans (Vicia fabu). Wet, dry or frozen fava bean ingestion of grains, even if the mother eats fava beans can cause hemolysis in newborn infants through breast milk may occur (Luzzatto, 2001). Individuals with G6PD deficiency hemolytic effect caused by the beans contained many glycosides that are toxic due to the visin and konvisin (Beutler, 1994, Akhter, et al., 2011). In addition, β-glucosides in bean seeds, maturity stage of fava beans attain very high amounts causing a severe course of hemolytic crisis (Katz & Schall, 1979, Greene, 1993, Beutler, 1994). Often, in the G6PD Mediterranean variant, acute and a very severe hemolytic crisis are seen due to fava bean ingestion, even capable of causing death (Fairbanks, 1999, Luzzatto, 2001). In favism, damage in erythrocytes is similar to oxidative damage of drugs. Fava beans include visin, konvisin, ascorbic acid and L-Dopa, which have oxidative properties. The most commonly cited konvisin and visin glycosides during digestion fava beans by β-glycosidase or acid hydrolysis demolished to the active agents, which are converted to "divisine" and "izouramil." Divisine and izouramilin reduce the level of the GSH and NADPH in vitro conditions and damage the cell membrane by the formation of cross-connection with Heinz bodies; it also has been shown to inhibit Ca2+-ATPase and catalase (Arese & De Flora, 1990, Beutler, 1994, Gaetani, et al., 1996, Luzzatto, 2001). 24-48 hours after ingesting foods like fava beans, characteristic symptoms occur in the form of pallor, jaundice and hemoglobinuria (Ninfali, et al., 2000). In addition, jaundice, headache, backache, nausea, fever, and chills are all signs of acute hemolysis (Tyulina, et al., 2000). Favism is most common seen in children between the ages of 2-5, and is also 2-3 times more common in boys than in girls (Luzzatto, 2001). Clinical signs of favism begin earlier and are more severe than drug-induced hemolytic crises. Rarely, as a result of pollen of fava inhalation, hemolysis may occur within hours (Beutler, 1994). While each favism patient must have G6PD deficiency, hemolytic reactions may not occur after ingestion of fava beans in each person with G6PD deficiency. Each individual with G6PD deficiency of the same family could not be affected in the same way when they eat fava bean. On the other hand, changes are observed in the same person at different times. Genetic variations between individuals, differences of fava bean active metabolites may be responsible for these variable characteristics (Meloni, et al., 1983, Group, 1989, Luzzatto, 2001).
One of the most threatening consequences of G6PD deficiency is neonatal jaundice (Beutler, 1994). Jaundice in babies with G6PD enzyme deficiency could be mild or severe enough to cause kernicterus, a spastic type of cerebral palsy, and may even cause death (Luzzatto, 1993). In addition, infants with G6PD deficiency, hyperbilirubinemia is more remarkable than anemia. It facilitates this because of the inadequate physiological conjugation in liver in the neonatal period (Moskaug, et al., 2004). G6PD Aˉ, G6PD mediterrian, G6PD Canton variants are known as types that cause kernicterus and hyperbilirubinemia (Luzzatto, 2001). Clinically, the jaundice, the level of G6PD in the normal physiological jaundice in newborns occur on the same days, or a little earlier, but it takes as long as 2-3 weeks (Tan, 1981, Luzzatto, 2001). There are two major differences between jaundice due to incompatibility of blood groups and jaundice due to G6PD deficiency. First, the presence of jaundice in G6PD deficiency is very rare during childbirth and usually it begins in the second or third day. Second, according to anemia, jaundice is more pronounced and it is encountered with severe anemia very rarely in the absence of the enzyme (Luzzatto, 1993, Luzzatto, 2001).
As we mentioned above, there is a strong relationship between malaria and G6PD deficiency diseases. In several epidemiological studies, it was shown that distribution of malaria was nearly the same with distribution of G6PD deficiency (Motulsky, 1961, Siniscalco & Bernini, 1961, Ganczakowski, et al., 1995). This situation reveals two important facts. One of them is that G6PD deficiency provides great protection from malaria, especially for falciparum infections. On the other hand, using antimalarial drugs can cause life-threatening hemolytic anemia in patients with G6PD deficiency. Hence, malaria patients should be screened for their tendency to G6PD deficiency before their treatment with antimalarial drugs. In this part, we will first summarize the importance of malaria for the world. Then, we will explore the relationship between these two diseases in detail.
As it is known, malaria is a parasitic disease that threatens 300-500 million people all over the world. Malaria can be defined as the most deadly vector-borne disease in the world (Myrvang & Godal, 2000). It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa and the American continents. Each year, malaria leads to deaths of millions of people all around the world and a large percentage of deaths are seen in Sub-Saharan regions of Africa. The causative agents of malaria are the Plasmodium parasites, which are transmitted to humans by the bites of infected mosquitoes. If patients are not treated with antimalarial drugs, malaria can easily lead to death. Five different types of Plasmodium species—P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovalae, P. malariae andP.knowlesi—lead to this disease (Wernsdorfer & McGregor, 1988, Sutherland, et al., 2010).
Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) is the most serious and life-threatening form of the disease. 80% of death cases are reported from patients that have been infected with P. falciparum. It was also demonstrated that resistance has been developed in this type of parasites against current antimalarial drugs. It is generally seen in Africa, specifically in sub-Saharan regions. Interestingly, falciparum-derived malaria cases have been recently reported in various parts of the world where this parasite species was believed to be completely eradicated.
Plasmodium vivax (P. vivax) constitutes a milder form of the disease. Vivax infections generally do not cause death. However, individuals that suffer from vivax infection also need to be treated. Among all Plasmodium species, P. vivax is the one that shows the broadest geographic distribution worldwide. Causative agents for 60% of malaria infections are reported as P. vivax infections in India. This parasite has a liver stage and can remain in the body for years without causing sickness. If the patient is not treated, the liver stage may re-activate and cause relapses—malaria attacks—after months, or even years without symptoms.
Plasmodium ovale (P. ovale) is known as one of the other milder form of the disease. Like P. vivax, it generally does not commonly lead to death. Nevertheless, infected individuals require medical therapy. This parasite, similar to P.vivax, can live in the liver for long periods without causing symptoms. Therefore, if it is not treated, reactivation of parasites can be observed in the liver and this leads to relapse of the disease
Plasmodium malariae (P. malariae) is also another milder form of the disease. It does not commonly lead to death. However, it still requires treatment. This type of Plasmodium parasites are reported to stay in the blood of some individuals for several decades.
Plasmodium knowlesi (P. knowlesi) causes malaria in macaques, but can also infect humans (Mendis, et al., 2001, Singh, et al., 2004, Mueller, et al., 2007).
When life cycles of Plasmodium parasites are investigated, it is seen that the parasites multiply in the liver of the human body, and then infect erythrocytes. As we mentioned before, Plasmodium parasites enter the human bodywhen bitten by an infective female mosquito, which is called Anopheles. These mosquitoes become infected with malaria when they take Plasmodium-containing blood from an infected person. Approximately one week later, these parasites mix with the mosquito\'s saliva when the mosquito takes its next blood meal from another person and this individual is injected with Plasmodium parasites when they are being bitten (Bozdech, et al., 2003).
Multiplication of the parasites within erythrocytes enhances the severity of the disease and cause symptoms such as anemia, fever, chills, nausea, flu-like illness, and, in severe cases, coma, and death. Treatment of this disease can be achieved by using antimalarial drugs. Primaquine, which is the most common antimalarial drug, can be used as a primary prophylactic because it prevents primary parasitemia of Plasmodium species by destroying these parasites in the liver before they reach the bloodstream and cause disease (Yazdani, et al., 2006).
As we pointed out before, according to epidemiological studies, the prevalence of malaria deeply relates to glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) enzyme deficiency. In these studies, it was demonstrated that 66 of 77 genetic variants that have reached polymorphic frequencies were seen in populations living in tropical and subtropical areas where malaria was endemic. On the other hand, this genetic diversity does not occur in populations living in non-endemic regions of the world for malaria, indicating that high polymorphism is the indicator of G6PD deficiency.
When investigated in terms of cellular biology, we can see that Plasmodium parasite that causes malaria use erythrocytes as host cells. Erythrocytes are also the most affected cells from G6PD deficiency. This situation also suggests the relationship between the two diseases. In several studies, it was demonstrated that G6PD deficiency provides a protection against malaria infections. In one of the early studies, it was indicated that P. falciparum and P. vivax parasites preferred to invade younger erythrocytes, which possessed high levels of G6PD enzyme. Since enzyme levels are diminished in older erythrocytes, parasites do not prefer to invade these erythrocytes. These studies suggested the protective effect of G6PD deficiency from parasitemia (Allison & Clyde, 1961, Kruatrachue, et al., 1962). In the recent past, Ruwando et al. also carried out a case-control study on more than 2,000 African children and exhibited that risk of contracting malaria in patients that have the African form of G6PD deficiency decreased at a rate of 46 to 58%. In this study, it was suggested that the selective advantage of resistance to malaria was counterbalanced with selective disadvantageous results of G6PD deficiency, and this stopped the rise of malaria frequencies in endemic regions (Ruwende, et al., 1995). In another study, Ninokata et al. (2006) investigated 345 healthy adults for G6PD deficiency on Phuket Island, which had been determined to be a malaria-endemic region and found out that 10% of these individuals had G6PD deficiency. Interestingly, it was observed that none of the individuals had molecular evidence of malaria infection. According to this study, researchers postulated that G6PD deficiency provided an advantageous genetic trait against malaria (Ninokata, et al., 2006).
The exact mechanism of this protection is still unknown. However there are two postulated explanations. According to the first suggestion, it was found that parasites that cause malaria can only survive in conditions with low oxygen levels (Clark, et al., 1989). This demonstrates that these parasites are very susceptible to oxidative stress. It is known that in the pentose phosphate pathway of erythrocytes, glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) enzyme has an important role in production of NADPH and GSH. This is the only mechanism for erythrocytes to survive. GSH that is produced by NADP+ reduction reacts with H2O2 and reduce it to H2O. This prevents the generation of oxidative stress within red blood cells. Since oxidative stress is the most important factor for the disruption of red blood cells, these cells are protected from this effect. However, in G6PD deficient erythrocytes, G6PD activity is significantly reduced. In G6PD A (-) variant, enzyme activity level reduces to 10 or 20% of normal levels, while enzyme activity completely disappears in G6PD variant. Therefore, oxidative stress can be induced in erythrocytes whose G6PD enzymes are deficient. In this situation, GSH is not produced and H2O2 is not reduced to H2O and leads to oxidative stress. Hence, it is thought that since malaria parasites are susceptible to oxidative stress, they do not live within the erythrocytes where their maturation occurs (Toncheva & Tzoneva, 1985, Greene, 1993). Additionally, during oxidative stress, the loss of potassium from the cell and from the parasite can cause the death of the parasite (Friedman & Trager, 1981).
According to the second suggestion, Plasmodium parasites oxidize NADPH and reduce the level of reduced glutathione (GSH) in erythrocytes. In the situation of G6PD deficiency, this effect becomes more severe and induces oxidative-induced damage within erythrocytes. Moreover, Plasmodium parasites break down hemoglobin and release toxic components like iron and these substances lead to hemolysis. Hence, the development rates of Plasmodium parasites are diminished. Additionally, red blood cells that are affected by oxidative stress and are damaged are eliminated by the immune system via phagocytosis. This elimination decreases the growth of parasites much more since it occurs during an early ring-stage of parasites’ maturation. Therefore, all of these data indicate that G6PD deficiency can provide protection against malaria infections. Considering the relationship between G6PD deficiency and plasmodium infections, research has aimed to develop antimalarial drugs that decrease the level of GSH within erythrocytes and then produce hydrogen peroxide and the other free radical species in order to enhance the inhibition of Plasmodium species (Mehta, et al., 2000, Fortin, et al., 2002, Kwiatkowski, 2005, Prchal & Gregg, 2005).
Primaquine is the only effective antimalarial drug that provides inhibition of persistent liver stages of P. falciparum, P. vivax, and P. ovalae parasites that lead to relapses of malaria (Phompradit, et al., 2011).
However, as we initially mentioned, using primaquine in order to prevent the relapse of malaria can be very dangerous for G6PD deficiency patients since its usage results in very severe hemolysis. In all G6PD variants, activity levels of the enzyme have been diminished and this partially prevents the defense of erythrocytes against oxidative attack. However, when primaquine is administered, its metabolites lead to more severe hemolysis than oxidative damage by inducing oxyhemoglobin generation, GSH depletion and stimulation of the hexose monophosphate pathway. Moreover, primaquine can also induce the generation of Heinz bodies, which are insoluble aggregates that attach to the surfaces of erythrocytes. The most probable mechanism of primaquine-induced hemolysis is the generation of oxyhemoglobin, which forms hydrogen peroxide. Since G6PD enzyme level is low in G6PD-deficient erythrocytes, these peroxides accumulate and lead to denaturation of hemoglobin. Peroxides also generate Heinz bodies that attach to cell membranes of red blood cells. Hemolysis occurs when damaged erythrocytes pass through the spleen. In each pass, red blood cells lose a portion of the cell membrane. After additional passes, membranes of cells completely lose their competency (Beutler, et al., 1955, Bolchoz, et al., 2002, Beutler & Duparc, 2007).
These conditions reach life-threatening scenarios for all G6PD deficiency patients with different genetic variants. Hence, individuals that are required to use antimalarial drugs should be screened very carefully for their tendency to have G6PD deficiency.For effective control and treatment, either a reliable test for detecting G6PD deficiency or an anti-malarial drug that can be safely given to G6PD deficiency patients is required.
Currently, primaquine, which causes hemolysis in G6PD-deficient patients, is the only radical cure of Plasmodium vivax infections(Burgoine, et al., 2010). Therefore, screening to detect G6PD deficiency is very important. Various tests can be used for the detection of G6PD deficiency, which are based on the assessment of the NADPH production capacity of G6PD. The most frequently used tests that measure NADPH production are the fluorescent spot test, cytochemical assay and spectrophotometric assay. However, fluorescent spot test and the spectrophotometric assay are not reliable for the detection of heterozygous females. In addition, DNA analysis can be done to detect G6PD deficiency for the homozygous, hemizygous, and heterozygous-deficient patients. However, we have to design primers for all mutations (Peters & Van Noorden, 2009).
Fluorescence is a form of luminescence that uses the physical change of emission of light upon excitation of molecules. There are various different types of luminescence, classified depending on the style of excitation: chemo-luminescence (ending in a chemical reaction) photo-luminescence (fluorescence, phosphorescence and delayed fluorescence), bio-luminescence (via a living organism) and others (Bernard, 2002).
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADPH) is the reduced form of NADP, with absorption maximum at 340 nm and a maximum emission at 460 nm. NADPH concentrations have been studied in great detail using optical methods. A parameter for direct measurements of the G6PD activity is the fluorescence of NADPH. When G6PD shows enough functional activity in erythrocytes, two molecules of NADP+ are reduced to NADPH. After the addition of glucose 6-phosphate and NADP+, blood spot fluoresces at 340 nm if NADPH is produced (Beutler & Baluda, 1966).
Spectrophotometric methods are greatly used in biological sciences for quantitative and qualitative measurements due to the fact that these methods do not break down the molecules analyzed and enable us to assay small quantities of matter fundamentally (Lehninger, 2000). Spectrophotometric techniques allow detection of the concentration of a solution by evaluating its absorbance of a specific wavelength by way of a spectrophotometer, which produces light at a chosen wavelength and passes it directly through the sample. Because every molecule have a specific absorption spectrum, we can recognize and characterize its properties or detect its current concentration in the presence of other compounds (Lehninger, 2000).
In the case of enzyme activity measurements, the assay solution contains some other compounds that are required for the reaction to occur. Other compounds in the reaction mix may absorb light at the same wavelength with the enzyme being analyzed. To eliminate the interference of other compounds, the absorbance of a sample solution is compared with blank solution, which is taken as the reference. The blank contains everything found in the sample solution except the substance to be assayed.
In the matter of protein (enzymatic activity or protein concentration) measurements, colorimetric methods are used. Colorimetric measurements are performed by way of quantitative assessment of a colored complex, which is mostly formed by the reaction of a colorless compound and a dye reagent. However, the compound that will be analyzed can be naturally colored and can be read directly spectrophotometrically.
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyzes the first step in the pentose phosphate shunt, oxidizing glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P) to 6-phosphogluconate (6-PG). The enzyme activity can be determined quantitatively by spectrophotometer assay method, which is based on the rate of NADPH production from NADP+ in G6PD-deficient patients (Kornberg, et al., 1955, Lohr & Waller, 1974).
These reactions are illustrated below:
The Enzyme Commission of the International Union of Biochemistry recommends expressing this in international units (IU) and defines 1 IU as the amount of an enzyme that catalyzes the transformation of 1 micromole of substrate per minute under standard conditions of temperature, optimal pH, and optimal substrate concentration. Specific activity relates activity to total mass of protein to avoid bias through individual differences in weight (Bairoch, 1993). Therefore, G6PD activity was expressed as units (micromoles of NADP reduced per minute) per miligram of soluble protein at 37°C.
The Cytochemical staining assay is based on the intracellular reduction of the tetranitro blue tetrazolium (TNBT) by the G6PD via exogenous electron carrier 1-methoxyphenazine methosulfate and TNBT is reduced to dark-colored water-insoluble formazan, which can be determined by light microscopy (Peters & Van Noorden, 2009).
3 cc of venous blood anti-coagulated by 2% heparin solution (126 mM NaCl, 14 mM Na2HPO4, 1 mM KH2PO4, 13,2 mM glucose, pH 7.4) was collected from healthy and G6PD-deficient persons. The blood was washed three times with sterile heparin solution at 3000 rpm for 10 min. Erythrocytes were resuspended in PBS after that hematocrit was adjusted to 2%. This is the one of the most important steps for detection of in vitroprimaquine-ınduced hemolysis. Primaquine solution was prepared in 0.1 M Tris buffer (pH 7.4). Primaquine concentration was used between 1 and 4 mM in experiments. Different concentrations of primaquine were added into tubes containing 2% erythrocytes that were prepared before. Tubes were then placed and rotated in a rotator tube for 2 hours at 37°C. The rotation speed was less than 2 rpm. This is another important step for detection of in vitroprimaquine-induced hemolysis. After 2 hours, the supernatant was collected for the heme concentration, which was then determined spectrophotometrically. Hemoglobin released from erythrocyte induction of primaquine-induced hemolysis and compared with complete lysis (100% hemolysis, control group) obtained by adding 5 mM Tris-HCl (Fig. 1) (Allakhverdiev & Grinberg, 1981).
In vitro Primaquine-Induced hemolysis
The principle of this method is based on conversion of Hemoglobin (Hb) to cyanmethemoglobin by the addition of KCN and ferricyanide, whose absorbance is measured spectrophotometrically as cyanmethemoglobin at 540 nm versus a standard solution. Supernatant of hemolyzed red blood was diluted four-fold (v/v) with distilled water. On the other hand, the control group was diluted twenty-fold (v/v) with distilled water. After that, 50 μL KCN (10% w/v) and 50 μL potassium ferricyanide (2% w/v) were directly mixed and the color was measured at 540 nm. The standard curve was constructed using the standard cyanmethemoglobin solutions in different concentrations (Bhaskaram, et al., 2003).
This method demonstrated that the in vitro model of primaquine-induced hemolysis can be only maintained by using 2% hematocrit in physiological conditions. Primaquine leads to hemolysis at concentrations between 1 and 4 mM. Other factors that induce primaquine-derived hemolysis are exposure time, incubation temperature, drug concentration and amount of oxygen. Despite the fact that there are several methods in order to diagnose G6PD deficiency, these methods do not determine primaquine sensitivity in patients with G6PD deficiency every time. Therefore, lack of primaquine-based treatment by considering only G6PD deficiency can be very dangerous in terms of health of patients with malaria and the epidemiology of the disease. On the other hand, treatment of primaquine-sensitivive individuals with primaquine can cause death. Hence, in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report (Hill, et al., 2006), it was highlighted that there was an urgent need to develop new in vitro methods for determining hemolysis that indicate primaquine sensitivity before treatment of patients with this drug. By considering primaquine-induced hemolysis in patients with G6PD deficiency, it can be determined whether these patients may be treated with primaquine or not. The advantage of this method is that it can determine primaquine-induced hemolysis before treatment with primaquine and its capacity to determine G6PD deficiency.
This chapter has aimed to represent the relationship between G6PD deficiency and malaria and to suggest a sensitive method for detection of primaquine-induced hemolysis in patients with G6PD deficiency. As mentioned above, G6PD deficiency is the most common enzymopathologic disorder in humans and it affects 400 million people worldwide. In patients with G6PD deficiency, oxidative stress cannot be prevented since G6PD enzyme is the initial catalyst of the pentose phosphate pathway in erythrocytes that reduces the peroxides to H2O. This situation leads to mild to severe hemolysis, changing depending on genetic variants of the disease. As we mentioned before, according to epidemiological studies, the prevalence of G6PD deficiency deeply relates to malaria. In these studies, it was demonstrated that 66 of 77 genetic variants, which have reached to polymorphic frequencies, were seen in populations living in tropical and subtropical places where malaria was endemic. On the other hand, this genetic diversity does not occur in populations living in non-endemic regions of the world for malaria, indicating that high polymorphism is the indicator of G6PD deficiency and distribution of malaria is nearly the same with distribution of G6PD deficiency. This situation reveals two important results.
One of them is that G6PD deficiency provides partial protection from malaria infections, especially for falciparum infections. In several studies, it was demonstrated that risk of contracting malaria in patients that have G6PD deficiency decreased at a rate of 46 to 58%. On the other hand, using antimalarial drugs can cause life-threatening hemolytic anemia in patients with G6PD deficiency. Since G6PD deficiency does not provide exact protection, these patients still have a risk of contracting malaria. However, using primaquine, which is the only radical cure of Plasmodium infections, can induce more severe hemolysis by generating oxyhemoglobin, GSH depletion and Heinz bodies and enhancing oxidative attack. This threatens the lives of patients with G6PD deficiency. Hence, patients with malaria should be screened for their tendency to G6PD deficiency before their treatment with antimalarial drugs. Common methods that are used for diagnosing G6PD deficiency are unreliable. Even worse is that it is very difficult to distinguish heterozygously-deficient patients from healthy individuals. Additionally, current methods cannot accurately indicate hemolysis, even though they give information about activity of the enzyme. Also, these methods do not determine primaquine sensitivity in patients with G6PD deficiency every time. However, the method that we developed provides the determination of primaquine sensitivity in patients with G6PD deficiency in vitro independently from the variants of G6PD deficiency. The principle of the method is based on the quantitative detection of hemolysis by incubation of erythrocytes obtained from G6PD-deficient patients with primaquine in low hematocrit while rotating the culture in a hybridization oven for 2 hours at 37°C. By considering primaquine-induced hemolysis in patients with G6PD deficiency, it can be determined whether these patients may be treated with primaquine or not. The advantages of this method are that it can determine the primaquine-sensitivity in patients with G6PD deficiency before treatment with primaquine. Using this method not only on G6PD deficiency patients but also on patients that suffer from other diseases that may cause primaquine-induced hemolysis constitutes another advantage of the method.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an essential tool in the characterization of environmental risks in the different stages of a product’s life cycle [1]. Research on LCA is a source of important information in management and decision-making strategies designed to improve environmental practices and execute technological adjustments or transformations in organizations [2].
With the use of LCA on the increase, the biofuel sector is the object of considerable research publications, followed by energy generation and agriculture [3]. In addition, LCA is the foundation of studies that assess environmental impacts in several production chains such as the steel industry [4], construction [1, 2], steel recycling processes [4], and urban solid waste management [5, 6].
Standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO 14.040, the execution of an LCA is divided into four stages, namely the definition of goal and scope, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation of results [7].
In LCA studies, environmental impact is classified according to the methodology used to assess it. The methods used for life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) establish the relationship between each stage of the life cycle inventory and the corresponding environmental impacts [8]. Several LCIA methods based on software and inventory databases have been developed. Notably, the variety and the specific aspects of these methods may affect the end results of LCA [9]. Moreover, it is important to understand the implications of LCA studies from a broader, more inclusive perspective that considers not only the environment but also human health, since important factors may be overlooked if an all-encompassing, holistic approach to environmental impact is not carried out [10]. For this reason, LCA studies require the evaluation of the LCIA method that best characterizes the potential environmental impacts in a given process considering the scope and hypotheses guiding the conduction of study.
The objective of this study was to identify the key LCIA methods used today and characterize the main categories of environmental impact assessed using these methods.
This chapter is structured so as to initially characterize the obstacles and difficulties faced when classifying the environmental impacts central to the conduction of LCA. Next, we carried out a literature review using specific keywords currently used to define the main criteria and the most important categories of environmental impact. Early research already warned of the implications of not including all relevant categories of environmental impact in LCA when comparing the impacts of recycling paper solid waste and incinerating it [11].
Prior to the literature review carried out, we first discussed cases of environmental impact that indicated the importance of a diagnostic evaluation of the selection of all impact categories used in decision-making.
This study was carried out searching the Journals Portal of University Professor Improvement Bureau (CAPES), which includes more than 250 databases of theses, journals, and books. Some of the databases included are SCIELO, Science Direct (Elsevier), and Scopus (Elsevier). The search was carried out in November 2018, and the keywords used were industrial solid waste and LCA. Initially, the keywords retrieved 87 publications issued from 1993 to 2018. Subsequently, the articles were screened so as to include only the publications addressing the study topic, namely the use of LCA to investigate solid waste from industrial processes. Some of the articles included were noteworthy literature reviews on the use of LCA [12, 13]. Waste management assessments carried out using other methodologies were excluded from the present report [14, 15]. Similarly, studies that used advanced environmental tools like material flow analysis (MFA) [16, 17], circular economy [18], and industrial symbiosis [19] but did not employ LCA were also disregarded.
The inclusion criteria adopted concern the third stage of LCA studies, namely LCIA. Software, the LCIA method, and the categories of environmental impacts used in these publications were considered. If a study presented assessments of more than one category such as midpoint and endpoint categories like global warming potential and climate change, for example, it was still considered one publication only. The impact categories considered had to be addressed in more than one single publication. However, studies that have produced significant findings were mentioned in the assessment. Later, evidence explaining the selection of environmental impact categories assessed in each study was analyzed.
The use of a LCIA is justified considering the effort to generate a priority matrix that may be used to define the most relevant impact categories in LCA studies. This matrix would be helpful in the characterization of the impact categories that should be considered in each LCA based on specific criteria and score systems.
The criteria to be defined should take into account the importance of each impact in each case studied. Therefore, criteria like type of process (that is, the environmental impacts that are more important in a given process and the most affected compartments) and region (the scarcest or most susceptible natural resources in a determined area, for example) become important factors to be considered in the definition of the priority matrix. Other important requisites include spatial coverage, duration, reversibility, probability of occurrence, harm to human health, harm to ecosystems, exhaustion of resources, and treatment alternatives [20].
Therefore, based on these criteria, the priority matrix may be helpful in the definition of the most appropriate impact categories to be considered in a given LCA study. It is also important to evaluate the metric that most accurately and realistically represents the categories defined.
For example, the contaminants generated by a given industrial activity are a function of the associated production processes [21]. A metalworking company carries out processes like purification, surface treatments, and quenching. For this reason, such a company would generate by-products like
foundry sand waste
cured resin waste
polymer paint bottoms
boiler ashes and soot
quenching salt waste
galvanizing bath dregs
metal scrap in general
More specifically, metal processing may generate waste items like metal scrap and sand casting scrap that in turn release phenols, cyanides, mineral oil, and heavy metals. In turn, surface treatments and quenching operations are sources of antimony, arsenic, petroleum ether, benzene, lead, cadmium, chromium, cyanides, copper, mineral oil, nickel, mercury, acids, bases, selenium, and zinc. Investigation on these contamination hazards is an important source of data on the major environmental impact categories in LCA of products manufactured using such processes.
Concerning the situation of a given region in order to assess how its environmental compartments behave and how degraded the region is, the Rio Grande harbor, in southern Brazil, provides a good example. According to Fundação Estadual de Proteção Ambiental Henrique Luiz Roessler (FEPAM), the local environmental authority that records incidents with hazardous materials (
Three minor accidents took place in the Rio Grande harbor in the past 20 years. Two of these events involved fuel oil and one involved bunker fuel, in 2001 and 2004, respectively. However, since these fluids are poorly soluble and less dense than water, the contamination of the canal floor could be ruled out.
But a lead acetate spill was recorded in the container park of the harbor in July 2001. Different from the accidents with oil, lead acetate was being transported in the solid state. Due to the high solubility in water and high density compared with sea water, the compound posed a high risk of contamination of the canal floor. Though lead acetate is a low-hydrolysis rate organic salt formed from a weak acid, the compound is toxic and the possibility that hydrolysis takes place indicates that Pb2+ ions might have reacted with the ions in solution in the waters of the canal of Rio Grande harbor.
In view of that, the record of incidents in the Rio Grande harbor clearly indicates the categories of environmental impacts that are essential to be considered in LCA studies in the region—or in any other harbor zone. These events signal that the activities carried out in a harbor may have high environmental impact hazard.
Considering the prerequisites discussed in previous research [20] and the criteria defined above, which are represented in detail in the accidents described, the present study indicates the need for a priority matrix that addresses these prerequisites. The objective is to provide a decision-making tool in the definition of the main life cycle impact categories to be considered in an LCA.
Of the 87 studies initially retrieved, 11 met the objectives of this review and were appraised. The studies included in this investigation were about LCA of industrial waste like copper tailings [23], management of hazardous industrial waste [24], steel recycling processes [4], solid urban waste management [5, 6], and cement industry [1, 2, 25, 26]. Table 1 shows the case studies and the environmental impact categories assessed.
Study | Region | Functional unit | Software | LCIA | Impact categories | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | |||||
Chen et al. [4] | China | 1 kg steel (raw state) | SIMAPRO 7 | IPCC 2007 | x | ||||||||
Morris [28] | USA | Solid waste management | BEES 3.0 | — | x | x | x | ||||||
Song et al. [23] | China | 1 t copper | GaBi 4 | Eco-Indicator 99 | x | x | x | x | x | ||||
Al-maaded et al. [6] | Arabia | 10 kg plastic waste | GaBi 4 | CML 2001 | x | x | x | x | |||||
Banar et al. [29] | Turkey | 1 t urban solid waste | SIMAPRO 7 | CML 2000 | x | x | x | x | x | x | |||
Song et al. [1] | China | 1 t Portland cement | NI | CML 2001 | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | |
Yang et al. [2] | China | 1 t cement of different resistance values | NI | IMPACT2002+ | x | x | x | x | x | ||||
Shen et al. [25] | China | Portland cement | Not used | — | x | ||||||||
Changzai et al. [26] | China | 1 t SAC clinker production | IKE Environmental Technology Co. Ltd | eBalance | x | x | x | x | x | ||||
Hong et al. [24] | China | 1 t of mixed industrial hazardous waste | NI | ReCiPe and USEtox™ | x | x | x | x | x | ||||
Wang et al. [16] | China | 1 t of coal and 1 MWh power | IKE Environmental Technology Co. Ltd | eBalance | x | x | x |
Case studies selected and their relationships with environmental impact categories.
1: Global warming potential; 2: acidification potential; 3: eutrophication potential; 4: human toxicity potential; 5: ecotoxicity potential; 6: abiotic depletion potential; 7: ozone depletion potential; 8: photochemical oxidation potential; 9: respiratory toxicity potential (inorganic).
It is possible to observe that the LCIA method called CML was the most applied in research, being used in three articles carried out in Turkey, China, and Arabia [1, 5, 6]. The Eco-Indicator 99 method [23] and the Impact2002+ method [2] were also used. Other studies used the software tool developed by IKE Environmental Technology Co. Ltd., the eBalance package, which defines 16 midpoint categories of LCA [26, 27].
The use of the LCIA method is explained based on how a method is applied in LCA studies [2, 23]. However, some studies provide no explanation about the decision concerning the LCIA method selected. The use of a given method based on technical criteria was not reported in any study reviewed.
In LCA studies, environmental impacts are classified into categories based on the methodology used to assess the impact. The selection of categories of environmental impacts to systematically understand the aspects involved in each process is highly important at this stage, since the paucity of information may affect all decision levels.
The results of this review show that the main categories of environmental impacts taken into account in LCIA studies were global warming potential and acidification potential, which were used in 11 and 9 studies, respectively. Ecotoxicity was a category assessed in three studies.
More specifically, the four LCA studies that addressed cement as the only product were carried out in China using different methods. Only one category was assessed in the four studies, namely global warming potential. The categories acidification potential, eutrophication potential, and ecotoxicity were evaluated in two studies [1, 2]. The fact that these categories were evaluated does not mean that they were relevant in the respective studies. In the studies that assessed industrial waste and processes, the main categories used were global warming potential followed by acidification potential and eutrophication potential.
Previous research carried out an environmental evaluation of a typical Portland cement production line in China and compared the environmental impacts observed with the best available technologies with effects of the replacement of raw materials and of calcination fuels [1]. The functional unit defined was the production of 1 ton of Portland cement. The data were collected in a company operating in northern China and compiled as a database. The environmental impact categories were assessed using the CML 2001 method. The environmental impacts assessed were normalized. It was possible to observe that the category global warming potential is more severe compared with the other categories, followed by acidification potential and photochemical oxidation. The authors observed that the most efficient way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Portland cement production in China includes the study of alternative raw materials and fuels, especially due to the effects of calcination and coal consumption. These results were similar to the findings published in previous research [2], which found that the use of alternative materials like industrial waste and by-products is an efficient way to reduce environmental and economic impact generated in cement production.
The environmental performance of cements produced to yield various resistance levels has been compared [2]. The functional unit chosen was the production of 1 ton of cement. Mean annual production data of cement types were obtained from a research carried out by the China United Cement Corporation. Energy, coal, and shipping data were obtained from the literature. The LCIA method used was Impact 2002+. The environmental impacts were calculated based on midpoint and endpoint categories and were normalized. Based on an LCA, the authors concluded that the cement produced to yield high resistance caused the highest environmental impacts compared with lower resistance cements. The results showed that the categories that most contributed to global environmental impacts are global warming potential, respiratory toxicity potential, non-renewable energy consumption, and terrestrial acidification/eutrophication. Therefore, two categories were significant in these studies, namely global warming potential and acidification potential.
Also, CO2 emissions by the cement industry in China were quantified using an LCA [25]. Although these authors did not use a specific software, the calculations were carried out based on the necessary equations.
In another study, environmental impacts of the production of sulfoaluminate clinker using industrial solid waste were compared to the results obtained with the conventional method [26]. The results showed that industrial solid waste may significantly reduce the environmental load of the process due to the lower consumption of natural resources and greenhouse gas emissions. The production of sulfoaluminate clinker using industrial waste may reduce the total environmental impact by 38.62% compared with the conventional process.
It has been maintained that most studies about cement production considered only CO2 emissions and ignored the other environmental impacts [2]. It is observed that this is the case of several LCA studies not only about cement production, but also about other processes. The category global warming potential was considered in all studies, which explains the concern of industrial sectors to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Another study assessed the generation of energy from coal in China considering the steps of the mining life cycle and the washing and shipping of coal [27]. The authors observed that the main environmental impact category was smoke and dust, which is associated with the emission of total suspended particles.
However, it is important to consider all environmental impacts associated with LCA, in view of the relevance of the results of assessments to all decision-making levels. Therefore, it is essential to consider the specific aspects of the regions where a LCA is conducted and identify the relevance of the likely environmental impacts and aspects involved locally.
In addition, decision-makers have to consider a full LCIA, taking into account the associated economic and environmental impacts [4].
The lack of a holistic assessment of environmental impacts was observed in LCA carried out today based on a critical evaluation of LCA studies about concrete [10]. The author reports that LCA studies about concrete published in the literature are based on the use of energy and greenhouse gas emissions, despite the importance of questions like volatile organic compounds, heavy metals, and other toxic emissions involved in the production of concrete components.
Based on the rationale presented to determine the selection criteria and the survey carried out about LCA studies on industrial solid waste, it is observed that there is a long way ahead in the definition of a methodology to establish the life cycle environmental impacts that best fit each study in particular. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the methods that include the set of priorities established for the definition of the categories of impact that are of relevance in LCA studies. The priority matrix should include items such as type of activity and overall regional characteristics [20].
The objective of this chapter was to evaluate the use of different methods to define the most representative categories of environmental impact in LCA of industrial solid waste. Although initially 87 studies were selected, no study on LCA was carried out using a method that actually helped identify these categories. However, the categories global warming prevailed in research, followed by acidification potential and eutrophication potential.
This chapter also aimed at demonstrating the importance of assessing processes and respective downcycling and upcycling by-products as well as the most frequent pollutants, as in the example of the metalworking organization discussed. The importance of considering the physicochemical characteristics and behavior of compartments like water, air, and soil in the region where an impact occurs is highlighted. It is essential to evaluate the region considering its record of environmental accidents that affect its vulnerability to a given impact category. As opposed to what was observed in this literature review, these peculiarities should not be overlooked, meaning that specific aspects have to be considered in the search for critical points in LCA studies.
In view of that, the present literature review warns of the need to use appropriate LCA methods that consider the factor cited and address spatial area, duration of impact, reversibility, probability of occurring, human health hazards, harm to ecosystems, resource exhaustion, and treatment alternatives. Therefore, research on LCA requires a clearly developed approach to select impact categories that are more relevant in the establishment of environmental critical points, which is one of the objectives of LCA. These considerations form the foundation for a modernized production chain based on sustainable development under research, where LCA is the main tool in decision-making.
As this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
",metaTitle:"Copyright Policy",metaDescription:"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish and distribute publications.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/copyright-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\\n\\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\\n\\n\\n\\nDEFINITIONS
\\n\\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\\n\\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\\n\\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\\n\\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\\n\\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\\n\\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\\n\\n\\n\\n
LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\n\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5774},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5239},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15810}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118377},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10652",title:"Visual Object Tracking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"96f3ee634a7ba49fa195e50475412af4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10653",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"753812dbb9a6f6b57645431063114f6c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10653.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10655",title:"Motion Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"809b5e290cf2dade9e7e0a5ae0ef3df0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10655.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10657",title:"Service Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f81b9eea6eb3f9af984031b7af35588",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10673",title:"The Psychology of Trust",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f6cac41fd145f718ac0866264499cc8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10673.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10675",title:"Hydrostatics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c86c2fa9f835d4ad5e7efd8b01921866",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10675.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85eac84b173d785f989522397616124e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f63db439474a574454a66894db8b394c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10679",title:"Mass Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2dae91102099b1a07be1a36a68852829",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10679.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10689",title:"Risk Management in Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e3805b3d2fceb9d33e1fa805687cd296",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10689.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:202},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5249},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"208",title:"Material Science",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science",parent:{title:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials"},numberOfBooks:82,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:2121,numberOfWosCitations:3398,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1321,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3025,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8447",title:"Density Functional Theory Calculations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"430664e87463d090a0f03b1f096a7d9d",slug:"density-functional-theory-calculations",bookSignature:"Sergio Ricardo De Lazaro, Luis Henrique Da Silveira Lacerda and Renan Augusto Pontes Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8447.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio Ricardo De",middleName:null,surname:"Lazaro",slug:"sergio-ricardo-de-lazaro",fullName:"Sergio Ricardo De Lazaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9881",title:"Perovskite and Piezoelectric Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8fa0e0f48567bbc50fbb3bfdde6f9a0b",slug:"perovskite-and-piezoelectric-materials",bookSignature:"Someshwar Pola, Neeraj Panwar and Indrani Coondoo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9881.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177037",title:"Dr.",name:"Someshwar",middleName:null,surname:"Pola",slug:"someshwar-pola",fullName:"Someshwar Pola"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10072",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f68ba7ccb7700868a54c347421f572fb",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",bookSignature:"Mousumi Sen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10072.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"310218",title:"Dr.",name:"Mousumi",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"mousumi-sen",fullName:"Mousumi Sen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8778",title:"Self-Assembly of Nanostructures and Patchy Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8a6a5ad75592f8e3921048e4f300caa5",slug:"self-assembly-of-nanostructures-and-patchy-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"Shafigh Mehraeen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8778.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280108",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shafigh",middleName:null,surname:"Mehraeen",slug:"shafigh-mehraeen",fullName:"Shafigh Mehraeen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7430",title:"Magnetometers",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications of Magnetism",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d7c0464c36927782cee8c9ef40efca6",slug:"magnetometers-fundamentals-and-applications-of-magnetism",bookSignature:"Sergio Curilef",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7430.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"125424",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Curilef",slug:"sergio-curilef",fullName:"Sergio Curilef"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9257",title:"Electromagnetic Field Radiation in Matter",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dda82e17d67826552d58b2e610f32435",slug:"electromagnetic-field-radiation-in-matter",bookSignature:"Walter Gustavo Fano, Adrian Razzitte and Patricia Larocca",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9257.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"215741",title:"Prof.",name:"Walter Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Fano",slug:"walter-gustavo-fano",fullName:"Walter Gustavo Fano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7630",title:"Inelastic X-Ray Scattering and X-Ray Powder Diffraction Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"80896f929598a48f6b4c306a6be47ea6",slug:"inelastic-x-ray-scattering-and-x-ray-powder-diffraction-applications",bookSignature:"Alessandro Cunsolo, Margareth K. K. D. Franco and Fabiano Yokaichiya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7630.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176605",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",middleName:null,surname:"Cunsolo",slug:"alessandro-cunsolo",fullName:"Alessandro Cunsolo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9215",title:"Progress in Fine Particle Plasmas",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"42c9a3b34a54b24180ac3b1fe5c544b3",slug:"progress-in-fine-particle-plasmas",bookSignature:"Tetsu Mieno, Yasuaki Hayashi and Kun Xue",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9215.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"209593",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetsu",middleName:null,surname:"Mieno",slug:"tetsu-mieno",fullName:"Tetsu Mieno"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8823",title:"On the Properties of Novel Superconductors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ac9708760da3a91f84d9183feb90be2",slug:"on-the-properties-of-novel-superconductors",bookSignature:"Heshmatollah Yavari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8823.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24773",title:"Dr.",name:"Heshmatollah",middleName:null,surname:"Yavari",slug:"heshmatollah-yavari",fullName:"Heshmatollah Yavari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9205",title:"Electron Crystallography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9185ce16fc6f5756cf55fe6082f09fab",slug:"electron-crystallography",bookSignature:"Devinder Singh and Simona Condurache-Bota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9205.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184180",title:"Dr.",name:"Devinder",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"devinder-singh",fullName:"Devinder Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9109",title:"Engineered Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Health and Safety",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1941db7f5f7bffda9631bb0c658079e2",slug:"engineered-nanomaterials-health-and-safety",bookSignature:"Sorin Marius Avramescu, Kalsoom Akhtar, Irina Fierascu, Sher Bahadar Khan, Fayaz Ali and Abdullah M. Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9109.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193809",title:"Dr.",name:"Sorin Marius",middleName:null,surname:"Avramescu",slug:"sorin-marius-avramescu",fullName:"Sorin Marius Avramescu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8506",title:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ab81202ec11afae75334956029ebd31",slug:"some-aspects-of-diamonds-in-scientific-research-and-high-technology",bookSignature:"Evgeniy Lipatov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8506.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21254",title:"Mr.",name:"Evgeniy",middleName:null,surname:"Lipatov",slug:"evgeniy-lipatov",fullName:"Evgeniy Lipatov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:82,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"9725",doi:"10.5772/8508",title:"Biosynthesis and Application of Silver and Gold Nanoparticles",slug:"biosynthesis-and-application-of-silver-and-gold-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:27617,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:47,book:{slug:"silver-nanoparticles",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles"},signatures:"Zygmunt Sadowski",authors:null},{id:"17184",doi:"10.5772/17039",title:"Polymer Nanocomposites: From Synthesis to Applications",slug:"polymer-nanocomposites-from-synthesis-to-applications",totalDownloads:16761,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:46,book:{slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods"},signatures:"S. Anandhan and S. Bandyopadhyay",authors:[{id:"27050",title:"Prof.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Bandyopadhyay",slug:"sri-bandyopadhyay",fullName:"Sri Bandyopadhyay"},{id:"44992",title:"Prof.",name:"Anandhan",middleName:null,surname:"Srinivasan",slug:"anandhan-srinivasan",fullName:"Anandhan Srinivasan"}]},{id:"38562",doi:"10.5772/48727",title:"Recent Development in Applications of Cellulose Nanocrystals for Advanced Polymer-Based Nanocomposites by Novel Fabrication Strategies",slug:"recent-development-in-applications-of-cellulose-nanocrystals-for-advanced-polymer-based-nanocomposit",totalDownloads:8254,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:43,book:{slug:"nanocrystals-synthesis-characterization-and-applications",title:"Nanocrystals",fullTitle:"Nanocrystals - Synthesis, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Chengjun Zhou and Qinglin Wu",authors:[{id:"148511",title:"Prof.",name:"Qinglin",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"qinglin-wu",fullName:"Qinglin Wu"},{id:"148512",title:"Dr.",name:"Chengjun",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"chengjun-zhou",fullName:"Chengjun Zhou"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71103",title:"Preparation of Nanoparticles",slug:"preparation-of-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1069,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"engineered-nanomaterials-health-and-safety",title:"Engineered Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Engineered Nanomaterials - Health and Safety"},signatures:"Takalani Cele",authors:null},{id:"52860",title:"Cerium Oxide Nanostructures and their Applications",slug:"cerium-oxide-nanostructures-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:4352,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:29,book:{slug:"functionalized-nanomaterials",title:"Functionalized Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Functionalized Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Adnan Younis, Dewei Chu and Sean Li",authors:[{id:"191574",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Younis",slug:"adnan-younis",fullName:"Adnan Younis"}]},{id:"72022",title:"Magnetic Levitation Based Applications in Bioscience",slug:"magnetic-levitation-based-applications-in-bioscience",totalDownloads:197,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Magnetic Materials and Magnetic Levitation",fullTitle:"Magnetic Materials and Magnetic Levitation"},signatures:"Fatih Ozefe and Ahu Arslan Yildiz",authors:null},{id:"67093",title:"Nanomaterials: An Overview of Nanorods Synthesis and Optimization",slug:"nanomaterials-an-overview-of-nanorods-synthesis-and-optimization",totalDownloads:1119,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"nanorods-and-nanocomposites",title:"Nanorods and Nanocomposites",fullTitle:"Nanorods and Nanocomposites"},signatures:"Alsultan Abdulkareem Ghassan, Nurul-Asikin Mijan and Yun Hin Taufiq-Yap",authors:[{id:"215489",title:"Dr.",name:"Alsultan Abdulkareem",middleName:"Ghassan",surname:"Ghassan",slug:"alsultan-abdulkareem-ghassan",fullName:"Alsultan Abdulkareem Ghassan"},{id:"284157",title:"Dr.",name:"Nurul-Asikin",middleName:null,surname:"Mijan",slug:"nurul-asikin-mijan",fullName:"Nurul-Asikin Mijan"},{id:"284158",title:"Prof.",name:"Yun Hin",middleName:null,surname:"Taufiq-Yap",slug:"yun-hin-taufiq-yap",fullName:"Yun Hin Taufiq-Yap"}]},{id:"59431",title:"Nanofibers and Electrospinning Method",slug:"nanofibers-and-electrospinning-method",totalDownloads:2095,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"novel-nanomaterials-synthesis-and-applications",title:"Novel Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Novel Nanomaterials - Synthesis and Applications"},signatures:"Nabeel Zabar Abed Al-Hazeem",authors:[{id:"215376",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Nabeel",middleName:"Z.",surname:"Al-Hazeem",slug:"nabeel-al-hazeem",fullName:"Nabeel Al-Hazeem"}]},{id:"73856",title:"Organic Inorganic Perovskites: A Low-Cost-Efficient Photovoltaic Material",slug:"organic-inorganic-perovskites-a-low-cost-efficient-photovoltaic-material",totalDownloads:106,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"perovskite-and-piezoelectric-materials",title:"Perovskite and Piezoelectric Materials",fullTitle:"Perovskite and Piezoelectric Materials"},signatures:"Madeeha Aslam, Tahira Mahmood and Abdul Naeem",authors:[{id:"226388",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Naeem",slug:"abdul-naeem",fullName:"Abdul Naeem"},{id:"305971",title:"Prof.",name:"Tahira",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmood",slug:"tahira-mahmood",fullName:"Tahira Mahmood"},{id:"305974",title:"Ms.",name:"Madeeha",middleName:null,surname:"Aslam",slug:"madeeha-aslam",fullName:"Madeeha Aslam"}]},{id:"67053",title:"Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials",slug:"two-dimensional-nanomaterials",totalDownloads:823,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"nanostructures",title:"Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Nanostructures"},signatures:"Zahra Rafiei-Sarmazdeh, Seyed Morteza Zahedi-Dizaji and Aniseh Kafi Kang",authors:[{id:"289558",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zahra",middleName:null,surname:"Rafiei-Sarmazdeh",slug:"zahra-rafiei-sarmazdeh",fullName:"Zahra Rafiei-Sarmazdeh"},{id:"289562",title:"MSc.",name:"Seyed Morteza",middleName:null,surname:"Zahedi",slug:"seyed-morteza-zahedi",fullName:"Seyed Morteza Zahedi"}]},{id:"71346",title:"Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement",slug:"application-of-nanomaterials-in-environmental-improvement",totalDownloads:495,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Ali Salman Ali",authors:[{id:"313275",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"ali-salman",fullName:"Ali Salman"}]},{id:"55242",title:"Facile Methodology of Sol-Gel Synthesis for Metal Oxide Nanostructures",slug:"facile-methodology-of-sol-gel-synthesis-for-metal-oxide-nanostructures",totalDownloads:3234,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,book:{slug:"recent-applications-in-sol-gel-synthesis",title:"Recent Applications in Sol-Gel Synthesis",fullTitle:"Recent Applications in Sol-Gel Synthesis"},signatures:"Shrividhya Thiagarajan, Anandhavelu Sanmugam and\nDhanasekaran Vikraman",authors:[{id:"199404",title:"Prof.",name:"Dhanasekaran",middleName:null,surname:"Vikraman",slug:"dhanasekaran-vikraman",fullName:"Dhanasekaran Vikraman"},{id:"199415",title:"Dr.",name:"Shrividhya",middleName:null,surname:"Thiagarajan",slug:"shrividhya-thiagarajan",fullName:"Shrividhya Thiagarajan"},{id:"199416",title:"Dr.",name:"Anandhavelu",middleName:null,surname:"Sanmugam",slug:"anandhavelu-sanmugam",fullName:"Anandhavelu Sanmugam"}]},{id:"72636",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",slug:"nanocomposite-materials",totalDownloads:495,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Mousumi Sen",authors:[{id:"310218",title:"Dr.",name:"Mousumi",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"mousumi-sen",fullName:"Mousumi Sen"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"70363",title:"Diluted Magnetic Semiconductor ZnO: Magnetic Ordering with Transition Metal and Rare Earth Ions",slug:"diluted-magnetic-semiconductor-zno-magnetic-ordering-with-transition-metal-and-rare-earth-ions",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90369",book:{title:"Magnetic Materials and Magnetic Levitation"},signatures:"Kuldeep Chand Verma"},{id:"73032",title:"Zr-Based Heusler Compounds for Biomedical Spintronic Applications",slug:"zr-based-heusler-compounds-for-biomedical-spintronic-applications",totalDownloads:161,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93372",book:{title:"Magnetic Materials and Magnetic Levitation"},signatures:"Anca Birsan and Victor Kuncser"},{id:"72905",title:"Structural, Electrical, and Magnetic Properties of Mullite-Type Ceramic: Bi2Fe4O9",slug:"structural-electrical-and-magnetic-properties-of-mullite-type-ceramic-bi2fe4o9",totalDownloads:90,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93280",book:{title:"Magnetic Materials and Magnetic Levitation"},signatures:"Poorva Sharma, Ashwini Kumar, Jingyou Tang and Guolong Tan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/dehydrogenases/glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase-deficiency-and-malaria-a-method-to-detect-primaquine-induced-hemol",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"dehydrogenases",chapter:"glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase-deficiency-and-malaria-a-method-to-detect-primaquine-induced-hemol"},fullPath:"/books/dehydrogenases/glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase-deficiency-and-malaria-a-method-to-detect-primaquine-induced-hemol",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()