Machine learning jargons and corresponding statistics jargons.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to clarifiy the remarkable role of 3D chromatin architecture in development and delineates its alterations as prominent causes of disease. This book hopes to clearly interrelate the chromatin structure with the biochemical pathways it influences, and would be important reading for students and molecular biologists who also want to grasp epigenetic and transcriptional disease mechanisms.
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Statistics is the foundation of machine learning. However not all machine learning methods have been said to have derived from statistics. To begin with let us take a look at what statistics and machine learning means.
Statistics is extensively used in areas of science and finance and in the industry. Statistics is known to be mathematical science and not just mathematics. It is said to have been originated in seventeenth century. It consists of data collection, organizing the data, analyzing the data, interpretation and presentation of data. Statistical methods are being used since a long time in various fields to understand the data efficiently and to gain an in-depth analysis of the data [1].
On the other hand, machine learning is a branch of computer science which uses statistical abilities to learn from a particular dataset [2]. It was invented in the year 1959. It learns using algorithm and then has the ability to predict based on what it has been fed with. Machine learning gives out detailed information than statistics [3].
Most of the techniques of machine learning derive their behavior from statistics. However not many are familiar with this since both of them have their own jargons. For instance learning in statistics is called as fitting, supervised learning from machine learning is called as regression. Machine learning is a subfield of computer science and artificial intelligence. Machine learning is said to be a subdivision of computer science and artificial intelligence. It does use fewer assumptions than statistics. Machine learning unlike statistics deals with large amount of data and it also requires minimum human effort since most of its computation is done by the machine or the computer itself. Machine learning unlike statistics has a strong predicting power than statistics. Depending on the type of data machine learning can be categorized into supervised machine learning, unsupervised machine learning and reinforcement learning [4].
There seems to be analogy between machine learning and statistics. The following picture from textbook shows how statistics and machine learning visualize a model. Table 1 shows how terms of statistics have been coined in machine learning.
Machine learning | Statistics |
---|---|
Network, graphs | Model |
Weights | Parameters |
Learning | Fitting |
Generalization | Tool set performance |
Supervised learning | Regression/classification |
Unsupervised learning | Density estimation, clustering |
Machine learning jargons and corresponding statistics jargons.
To understand how machine learning and statistics come out with the results let’s look at Figure 1. In statistical modeling on the left half of the image, linear regression with two variables is fitting the best plane with fewer errors. In machine learning the right half of the image to fit the model in the best possible way the independent variables have been converted into the square of error terms. That is machine learning strives to get a better fit than the statistical model. In doing so, machine learning minimizes the errors and increases the prediction rates.
Statistical and machine learning method.
Statistics methods are not just useful in training the machine learning model but they are helpful in many other stages of machine learning such as:
Data preparation—where statistics is used for data preprocessing which is later sent to the model. For instance when there are missing values in the dataset, we compute statistical mean or statistical median and fill it in the empty spaces of the dataset. It is recommended that machine learning model should never be fed with a dataset which has empty cells in it. It also used in preprocessing stage to scale the data by which the values are scaled to a particular range by which the mathematical computation becomes easy during the training of machine learning.
Model evaluation—no model is perfect in predicting when it is built for the first time. Simply building the model is not enough. It is vital to check how well is it performing and if not then by how much is it closer to being accurate enough. Hence, we evaluate the model by statistical methods, which tell by how much the result is accurate and a lot many things about the end result obtained. We make use of metrics such as confusion matrix, Kolmogorov Smirnov chart, AUC—ROC, root mean squared error and many metrics to enhance our model.
Model selection—we make use of many algorithms to train the algorithm and there is a chance of selecting only one which gives out accurate results when compared to others. The process of selecting the right solution for this is called model selection. Two of the statistical methods can be used to select the appropriate model such as statistical hypothesis test and estimation statistics [5].
Data selection—some datasets carry a lot of features with them. Of many features, it may happen so that only some contribute significantly in estimation of the result. Considering all the features becomes computationally expensive and as well as time consuming. By making use of statistics concepts we can eliminate the features which do not contribute significantly in producing the result. That is it helps in finding out the dependent variables or features for any result. But it is important to note that this method requires careful and skilled approach. Without which it may lead to wrong results.
In this chapter we take a look at how statistical methods such as, regression and classification are used in machine learning with their own merits and demerits.
Regression is a statistical measure used in finance, investing and many other areas which aims to determine relationship between the dependent variables and ‘n’ number of independent variables. Regression consists of two types:
Linear regression—where one independent variable is used to explain or predict the outcome of the dependent variable.
Multiple regression—where two or more independent variables are used to explain or predict the outcome of the dependent variable.
In statistical modeling, regression analysis consists of set of statistical methods to estimate how the variables are related to each other.
Linear and logistic are the types of regression which are used in predictive modeling [6].
Linear assumes that the relationship between the variables are linear that is they are linearly dependent. The input variables consist of variables X1, X2, …, Xn (where n is a natural number).
Linear models were developed long time ago but till date they are able to produce significant results. That is even in the modern computer’s era they are well off. They are widely used because they are not complex in nature. In prediction, they can even out perform complex nonlinear models.
There are ‘n’ number of regressions that can be performed. We look at the most widely used five types of regression techniques. They are:
Linear regression
Logistic regression
Polynomial regression
Stepwise regression
Ridge regression
Any regression method would involve the following:
The unknown variables is denoted by beta
The dependent variables also known as output variable
The independent variables also known as input variables
It is denoted in the form of function as:
It is the most widely used regression type by far. Linear regression establishes a relationship between the input variables (independent variables) and the output variable (dependent variable).
It assumes that the output variable is a combination of the input variables. A linear regression line is represented by Y = a + bX, where X is the explanatory variable and Y is the dependent variable. The slope of the line is ‘b’, and ‘a’ is the intercept (the value of y when x = 0).
A line regression is represented by the equation:
where X indicates independent variables and ‘Y’ is the dependent variable [7]. This equation when plotted on a graph is a line as shown below in Figure 2.
Linear regression on a dataset.
However, linear regression makes the following assumptions:
That there is a linear relationship
There exists multivariate normality
There exists no multi collinearity or little multicollinearity among the variables
There exists no auto-correlation between the variables
No presence of homoscedasticity
It is fast and easy to model and it is usually used when the relationship to be modeled is not complex. It is easy to understand. However linear regression is sensitive to outliners.
Note: In all of the usages stated in this chapter, we have assumed the following:
The dataset has been divided into training set (denoted by X) and test set (denoted by y_test)
The regression object “reg” has been created and exists.
We have used the following libraries:
Scipy and Numoy for numerical calculations
Pandas for dataset handling
Scikit-learn to implement the algorithm, to split the dataset and various other purposes.
Usage of linear regression in python:
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np
from sklearn import datasets, linear_model
#Declare the linear regression function
reg=linear_model.LinearRegression()
#call the method
reg.fit(height,weight)
#to check slope and intercept
m=reg.coef_[0]
b=reg.intercept_
print("slope=",m, "intercept=",b)
# check the accuracy on the training set
reg.score(X, y)
Logistic regression is used when the dependent variable is binary (True/False) in nature. Similarly the value of y ranges from 0 to 1 (Figure 3) and it is represented by the equation:
Standard logistic function.
Logistic regression is used in classification problems. For example to classify emails as spam or not and to predict whether the tumor is malignant or not. It is not mandatory that the input variables have linear relationship to the output variable [8]. The reason being that it makes us of nonlinear log transformation to the predicted odds. It is advised to make use of only the variables which are powerful predictors to increase the algorithms performance.
However, it is important to note the following while making use of logistic regression:
Doesn’t handle large number of categorical features.
The non-linear features should be transformed before using them.
Usage of logistic regression in python:
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
# instantiate a logistic regression model, and fit with X and y
reg = LogisticRegression()
reg = model.fit(X, y)
# check the accuracy on the training set
reg.score(X, y)
It is a type of regression where the independent variable power is greater than 1. Example:
The plotted graph is usually a curve in nature as shown in Figure 4.
Plotted graph is looks as curve in nature.
If the degree of the equation is 2 then it is called quadratic. If 3 then it is called cubic and if it is 4 it is called quartic. Polynomial regressions are fit with the method of least squares. Since the least squares minimizes the variance of the unbiased estimators of all the coefficients which are done under the conditions of Gauss-Markov theorem. Although we may get tempted to fit a higher degree polynomial so that we could get a low error, it may cause over-fitting [9].
Some guidelines which are to be followed are:
The model is more accurate when it fed with large number of observations.
Not a good thing to extrapolate beyond the limits of the observed values.
Values for the predictor shouldn’t be large else they will cause overflow with higher degree.
Usage of polynomial regression in python:
from sklearn.preprocessing import PolynomialFeatures
import numpy as np
#makes use of a pre-processor called degree for the function
reg = PolynomialFeatures(degree=2)
reg.fit_transform(X)
reg.score(X, y)
This type of regression is used when we have multiple independent variables. To select the variables which are independent an automatic process is used. If used in the right way it puts more power and presents us ton of information. It can be used when the number of variables is too many. However if it is used haphazardly it may affect the models performance.
We make use of the following scores to help us find out the independent variables which contribute to the output variable significantly—R-squared, Adj. R-squared, F-statistic, Prob (F-statistic), Log-Likelihood, AIC, BIC and many more.
It can be performed by any of the following ways:
Forward selection—where we start by adding the variables to the set and check how affects the scores.
Backward selection—we start by taking all the variables to the set and start eliminating them one by one by looking at the score after each elimination.
Bidirectional selection—a combination of both the methods mentioned above.
The greatest limitation of using step-wise regression is that the each instance or sample must have at least five attributes. Below which it has been observed that the algorithm doesn’t perform well [10].
Code to implement Backward Elimination algorithm:
Assume that the dataset consists of 5 columns and 30 rows, which are present in the variable ‘X’ and let the expected results contain in the variable ‘y’. Let ‘X_opt’ contain the independent variables which are used to determine the value of ‘y’.
We are making use of a package called statsmodels, which is used to estimate the model and to perform statistical tests.
#import stats models package
import statsmodels.formula.api as sm
#since it is a polynomial add a column of 1s to the left
X = np.append (arr = np.ones([30,1]).astype(int), values = X, axis = 1)
#Let X-opt contain the independent variables only and Let y contain the output variable
X_opt = X[:,[0,1,2,3,4,5]]
#assign y to endog and X_opt to exog
regressor_OLS = sm.OLS(endog = y, exog = X_opt).fit()
regressor_OLS.summary()
The above code outputs the summary and based on it the variable which should be eliminated should be decided. Once decided remove the variable from ‘X-opt’.
It is used to handle high dimensionality of the dataset.
It can be used to analyze the data in detail. It is a technique which is used to get rid of multi collinearly. That is the independent values may be highly correlated. It adds a degree of bias due to which it reduces the standard errors.
The multi collinearity of the data can be inspected by correlation matrix. Higher the values, more the multi collinearity. It can also be used when number of predictor variables in the dataset exceeds the number of instances or observations [11].
The equation for linear regression is
This equation also contains error. That is it can be expressed as
Error with mean zero and known variance.
Ridge regression is known to shrink the size by imposing penalty on the size. It is also used to control the variance.
In (Figure 5) how ridge regression looks geometrically.
Ridge and OLS.
Usage of ridge regression in python:
from sklearn import linear_model
reg = linear_model.Ridge (alpha = .5)
reg.fit ([[0, 0], [0, 0], [1, 1]], [0, .1, 1])
Ridge(alpha=0.5, copy_X=True, fit_intercept=True, max_iter=None,
normalize=False, random_state=None, solver=\'auto\', tol=0.001)
#to return the co-efficient and intercept
reg.coef_
reg.intercept_
Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator is also known as LASSO. Lasso is a linear regression that makes use of shrinkage. It does so by shrinking the data values toward the mean or a central point. This is used when there are high levels of multi collinearity [12].
It is similar to ridge regression and in addition it can reduce the variability and improves the accuracy of linear regression models.
It is used for prostate cancer data analysis and other cancer data analysis.
Important points about LASSO regression:
It helps in feature extraction by shrinking the co-efficient to zero.
It makes use of L1 regularization.
In the data if the predictors are have high correlation, the algorithm selects only one of the predictors discards the rest.
Code to implement in python:
from sklearn import linear_model
clf = linear_model.Lasso(alpha = 0.1)
clf.fit()
Lasso(alpha=0.1, copy_X=True, fit_intercept=True, max_iter=1000,
normalize=False, positive=False, precompute=False, random_state=None,
selection=\'cyclic\', tol=0.0001, warm_start=False)
#to return the co-efficent and intercept
print(clf.coef_)
print(clf.intercept_)
A classification task is when the output is of the type “category” such as segregating data with respect to some property. In machine learning and statistics, classification consists of categorizing the new data to a particular category where it fits in on the basis of the data which has been used to train the model. Examples of tasks which make use of classification techniques are classifying emails as spam or not, detecting a disease on plants, predicting whether it will rain on some particular day, predicting the house prices based on the area it is located.
In terms of machine learning classification techniques fall under supervised learning [13].
The categories may be either:
categorical (example: blood groups of humans—A, B, O)
ordinal (example: high, medium or low)
integer valued (example: occurrence of a letter in a sentence)
Real valued
The algorithms which make use of this concept in machine learning and classify the new data are called as “Classifiers.” Algorithms always return a probability score of belonging to the class of interest. That is considered an example where we are required to classify a gold ornament. Now when we input the image to the machine learning model the algorithms returns the probability value for each category, such as for if it is a ring the probability value may be higher than 0.8 if it not a necklace it may return less than 0.2, etc.
Higher the value more likely it is for it to belong to the particular group.
We make use of the following approach to build a machine learning classifier:
Pick a cut off probability above which we consider a record to belong to that class.
Estimate that a new observation belongs to a class.
If the obtained probability is above the cut off probability, assign the new observation to that class.
Classifiers are of two types: linear and nonlinear classifiers.
We now take a look at various classifiers are also statistical techniques:
Naive Bayes
stochastic gradient dissent (SGD)
K-nearest neighbors
decision trees
random forest
support vector machine
In machine learning, these classifiers belong to “probabilistic classifiers.” This algorithm makes use of Bayes’ theorem with strong independence assumptions between the features. Although Naive Bayes were introduced in the early 1950s, they are still being used today [14].
Given a problem instance to be classified, represented by a vector
Which represent ‘n’ features.
We can observe that in the above formula that if the number of features is more or if a feature accommodates a large number of values, then it becomes infeasible. Therefore we rewrite the formula based on Bayes theorem as:
Makes two “naïve” assumptions over attributes:
All attributes are a priori equally important
All attributes are statistically independent (value of one attribute is
not related to a value of another attribute)
This classifier makes two assumptions:
All attributes are equally important
All attributes are not related to another attribute
There are three types of naive Bayes algorithms, which can be used: GaussianNB, BernoulliNB, and MultinomialNB.
Usage of naive Bayes in python:
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from sklearn.naive_bayes import GaussianNB
reg= GaussianNB()
reg.fit(X,y)
reg.predict(X_test)
reg.score()
An example of linear classifier which implements regularized linear model (Figure 6) with stochastic gradient dissent. Stochastic gradient descent (often shortened to SGD), also known as incremental gradient descent, is an iterative method to optimize a differentiable objective function, a stochastic approximation of gradient descent optimization [15]. Although SGD has been a part of machine learning since ages it wasn’t extensively used until recently.
In linear regression algorithm, we make us of least squares to fit the line. To ensure that the error is low we use gradient descent. Although gradient descent does the job it can’t handle big tasks hence we use stochastic gradient classifier. SGD calculates the derivative of each training data and also calculates the update within no time.
The advantages of using SGD classifier are that they are efficient and they are easy to implement.
Feature scaling classifier.
However it is sensitive to feature scaling.
Usage of SGD classifier:
from sklearn.linear_model import SGDClassifier
X = [[0., 0.], [1., 1.]]
y = [0, 1]
clf = SGDClassifier (loss = "hinge", penalty = "l2")
clf.fit(X, y)
#to predict the values
clf.fit(X_test)
Also known as k-NN is a method used to classify as well as for regression. The input consists of k number of closest training examples. It is also referred as lazy learning since the training phase doesn’t require a lot of effort.
In k-NN an object’s classification is solely dependent on the majority vote of the object’s neighbors. That is the outcome is based on the presence of the neighbors. The object is assigned to the class most common among its k nearest neighbors. If the value of k is equal to 1 then it’s assigned to its nearest neighbor. Simply put, the k-NN algorithm is entirely dependent on the neighbors of the object to be classified. Greater the influence of a neighbor, the object is assigned to it. It is termed as simplest machine learning algorithm among all the algorithms [16].
Let us consider an example where the green circle is the object which is to be classified as shown in Figure 7. Let us assume that there are two circles—the solid circle and the dotted circle.
K-Neighbors.
As we know that there are two classes class 1 (blue squares) and class 2 (red squares). If we consider only the inner circle that is the solid circle then there are two objects of red circle existing which dominates the number of blue squares due to which the new object is classified to Class 1. But if we consider the dotted circle, the number of blue circle dominates since there are more number of blue squares due to which the object is classified to Class 2 [17].
However, the cost of learning process is zero.
The algorithm may suffer from curse of dimensionality since the number of dimensions greatly affects its performance. When the dataset is very large the computation becomes very complex since the algorithm takes time to look out for its neighbors. If there are many dimensions then the samples nearest neighbors can be far away. To avoid curse of dimensionality dimension reduction is usually performed before applying k-NN algorithm to the data.
Also the algorithm may not perform well with categorical data since it is difficult to find the distance between the categorical features.
Usage in python:
from sklearn.neighbors import KNeighborsClassifier
classifier = KNeighborsClassifier (n_neighbors=5)
classifier.fit(X_train, y_train)
Decision trees are considered to be most popular classification algorithms while classifying data. Decision trees are a type of supervised algorithm where the data is split based on certain parameters. The trees consist of decision nodes and leaves [18].
The decision tree consists of a root tree from where the tree generates and this root tree doesn’t have any inputs. It is the point from which the tree originates. All the other nodes except the root node have exactly one incoming node. The other nodes except the root node are called leaves. Below is the example of a decision tree an illustration of how the decision tree looks like as shown in Figure 8.
Typical decision tree.
“Is sex male” is the root node from where the tree originates. Depending on the condition the tree further bifurcates into subsequent leaf nodes. Few more conditions like “is Age >9.5?” are applied by which the depth of the node goes on increasing. As the number of leaf nodes increase the depth of the tree goes on increasing. The leaf can also hold a probability vector.
Decision tree algorithms implicitly construct a decision tree for any dataset.
The goal is to construct an optimal decision tree by minimalizing the generalization error. For any tree algorithm, it can be tuned by making changes to parameters such as “Depth of the tree,” “Number of nodes,” “Max features.” However construction of a tree by the algorithm can get complex for large problems since the number of nodes increase as well as the depth of the tree increases.
Advantages of this tree are that they are simple to understand and can be easily interpreted. It also requires little data preparation. The tree can handle both numerical and categorical data unlike many other algorithms. It also easy to validate the decision tree model using statistical testes. However, disadvantages of the trees are that they can be complex in nature for some cases which won’t generalize the data well. They are unstable in nature since if there are small variations in data they may change the structure of the tree completely.
Usage in python:
from sklearn.neighbors import tree
classifier = tree.DecisionTreeClassifier()
classifier.fit(X_train, y_train)
clf.predict(X_test)
These are often referred as ensemble algorithms since these algorithms combine the use of two or more algorithms. They are improved version of bagged decision trees. They are used for classification, regression, etc.
Random forest creates n number of decision trees from a subset of the data. On creating the trees it aggregates the votes from the different trees and then decides the final class of the sample object. Random forest is used in recommendation engines, image classification and feature selection [19].
The process consists of four steps:
It selects random samples from the dataset.
For every dataset construct a dataset and then predict from every decision tree.
For every predicted result perform vote.
Select the prediction which has the highest number of votes.
Random forest’s default parameters often produce a good result in most of the cases. Additionally, one can make changes to achieve desired results. The parameters in Random Forest which can be used to tune the algorithm which can be used to give better and efficient results are:
Increasing the predictive power by increasing “n_estimators” by which the number of tress which will be built can be altered. “max_features” parameter can also be adjusted which is the number of features which are used to train the algorithm. Another parameter which can be adjusted is “min_sample_leaf” which is the number of leafs that are used to split the internal node.
To increase the model’s speed, “n_jobs” parameter can be adjusted which is the number of processors it can use. To use as many as needed “−1” can be specified which signifies that there is no limit.
Due to large number of decision trees random forest is highly accurate. Since it takes the average of all the predictions which are computed the algorithm doesn’t suffer from over fitting. Also it does handle missing values from the dataset. However, the algorithm is takes time to compute since it takes time to build trees and take the average of the predictions and so on.
One of the real time examples where random forest algorithm can be used is predicting a person’s systolic blood pressure based on the person’s height, age, weight, gender, etc.
Random forests require very little tuning when compared to other algorithms. The main disadvantage of random forest algorithm is that increased number of tress can make the process computationally expensive and lead to inaccurate results.
Usage in python:
from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
clf = RandomForestClassifier(max_depth=2, random_state=0)
clf.fit(X, y)
clf.predict(X_test)
Support vector machines also known as SVMs or support vector networks fall under supervised learning. They are used for classification as well as regression purposes. Support vectors are the data points which lie close to the hyper plane. When the data is fed to the algorithm the algorithm builds a classifier which can be used to assign new examples to one class or the other [20]. A SVM consists of points in space separated by a gap which is as wide as possible. When a new sample is encountered it maps it to the corresponding category.
Perhaps when the data is unlabeled it becomes difficult for the supervised SVM to perform and this is where unsupervised method of classifying is required.
A SVM constructs a hyper plane which can be used for classification, regression and many other purposes. A good separation can be achieved when the hyper plane has the largest distance to the nearest training point of a class.
In (Figure 9) H1 line doesn’t separate, while H2 separates but the margin is very small whereas H3 separates such as the distance between the margin and the nearest point is maximum when compared to H1 and H2.
Hyper plane construction and H1, H2 and H3 line separation.
SVMs can be used in a variety of applications such as:
They are used to categorize text, to classify images, handwritten images can be recognized, and they are also used in the field of biology.
SVMs can be used with the following kernels:
Polynomial kernel SVM
Linear kernel SVM
Gaussian kernel SVM
Gaussian radial basis function SVM (RBF)
The advantages of SVM are:
Effective in high dimensional data
It is memory efficient
It is versatile
It may be difficult for SVM to classify at times due to which the decision boundary is not optimal. For example, when we want to plot the points randomly distributed on a number line.
It is almost impossible to separate them. So in such cases we transform the dataset by applying 2D or 3D transformations by using a polynomial function or any other appropriate function. By doing so it becomes easier to draw a hyper plane.
When the number of features is much greater than number of samples it doesn’t perform well with the default parameters.
Usage of SVM in python:
from sklearn import svm
clf = svm.SVC()
clf.fit(X,y)
clf.predict(X_test)
It is evident from the above regression and classification techniques are strongly influenced by statistics. The methods have been derived from statistical methods which existed since a long time. Statistical methods also consist of building models which consists of parameters and then fitting it. However not all the methods which are being used derive their nature from statistics. Not all statistical methods are being used in machine learning. Extensive research in the field of statistical methods may give out new set methods which can be used in machine learning apart from the existing statistical methods which are being used today. It can also be stated that machine learning to some extent is a form of ‘Applied Statistics.’
In the first ideas of this book, we were much concerned about the children with an anxiety disorder and the children whose parents were diagnosed with any anxiety disorders in their lifetime. So, we are eager to check out the different types of anxiety disorders with different underlying mechanisms.
\nDifferent anxiety disorders stand out in the center of many psychiatric conditions, independent of developmental periods and age. Accordingly, different anxiety issues play an important role in the psychopathology of a child and adolescent development. Today, we can detect childhood fears earlier and evaluate them as the pioneer of many adult psychiatric disorders.
\nEpidemiological studies on child and adolescent psychopathology have been conducted since the 1980s. Especially, studies on childhood anxiety are the most common. In this way, risk factors are better determined, leading symptoms are recognized and accordingly prevented, and therapeutic strategies are developed.
\nThe developmental perspective will support a better understanding of the development of anxiety disorders and transition from childhood to adulthood. Developmental psychopathology is concerned with the causes and prognosis of improper misconduct and examines normal and pathological behaviors in the perspective of development. Its predecessors are Thomas Achenbach, Dante Cicchetti, Michael Rutter, and Alan Sroufe.
\nEach developmental period has its own developmental tasks. As Robert Havighurst described in 1948, development is a lifelong process and different life duties must be fulfilled in each life period [1]. In the meantime, the child is considered as an active learner in continuous communication with his environment. Successful completion of these developmental tasks will ensure that the child and the adolescent maintain their mental health in a healthy way. If these tasks are not fulfilled, it will lead to loss of happiness, loss of success, exclusion by society, and consequently loss of other related development tasks.
\nAnxiety formation can be understood as the fulfillment of developmental tasks in this background in a way that is not appropriate for the development period. For example, the development of separation anxiety is facilitated if the autonomy development, which is the assignment of the age of 3, is not successful.
\nAn important developmental task of childhood is emotion control. Strategies used in emotion control of children are important in understanding clinical anxiety disorders.
\nAn important discussion in developmental psychology is related to the development of emotions. Does the newborn bring with them feelings or do emotions vary later? Walters and Sroufe [2] argue that emotions will be varied during ontogenesis. The sense of fear develops through steps. It has a sense of not receiving pleasure and is closely related to the child’s cognitive and social development. The first observed fear predecessors in the newborn are compulsory attention and insecurity. Fear is activated when there is a negative movement for the child. Izard and Sroufe acknowledge that the first fear appeared in the 7th month. The baby becomes restless if visual stimuli are given to the baby for 10–15 days. First, he reacts calmly and then becomes active, crying and shouting, because the child’s activity ability was cut by the object. The content of the visual stimulus is not important here. Infants become restless as a result of a person looking at the baby’s face for 30 s. Here, the baby acquainted with other foreign factors. The content of the warning has gained importance. 30 s after the response is the development of fear. In contrast, fear and anxiety arise as a result of stimuli considered threatening.
\nFrom the 6th month, if a foreign person suddenly gets in the lap of the child, the babies react. This reaction is observed especially in all infants aged 10–12 months. Here, the foreign person is perceived as a kind of reverse event and creates a negative scheme in infants. This is the pioneer of fear/anxiety. As the age progresses, the content of the stimulus plays a greater role, and the fear is varied and defines this period as mistrust.
\nFears are common in childhood. Their contents vary by age and are temporary. The cognitive development and developmental period of the child are in relation. For example, at the end of the first year, they fear foreign people, foreign places, and loud voices. At the age of 4, the fear of darkness, fears of animals, and fears of being left alone come to the surface.
\nThe most commonly used model in explaining the causes of psychiatric disorders is the diathesis-stress model [3]. Diathesis refers to the Greek predisposition and is considered to be the susceptibility of the individual to both structural and environmental factors and diseases and non-normative behaviors. The definition of an individual’s response to any stress caused by the environment can also be extended. This individual predisposition may be determined as genetic, organic, biochemical, psychiatric, and/or social. The concept of diathesis was first used in schizophrenia research [4]. The other definition mentioned with diathesis is the concept of risk.
\nRisk is defined as the probability of developing an individual’s disease within a certain period of time.
\nKraemer et al. [5] identified different risk factors. The first step is whether the risk related to the disease occurs concurrently with the disease. Risk factors that are spontaneous or can be changed as a result of any intervention are defined as variable risk factors.
\nIn family research, the incidence of the same disorder is screened in the relatives of people with psychiatric disorders. A number of family studies reported that panic disorder showed familial frequency [21, 22]. In recent years, the subject is frequently investigated and the relationship between the anxiety of children and the anxiety of parents [6, 7].
\nIn the last family researches conducted by Cynthia Last, [8] 83% of the children diagnosed with separation anxiety were found to meet the anxiety disorder criteria at their mothers’ lifetime.
\nAbout 57% meet the criteria of an anxiety disorder at the time of research. The second major study by Last [9]. Relatives of children with anxiety disorders, relatives of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and relatives of children without any psychiatric diagnosis were included in the study. Anxiety disorder was found in 40.4% of the parents of children with anxiety disorders. In the other two groups, anxiety disorder was quite low. The most common type of anxiety disorder among children with anxiety disorders is excessive anxiety (18.9%) and phobic disorder (11.7%). Panic disorder, social phobia, obsessive compulsive disorder, and avoidant personality disorders are more common in the relatives of children with anxiety disorders than in the control group.
\nChildren with a diagnosis of anxiety disorder in their parents have a higher risk of developing anxiety disorder. Both axis studies indicate familial clustering in anxiety disorders. Evidence of more specific transitions, especially in panic disorder and social phobia, was obtained.
\nThe effect of biological risk factors on the development of childhood and adolescent anxiety disorders was investigated in few studies. Studies on the subject were mostly conducted using adult subjects. In these studies, locus ceruleus, sympathetic system, and HPA axis were investigated. It has been shown that the levels of cortisol increases in the stress of normal children [10]. In studies with children with social anxiety, it was observed that heart rate increased compared to normal children. Kagan [11] found the low stimulus threshold with the participation of the amygdala and hypothalamus in the limbic system in children with anxiety.
\nShaffer et al. [12] argued that some of the signals could be interpreted as an anxiety disorder precursor. The parents of children with agora phobia were found to be more frequent than the children who had motor-mild symptoms without the agoraphobia (Kaplan et al. [13]).
\nThe startle reaction was observed for 6 months from the newborn period (Balaban [14]). In many studies, an increased startle reaction was found in individuals with anxiety disorder compared to the control group [23, 26]. Grillon found that parents with alcohol dependence showed an increased startle reaction to alcohol-dependent parents compared to their children. In the second study performed by the same study group, the startle reaction potentials of the parents of children with different anxiety disorders and the children of parents without a psychiatric disorder were compared. Higher startle potential was determined in girls. As a result, increased startle reaction may be considered as a predisposition factor in the development of anxiety disorder.
\nChildhood anxiety disorders constitute a risk factor for gender development in girls. Phobic disorder, anxiety disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder are frequently seen. On the other hand, childhood obsessive compositional disorder is more common in boys. Separation anxiety disorders are seen equally in both sexes [25]. Biological and psychosocial study hypotheses were used to explain gender differences in anxiety disorders. The effects of sex hormones on monthly onset, menopause, pregnancy, and postpartum period anxiety symptoms in biological theories were investigated. In general, these explanations are not sufficient to explain the gender differences that we have found in childhood. Genetic factors are discussed as the cause of anxiety disorders in girls. For example, according to Drowe et al. (1983), the panic disorder is genetically inherited, and the genes responsible for panic disorders in women show a high transition. According to [24], genetic factors play an important role rather than gender-aware environmental factors. At present, it is unclear which gene causes gender difference in anxiety disorders.
\nExamining the temperament characteristics as the precursors of psychiatric disorders has been an important step in etiology research. The event mentioned as temperament and structurally inherited is defined as the predisposition that determines how the individual behaves against particular people in certain situations. It emerges in the very early period, remains constant at all times, and is influenced by biological factors. Behavioral inhibition is a temperament characteristic.
\nBehavioral inhibition is defined as avoiding shy, conducting behaviors in the newly entered environment or against newcomers (Kagan [11]). This behavior can be observed from the 8th month. Inhibition of behavior during infancy shows as a disgrace (crying, yelling), as shy and anxious behavior in a small childhood, and as a social recessive behavior in school age. The constancy of this temperament property has been proven in many studies until adulthood (Biederman et al. [12]; Gest [13]; Matheny [14]).
\nChildren with behavioral inhibition according to Kagan show a low stimulation threshold in the amygdala and the hypothalamus, in particular, against foreign conditions. In addition, increased sympathetic stimulation was observed.
\nAccording to Kagan the children of individuals with panic disorder and agoraphobia showed more behavioral inhibition than healthy parents (Rosenbaum et al. [15, 16]). According to the results of two prospective studies, children with behavioral inhibition are in a high-risk group in terms of developing childhood anxiety disorder.
\nAs a result, in children with fixed behavioral inhibition in different time periods, more anxiety disorder can be diagnosed, and more behavioral inhibition is observed in the children of individuals with anxiety disorder.
\nIn 1973, Bowlby [17] first mentioned the theory of attachment; in later years, Ainsworth [18] defined attachment to be categorized.
\nAccordingly, in the first year of life, a special relationship behavior develops between the baby and the primary caregiver. As a result of standardized behavioral observations (foreign status test), three types of attachment style are mentioned: (1), secure; (2), ınsecure avoidant; and (3), insecure disorganized.
\nParents of children who are securely connected can have empathy with the needs of the child and are aware of their needs. The parents of unsafe children cannot do so.
\nDepending on the attachment style, the child learns cognitions about interpersonal relationships and develops strategies for emotion control. The child creates an internal working model. What is present in this model is the person he trusts and the world. The child thus evaluates situations and regulates interpersonal relationships. This study model, if it occurs, automatically processes and continues as fixed.
\nA secure attachment style is a protective factor in the development of anxiety. However, more actual studies should be conducted.
\nCognitive perceptions play an important role in the development of anxiety disorders in children. In recent years, these cases have been specifically investigated. The extent to which the cognitive factors investigated is the risk factors.
\nChorpita and Barlow [19] developed a model of vulnerabilities related to the emergence of fear and depression. According to this model, early uncontrollable and predetermined stimuli result in poor control experience and increased neurobiological activity and consequently behavioral inhibition system introduced by Gray. Neurobiological activation leads to indeterminate somatic symptoms that have been described for the first time by Kagan [9]. This diminishing control experience is a risk factor in difficult life events in the future. Physiological effects as well as weakened control experience lead to chronic cognitive deviations and result in fear-anxiety phenomenon. This uncontrollability and prior uncertainty are experienced in the early period with primary caregivers (e.g., weak empathy of parents) [8].
\nAccording to the definition of anxiety sensitivity, anxiety and related symptoms (e.g., physical symptoms), while in a continuous state, cause physical, mental, or social problems [20]. Anxiety sensitivity is considered as a variable that emerges at different degrees compared to individuals. It can be affected by different factors. These factors may be genetic factors, life experiences, or panic attacks. The risk of recurrent panic attacks is increasing in new cases. Life experiences may lead to miscognitions (e.g., palpitation is a heart attack).
\nAnxiety disorders are early developmental, psychosocial, and psychopathological complications. Although early anxiety syndromes show spontaneous recovery, the majority of children and adolescents with anxiety disorders tend to experience new syndromes or other mental disorders in similar situations during their lifetime (other anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, or substance use). Secondary depressive disorders are a common complication. Detection of vulnerabilities and risk factors in the early period is also important in terms of development of programs aimed at conservation. Although some strong risk factors (parental attitudes, parental psychopathology, temperament alterations) have been identified, the recognition of the most powerful pectorists and the complex biological and psychological mechanisms should have implications for the development of anxiety disorder. Different risk factors play a role in different anxiety disorders. This situation also differs according to developmental periods.
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