Some endophytic yeast reported.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"405",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Computational Simulations and Applications",title:"Computational Simulations and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The purpose of this book is to introduce researchers and graduate students to a broad range of applications of computational simulations, with a particular emphasis on those involving computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. 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\r\n\tPlants are dependent on temperature, light, moisture, and carbon dioxide to produce grains and other plant products to satisfy basic human needs. Climate change is very likely to affect food security at the global, regional, and local levels. Climate change can disrupt food availability, reduce access to food, and affect food quality. Increases in temperature, changes in precipitation patterns, changes in extreme weather events, and reductions in water availability may all result in reduced agricultural productivity. To meet the food demands of the ever-increasing global population, new technologies and management practices are being adopted to boost yield and maintain productivity under both normal and adverse conditions.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book highlights state-of-the-art research and practices for adaptation to climate change in food production systems. The main topics covered include production technologies, management practices, and stress tolerance of agronomic plants in a single source, current scientific understanding of observed and projected climate change impacts on agronomic plant production and quality, modeling of autonomous and planned adaptation, and development of early warning and/or support systems for climate-related decision-making.
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While the plant is providing the yeast a propitious space to live, the yeast offers benefits to the plant, which are mainly related to the biological control of pathogens, encouraging their use as an alternative method for the management of postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables [1].
\nNevertheless, the knowledge regarding the dynamics of host colonization by the endophyte to understand this mutualistic relationship as well as the evaluation of the inoculated host is still limited. Isaeva et al. [2] state that the research on endophytic yeasts has not been carried out in a systematic way, so the existing information is incomplete. They also identify the need to know the distributional patterns and biological properties of endophytic yeast, in order to understand the ecological characteristics of these yeasts and propose solutions to various postharvest problems.
\nThe fact that endophyte yeasts can live in the host involves studying the dynamics of colonization within the host and establishing whether it is affected by providing a habitat for the yeast surviving, so it is necessary to use alternative methodologies that allow visualizing both the yeast and the host, as well as changes inside it.
\nAccordingly, the results obtained by implementing techniques of microscopy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in order to evaluate the interaction between a host and an endophyte yeast are explained below. These pieces of evidence allow to deepen the knowledge of this mutualistic relationship and to propose another mode of action of the yeasts in which these indirectly contribute to prolonging the useful life of the host.
\nEtymologically, the word endophyte means “within the plant.” This definition encompasses a wide variety of residents and hosts, this last including bacteria, fungi, insects and algae among others [3]. Among the definitions proposed for the term endophyte is “Fungus that colonizes plant tissue without causing any immediate negative effect” [4]. Even so, some authors consider that this definition excludes other microorganisms such as bacteria and algae. In this context, Stone et al. [5] argue that a more wide-ranging definition should emphasize the asymptomatic nature of the infection without taking into account a particular group of organisms. That is why Petrini [6] explains endophyte from a topographical perspective: “An endophyte colonizes and can live inside the living tissues of it is host without causing damage.”
\nXin et al. [7] ponder all these aspects and characterize endophytic yeast as: “Unicellular fungi that reproduce asexually by budding—without a hyphal phase or with a reduced hyphal phase—and can live in their host without generating apparent harm.” Pieces of research show that these yeasts can be isolated from different parts of plants (see \nTable 1\n).
\nYeast | \nIsolated from | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|
\n | \nMaize ( | \nNassar et al. [10] | \n
Wild poplar strain 1 (WP1) | \nWild cottonwood ( | \nXin et al. [7] | \n
PTD 2 | \nStems of hybrid poplar ( | \nXin et al. [7] | \n
\n | \nHeterograft tomato crop (HGTC) | \nCelis et al. [24] | \n
Some endophytic yeast reported.
In recent years, there has been an increase in research on how endophytic yeast benefits the host; it has been established that in some cases, it contributes to the protection against pathogens. Therefore, it is possible to use them successfully as agents for biological control [8, 9]. Also, some studies have shown that these yeasts foster the growth of plants by means of bringing out auxins, as reported by Nassar et al. [10], who isolated the endophytic yeast
This association between plant and microorganisms is denominated symbiosis, a term coined by Anton De Bary as: “The association, at least for part of its life cycle, between two or more specifically different organisms” [12]. For the host plant, this relationship can be positive (mutualism); neutral (neutralism), or negative (parasitism or competition). For the symbiotic microorganism, the association can be positive (mutualism, commensalism, or parasitism), neutral (neutralism), or negative when there is competition. A symbiosis is successful provided that it involves at least the following three events: (i) the symbiont’s entrance into the tissues; (ii) their colonization and (iii) the expression of one of the symbiotic relationships mentioned above. The symbiont must be able to have a relationship with the host to establishing a compatible interaction, which implies that it overcomes or manipulates the host defense system [13].
\nIt has been verified that in the case of endophytic yeast, the association is closer to mutualism than to parasitism [2] since yeast can bring to the plant several of the above benefits mentioned. On the other hand, yeasts as copiotroph organisms find in the host plant the nutrients and the suitable environment for their development. Here the question is: how do you experimentally identify whether an endophytic yeast is related in a mutualistic way to its host? It could be answered if we adapt Sieber’s proposal [14] of using the Koch’s four postulates, modified as follows:
\nThe appearance of an endophyte should be associated with a benefit to the host.
The endophyte should be isolated from the tissue in which the benefit was observed and grown in a culture medium.
The endophyte that has grown in the culture medium should generate the same benefit when it is reintroduced into a host free of the endophyte.
Then, again the endophyte should be isolated from the experimentally inoculated host.
In order to identify new endophytic yeast, it is possible to apply these postulates experimentally.
\nConcerning asymptomatic colonization, characteristic of endophytic yeasts, Schulz et al. [3] suggested a hypothesis in which the absence of negative symptoms is associated with a balance of antagonists: host and endophyte. The endophytes have mechanisms to infect and colonize the host; this, in turn, responds with its defense system. The balance between the “infection system” and the “defense system” generates an asymptomatic interaction; if the balance is broken, diseases can occur for the host or death of the symbiont. However, the verification of this balance, which is an experimental challenge, is not solved in the study of endophytes yet.
\nDuring the postharvest period, the quality of fruits and vegetables is deteriorated due to different factors: manipulation and improper storage, metabolic events, and phytopathogen attacks generating economic losses of more than 25% of the total production in industrialized countries and more than 50% in developing countries [15, 16].
\nIn the case of fruits, most of these losses are caused by the attack of several fungal pathogens, controlled mainly with synthetic fungicides, which has generated concern regarding possible health risks derived from the consumption of food treated with agrochemicals [17], as a consequence, the demand of organic fruits and vegetables has increased. To deal with this need, healthier and environmentally friendly strategies have been evaluated to control the attack of plant pathogens and to maintain the quality of fruits and vegetables, in that context, microbial antagonists, such as yeasts have emerged as a viable option [18].
\nTo understand how the yeast can be used to solve this problem, we can identify different interactions with the host and with the phytopathogen. In relation to the host, the yeast can colonize the fruit surface for long periods; some of them produce extracellular polysaccharides that contribute to the fruit survival and to restrict the growth of pathogens; they can use nutrients from the environment and proliferate at a high rate. In addition, their activity does not involve the production of toxic metabolites and are less affected by fungicides [1, 19]. When a yeast colonizes the internal tissues of the host without generating damage or is in the interior contributing to lengthen its useful life, this kind can be classified as an endophyte. These aspects make yeast a potential microbial agent able to control postharvest diseases.
\nIn the interaction, the yeast with the phytopathogens is possible to determine different kinds of interactions such as nutrients and space competition, mycoparasitism, secretion of antibiotics, lytic enzymes, and other antifungal compounds. The importance of any one mode of action can vary between biocontrol systems (pathogen, yeast, and host).
\nAmong all the yeasts’ modes of action identified, the competition for nutrients and space is considered the most common because yeasts have the ability to grow and survive faster in the environment (host) than pathogens; thus, the bio-controlling activity is associated with an increase in the concentration of the antagonist and a decrease in the concentration of the pathogen [20]. In other cases, yeasts have the ability to adhere to fungal hyphae by restricting pathogen proliferation [21, 22], which is called parasitism and, in some cases, occurs with the production of lytic enzymes, which help bring about degradation of the cell wall of the pathogen. Other yeasts produce antibiotic compounds, case in which the control mechanism is associated with the production of secondary metabolites that inhibit the growth of pathogens [23, 24].
\nWhen studying the problem focusing on the host, it has been established that plants have the capacity to defend themselves against pathogen attacks by triggering their defense system, which can be activated by some yeasts; as a result, it is another way of action in which the yeast helps indirectly to reduce the growth and development of the pathogen.
\nPunja and Utkhede [25] have stated that this process can take place through the production of elicitors (signal compounds) or because of tissue colonization reducing the development of the pathogen. They have pointed out what has been reported by some researchers that the internal colonization of the tissues without causing apparent damage to the cells—characteristic associated with the endophytic yeasts—triggers the defense system of the host.
\nThe entomologists define biocontrol like “the control of the organism by other organism,” but when we talk about control of plant’s diseases by yeast, the definition of biocontrol is wider because the plant’s diseases are a process that involves three elements: pathogen, host, and micro environment. Then, studying the use of yeast in this context implies studying the host to and how this can change by the yeast action.
\nTherefore, in the case of studies on endophyte yeasts, it is necessary to characterize the host surface and its inner for establishing if it is modified and if so, define the relationship between the changes and the benefits. In regard to the production of elicitors, as a mode of action in biocontrol, this can be understood like a process in which the yeast helps the plant to activate its defense system against the attack of pathogens, however, the association between the induction of the defense system and the endophyte yeasts is not fully understood.
\nThese aspects should also be taken into account when evaluating situations in which an endophyte yeast colonizes its host, generating in this one a different benefit from biological control. In approaching the problem from this perspective, it is possible to obtain additional information from this mutualistic relationship, which allows proposing solutions to practical problems associated with the postharvest period.
\nRecent investigations on the yeast
Indeed, this endophytic yeast contributes to lengthening the useful life of its host and also can be used as an antagonist offers the possibility of using it to study this mutualistic relationship and obtain information that allows solving problems associated with the postharvest period, such as fruit quality, storage, and phytopathogen biocontrol.
\nHowever, the following questions arise: is it possible that as a result of the endophytic yeast-host interaction, changes will occur in the host? What can these changes be? Are there new modes of action of these yeasts in activating the plant defense system?
\nSearching for answers to these questions is possible to implement alternative methodologies that allow researchers to assess the dynamics of yeast colonization, identifying and quantifying changes in the host, and to propose another mode of action of the endophytic yeast.
\nTraditionally, to check the efficiency of a microbial antagonist and/or to evaluate a colonization process, the researchers quantify the number of microorganisms present in a plant in terms of colony forming units (CFUs). To get such measurements, it is necessary to dilute the sample, take an aliquot of it and, finally, transfer it to an appropriate medium that allows the microorganisms to grow in visible colonies [26–28].
\nOther investigations have proposed the direct observation of endophytic yeasts inside the plant tissues using microscopy techniques. For instance, Isaeva et al. [29] studied the distribution and species diversity of yeast in the storage tissues of fruits, seeds, and roots and found that the yeast cells were most often located in the intercellular space or in cells with intact membranes. These results suggest that internal storage tissues of plants are usually habitats of yeast and can be used as a model for studies of coevolving plant-microbe associations.
\nNassar et al. [10] used light and transmission electron microscopy to observe maize root inoculated with
On the other hand, it is possible to characterize, with a vertical resolution of 10−9 m, the topography of fruits and vegetables from the observation of tissue samples using the atomic force microscope (AFM) [30, 31]. This methodology has also been used to evaluate the formation of antimicrobial films [32]. For their part, Isaacson et al. [33] evaluated the biomechanical properties as well as the resistance to microbial infections of tomato fruit cuticles. Because of its resolution, this microscope can be used to visualize the cell surface topography and to determine cell wall nanomechanical properties of yeast mutants [34].
\nIn addition, evaluating the interaction of endophytic yeasts with their hosts—and taking into consideration the definition of endophyte—implicates characterizing both the surface and the interior of the host, yet it is necessary to use different methodologies from the traditional ones. From this perspective, MRI offers a non-destructive and non-invasive technique that can be used to obtain two-dimensional images of fruits and/or vegetables from which it is possible to evaluate
According to the preceding points, the use of microscopy and MRI makes it possible to characterize qualitatively and quantitatively the host changes by the endophytic yeast action, providing information that can contribute to understanding this mutualistic relationship and to think about other conceivable action modes. Below are some of the results found when using these methodologies; for its implementation, and according to Koch\'s postulates, the tomato fruit was used as a host, and it was inoculated with the endophytic yeast
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) enables researchers to study at a nanometric scale the distribution of endophytic yeast on the host surface as well as the topographic changes in it. Although plant tissue samples are commonly used for the implementation of this methodology, surface modifications are not only brought about by the external agent action (endophyte) but also come from the different tissues that make up the host’s interior. Because of that, whole tomato fruits were used to evaluate the topography and to analyze before and after inoculation by being sprinkled with yeast
The 3D images of the uninoculated whole fruit (zero time) surface, taken in contact mode, show that its topography is not homogeneous since it has ridges and valleys whose average value is 700 nm from the center line. It is also possible to observe bright areas associated with the epicuticular waxes, as shown in \nFigure 1a\n. From these images, it was determined that the average surface roughness was 240 nm.
\nImages of the host surface (uninoculated fruit) obtained by AFM. (1a) 3D image taken in contact mode; the epicuticular waxes are shown in red, the vertical scale corresponds to ±0.5 μm. (1b) 2D image of the surface taken in tapping mode. (1c) Phase map. (1d) In the histogram phase for the surface of the host, there is only one phase whose value is between 120 and 135°.
The topographic characterization of the host obtained from the images taken in contact mode plus the images of the surface taken in tapping mode or intermittent contact (measuring the phase difference between the signal received when the microscope tip does not interact with the sample and the one received when the tip interacts with the sample—tap), allow to obtain information about changes in the local properties of the surface.
\n\n\nFigure 1b\n shows the two-dimensional image of the surface of the uninoculated fruit taken in tapping mode; \nFigure 1c\n, its corresponding map, and \nFigure 1d\n, its histogram phase. The results indicate that the surface has only one phase corresponding to host surface.
\nFrom the topographic images obtained 5 hours after inoculating the fruit with the yeast, it is determined that on the surface some areas associated with yeast clusters randomly appears, whose average height to the midline is 1600 nm (see \nFigure 2a\n). In the images of the host surface taken in tapping mode, areas of similar characteristics are observed, both in the 2D image and in the phase map (see areas surrounded by circles in \nFigure 2c\n).
\nHost surface images taken 5 hours after inoculation with
It should be noted that the value of the phase for the yeast clusters is between 80 and 90°, a result that differs from host surface before inoculation. Additionally, the histogram phase reveals two different phases on the surface: one associated with the yeast and another associated with the surface of the fruit.
\nFinally, 72 hours after inoculation, the surface of the host does not present clusters as the ones described above; on the contrary, less roughness is seen, suggesting that the yeast has been colonizing and homogenizing the surface of the host (see \nFigure 3a\n). When calculating the roughness parameter, it is found that it has decreased to a value of 120 nm.
\nHost surface images obtained 72 hours after inoculation. (3a) 3D Image taken in contact mode, the vertical scale corresponds to ±0.5 μm. (3b) 2D Image of the surface taken in tapping mode. (3c) Phase map. (3d) In the histogram phase, only one phase associated with the yeast is detected.
Concerning the map and the histogram phase, only one phase appears again, but now the value of this parameter is between 80 and 95°, for the same as the yeast clusters. This indicates that the endophyte adhered to its host formed a biofilm.
\nThe assessment of the host’s topography allows asserting that the endophytic yeast modifies its host, reducing its surface roughness, which implies a lower adhesion of phytopathogens. In relation to the images captured in tapping mode, the results are visible how the endophytic yeast adheres to its host forming a biofilm that contributes to water retention inside the host.
\nAs stated by the Petrini’s definition [6] “An endophyte colonizes and can live inside the living tissues of its host without causing damage,” the evaluation of optical microscopy images of transverse sections of the host inoculated with the yeast enables researchers to establish if a yeast effectively is included in this definition.
\nIn addition, this methodology allows assessing the colonization dynamics with the purpose to determine the pathways of the yeast and its average speed of migration into the host’s, as well as to identify possible damage in the plant tissue and/or modifications in its structures by the endophytic action. Following the methodology proposed by Infante, Marquinez, and Moreno [39], cross-sectional images of the host can be obtained for each time after inoculation, in which the plant tissue and the yeast are simultaneously visualized, making it possible to determine the aforesaid parameters.
\n\n\nFigure 4\n shows transverse cuts of the fruit rind inoculated with the yeast at different times after inoculation. In the control samples, the presence of endophytes is not observed. In contrast, in the inoculated samples, an increase in the number of yeasts found on the surface of the host is observed over time: in the epidermis, yeasts are observed 8 hours after the inoculation, and in the parenchyma, after 22 hours.
\nCross-sectional images of tomato fruit stained with Toluidine blue, different times postinoculation. (4a) Control sample; (4b) 22 hours; (4c) 48 hours; (4d) 48 hours.
The images display the absence of lesions in the tissue both in the outer cuticular layer and in the cells of the epidermis and parenchyma. In relation to the yeast’s pathway into the host, it is possible to establish that this endophyte, after entering, moves along the cuticular layer and then travels via apoplast, in a linear order, occupying the intercellular spaces of both the epidermis and the parenchyma as well (see \nFigure 4d\n).
\nThe presence of yeast inside the host 72 hours after inoculation proves that it provides the yeast with nutrients and adequate conditions to survive, which confirms the notion of a mutualistic relationship between the endophytic yeast and the plant.
\nAdditionally, changes by the action of the endophyte yeast in the host structures were evaluated. The results reveal an average decrease of 3 μm in the thickness of the outer cuticular layer of the bark of the tomato fruit inoculated in comparison with that of the control fruits. The outcomes are shown in \nFigure 5\n. The decrease in the cuticular layer thickness implies an upsurge in density, which favors the retention of water inside the fruit.
\nIt measured the thickness of the outer cuticular layer of the tomato fruit rind to different times postinoculation. The differences in thickness between the control fruits and the inoculated ones are statistically significant.
Simultaneous observation of inoculated tissues and endophyte yeasts looks into a new approach to assessing this mutual symbiosis identifying the benefits for the symbionts involved, taking into account the structural changes in the host as well as the yeasts paths and distribution patterns.
\nThe results reported in relation to the yeast
To study these alterations, it is advisable to use magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)—a non-invasive technique—which enables investigators to see changes
The main advantage of this technique is the possibility to obtain images weighted by different parameters—relaxation times (T2), proton density, and diffusion, among others—which correspond to the characteristics of the evaluated system. With the aim to see the temporal evolution of the host, images of tomato fruits inoculated by sprinkling with the yeast
Changes in the dimensions of the host were evaluated. The results obtained indicate that the most affected fruit region by the yeast is the pericarp; also, the diameter of the inoculated fruits decreases more slowly; however, the pericarp thickness diminishes more in comparison with the control fruits (\nFigure 6\n). This suggests that there are structural changes by the action of the endophyte in this region of the fruit, which can contribute to water retention and, as a consequence, delay the loss of turgor. This is the reason why the decrease of its size is slower compared with the control fruits. Nevertheless, it is necessary to evaluate parameters such as relaxation time (T2) and mobility to confirm these assertions.
\nHigh-resolution images of a cross-section of the inoculated tomato fruit. (6a) Zero time. (6b) 14 days postinoculation.
With the propose of establishing the biochemical changes within the host, T2-weighted images were taken; the results indicate differences in the values associated with this parameter for the different regions of the fruit (see \nFigure 7\n). It was also found that T2 decreases in both control and inoculated fruits, signifying molecular variations associated with postharvest processes. However, this decrease occurs in the inoculated fruits more rapidly, which evidences lessening of mobility due to molecular modifications inside the fruit.
\nT2 map in a cross-section of the fruit. High values of T2 (more than 250 ms) specify zones with water molecules that can move easily; on the contrary, low values (70 ms) indicate the presence of different molecules.
Finally, the diffusion-weighted images allow establishing changes in the mobility of molecules, which is a fundamental aspect in this case because the yeast helps to retain water inside the host. From the obtained images, the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) was calculated. It is lower in the pericarp region of the inoculated fruits than for the control ones, which indicates that the host is modified by the action of the endophyte, reducing the movement of the water molecules inside. This result, combined with that reported for the T2 parameter, allows to state that in the fruits inoculated with the yeast the water molecules present in the pericarp region are surrounded by different molecules that limit their mobility.
\nEvaluating the images obtained by MRI, it is possible to sustain that the endophytic yeast modifies the interior of the host; in the case of the inoculated tomato fruit, a decrease in its thickness was observed for the pericarp region in comparison with the control fruits, fact that correlates with biochemical changes that help to reduce the mobility of the molecules in this region. These aspects together favor the retention of water inside the host contributing to maintaining the quality of the fruit.
\nReported research has shown that endophytic yeasts can be used in different agro-industrial applications contributing to host and/or pathogen control improvements, however, some aspects remain unclear. For instance, the way the yeast triggers the defense system in the host, where the relationship between the elicitors and the antagonist provides a field to be explored. Another aspect that has drawn attention is the formation of biofilms and how these can be used to improve biological control [16]; additionally, it is necessary to evaluate the changes produced in the host by the yeast’s action and its incidence. All of them are topics that to date have been little explored.
\nThe relationships established between yeast, pathogen, host, and metabolic changes that occur in the host during the postharvest period allow to understand the plant-endophyte mutualistic association and define other modes of action.
\nEvaluating these relationships focusing on the host, it was found that the metabolic processes associated with the postharvest period—such as starch degradation, water loss, and disassembly of cell walls—lead to changes that affect the quality of the product. Concerning its interactions with pathogens, these colonize the host generating various diseases, to which the host can respond by activating its defense system and producing antifungal compounds. On the contrary, their relation with the endophytic yeasts is of mutualistic character, since these generate a benefit for the host while it offers to them optimal conditions for their survival.
\nThe relationships described above are shown in \nFigure 8\n; the arrows indicate direct interactions; however, when it comes to endophytic yeasts, it is necessary to consider indirect relationships, in which the yeast can modify its host generating benefits in it, helping solve some of the postharvest period problems.
\nInteractions between host, yeast, pathogen, and postharvest processes. The blue arrow indicates a yeast–host mutualistic relationship; the question mark points to a possible indirect relationship between the yeast and postharvest period.
In the previous section, the results obtained when evaluating changes in the host (tomato fruit) by the action of the endophyte yeast (
On the other hand, when the samples inoculated with the yeast were evaluated by optical microscopy (OM), it was determined that the thickness of the outer cuticle layer showed an average decrease of 3 μm in comparison with the control samples, suggesting an increase in the density of the same and, therefore, changes in its permeability.
\nIt should be noted that in relation to cuticle evaluation and its function in resistance to phytopathogens, Curvers et al. [40] studied a mutant of tomato (
Previous studies about yeast
Lastly, from MRI, it was determined that with respect to the control fruits, in the fruits inoculated with the endophytic yeast appear a decrease both in the thickness of the pericarp and in the mobility of the molecules present in this region of the fruit; changes that favor the retention of water inside. \nFigure 9\n shows the modifications generated in the different structures of the host by the action of yeast and its relation to the observed benefits.
\nPhysical modifications in the host (tomato fruit) by the action of the endophyte yeast (
According to the abovementioned determination, it is possible to highlight several aspects that contribute to deepening the knowledge of endophyte yeasts and their use in the search for solutions to problems typical of the postharvest period.
\nThe first one refers to the fact that the endophyte yeast colonizes not only the surface of the host but also enters into it and remains inside it without causing damage: evidence of the mutualistic relationship between the symbionts.
\nIn addition, from the results found, it is possible to propose another mode of action of the endophytic yeasts: they generate propitious structural changes in the surface and the interior of the host, which reduce phytopathogen attacks and loss of water. Therefore, it can be said that the endophytic yeasts could be used to help solve some of the problems relevant to agro-industry.
\nIt is noteworthy that this mutualistic coexistence of plant-endophytic yeast can be applied to develop healthy and friendly alternatives that are advantageous to the environment, offering organic food to the consumers and avoiding the use of agrochemicals and genetic engineering intended to enhance the quality of fruits and vegetables.
\nThis chapter shows a new way to understand the endophytic yeasts, analyzing variations in their host looked through microscopy and the magnetic resonance imaging. The results confirmed the Petrini’s definition: “An endophyte colonizes and can live inside the living tissues of its host without causing damage” additionally —observing the inoculated host— it is thinkable to propose a new mode of yeast action in which the physical characteristics of the surface and the inside of the host change by the action of the yeast, contributing to improve their quality during the postharvest period, without causing health problems to the humans beings, because by this way the use of chemicals to control phytopathogens is avoided.
\nThe new information about endophytic yeast opens the possibility to new researches: how the host “understand” that this microorganism is good for it?; how is the process in the host that allows the entry of the endophytic yeast?; how can this kind of yeast be used to obtain organic products in order to improve the health?; how does the biochemical environment of the host changes by the yeast?
\nI hope that these new methodologies and information about the endophytic yeast contribute to solve these questions.
\nGreen computing (GC) has remained an important aspect of vital discussions involving environmental protection, green energy, climate change and sustainable development, though several equivalent terms such as Green ICT (GICT), ICT sustainability, and perhaps in a broader terminology, ‘environmental computing’, one thing remains glaring that is, the common goal which, according to the global body on GICT, the International Federation of Global and Green Information Communication Technology (IFGICT), is to practice and achieve eco-friendly deployment and use of ICT in the society. Ordinarily, the green computing ideology is aimed at reducing the perilous component load during computing equipment manufacturing. It is also concerned with energy-efficient and eco-friendly computing as well as processes for marshaling out machineries that enhance the biodegradability of computer-based wastes [1]. Green computing cover the spectrum of large-scale computing environment such as data centres, and mobile systems [2, 3]. It has been noted that green computing is a major leap in mitigating environmental pollution, degradation, and the impacts of climate change [1]. Adopting the tenets of green computing does entail producing and using energy-efficient computing devices, developing cutting edge strategies and research towards reducing energy consumption, and the appropriate disposal of electronic waste arising therefrom. Abugabah and Abubaker proposed a 5-phase lifecycle strategy for green computing [4]. According to the said proposal, green computing encompasses green design, green production, green procurement, green operations, and green disposal. Whereas the proposition is apt, it must be noted that these technical phases are not naturally continuous as in a process cycle but could occur independently. Consequently, each phase may present unique concerns that are influenced and shaped by social and economic forces (e.g. policies, legislations, lifestyles, culture, etc.) hence must be factored in for an effective greener ICT ecosystem. With the ever-growing global population, the demands for computing and ICT devices may experience sustained increase and the consequence is enormous pressure on the manufacturers to either release new technologies or increase the volume of production of current brands [5]. There is no gainsaying that technology advancement has its downsides or side effects which include generation of e-wastes, pollution, health and environmental degradation. In this chapter, three key factors that promote these side effects have been identified. They are: Unregulated and indiscriminate deployment of heavy ICT infrastructure; rapid technology evolution; and socioeconomic inequities in developing countries.
The unregulated deployment of heavy ICT infrastructure such as data centres and base stations for telecommunications, is a major contributor to environmental pollution and other environmental imbalances. Nwankwo and Ukhurebor noted that data centres have become indispensable in driving socioeconomic activities globally in recent times [6]. Data centres are not only run by technology service providers (TSPs) such as telecommunications and ICT service provisioning companies but are commonplace in the industry sector (cement factories, steel production factories, consumer goods production industries, automobile factories, finance and banking organizations, etc.) of every economy. These energy-intensive infrastructure are localized in many industrial zones in developing and developed countries. It has been noted that across all economic sectors including the public sector, modernization programs are not complete without ICT infrastructure [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Research has shown that data centres contribute significantly to greenhouse emissions, pollutions and eventually climate change [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. In the post-COVID era, there is likely to be a surge in the deployment of data centres, mobile stations, and other sophisticated computing equipment as the pandemic is engendering an era wherein at least 80% of all economic activities are to run online. This has been christened the ‘new normal’ across different jurisdictions. With this predicted surge, Governments must put up implementable strategies and machineries that are all encompassing across the various sociopolitical classes and the different industry levels.
Rapid technology evolution and unfair competition globally, is a serious contributory factor to the menace of electronic dumping especially in Africa and other developing jurisdictions [21]. Over the years, Africa has emerged the targeted destination for sales of computing hardware from Europe, Asia, and America regardless of the product specifications in relation to standard, safety, and ecofriendliness [21, 22]. Atkin described this anomaly as an environmental injustice occasioned on the developing nations by the developed countries (Europe, United States, Japan, Korea, Australia, China, etc.) who intentionally transport tons of e-waste to vulnerable countries though with adequate knowledge that these poor countries do not have the resources to dispose these wastes [23].
Interestingly, despite Africa’s economic prowess and abundant human and natural resources that would have promoted manufacturing or local assembly of computing equipment within the continent, it appears the continent is sabotaged by those countries with supposedly superior technical and technological endowments. This inequity suffered on a large scale by the continent across the global economic sphere, is one of the factors that occasioned the continued inflow of substandard and electronic wastes into the continent amid regional and national campaigns against electronic dumping.
As noted by [24] electronic dumping has remained one of the most worrisome environmental issue throughout the African continent. According to their study, second-hand and discarded electronic products from Europe, Asia and America is very predominant and has continued to create an uneasy atmosphere for the disposal machineries and strategies put in place by the various national governments. According to them the computer components that are popularly shipped to Africa are categorized into three: those that have reached end of life but bought by some Africans and other nationals that trade in second-grade goods; products phased out from mainstream distribution and support, by their manufacturers; and used products already discarded by their owners in foreign countries.
Several researchers have linked electronic dumping to advancement in technology and the increasing output in the production of computing and electronic devices in western countries and Asia [25, 26]. As more industries across different jurisdictions churn out new devices, the existing ones though had not reached their end-of-life may be discarded regardless of their utility values owing to the release and promotion of newly launched sophisticated models. A typical example is mobile phones and personal computers (PCs). These two devices are emerging part of everyday life in the socioeconomic ecosystem as technology rapidly becomes the vehicle for social and economic activities. The existing traditional and/or simple devices are being re-engineered using Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Internet of Things. Notice that these two pervasive technologies are rapidly evolving into full-fledged consumer-oriented technologies. The quest for intelligence in devices is exerting a tremendous effect on the development of new devices that would in no time replace the existing ones. In other words, the major concern would no longer be the end of life of the equipment per se but the utility value. Thus, where the utility of the device is found relatively lower vis-à-vis that of the emerging device, then it would be discarded in favor of the more sophisticated device thereby adding to the global e-waste burden. Currently, it has been observed that semiconductor devices and sensors are being added to products that were never before contemplated to have such components in them. For instance, the desire for wearable monitors, smart city, smart homes, smart agriculture, intelligent TV, etc. with embedded capabilities to exchange information with other devices, though laudable, also contributes immensely to the problem of electronic wastes.
It has also been observed that the newly produced devices often exhibit shorter life spans owing to the use of non-removable batteries. Typical examples are smart phones, tablets, consumer health monitoring devices, etc. A decade ago, almost every smart phone or tablet has a battery which could be easily replaced at will by the owner of the device once the battery’s performance falls below a certain range. The trend is different nowadays. Currently, these devices come with non-removable batteries. The implication is that once the batteries malfunction or get exhausted, the devices themselves would be considered useless and would ultimately be discarded and new ones acquired.
The quest for survival is the major promoter of the growing informal recycling business in developing countries. It is reported that the supposed boom in informal and unregulated recycling of failed and discarded computing equipment is associated with the ongoing massive shipping and dumping of these systems in developing countries. According to [22] these computer wastes are intentionally shipped to developing countries especially in Africa with the aim of selling them to users who may put them to use or recycling to recover some valuable elements (gold, copper, etc.) which may be sold thereafter to meet economic demands [27]. It is reported that these businesses thrive in countries such as China, Nigeria, Ghana, India, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, etc. [28, 29, 30, 31]. The downside of such businesses is the adoption of traditional methods of recycling that often release toxic and hazardous substances into the environment [32, 33]. Again, the massive production of these devices is connected to the rate at which they become obsolete. It is reported that in 2016 alone, about 49 million tons of electronic wastes were generated and the said report predicts an increase to 57 million metric tons of e-wastes in 2021 [34]. Another report states that the global e-waste burden stood at 5.8 kg per person in 2014 which rose to 6.3 kg per individual globally in 2017 [35]. According to the global e-waste monitor, 53.6 million tons of e-waste was generated globally in 2019 [36]. This report agrees perfectly with the projection made by Cho in 2018 [34]. On average, 40 million tons of electronic waste are generated globally every year [37]. According to a report, the United States alone disposes over 47.5 million computer systems and hundred (100) million cell phones among other electronic wastes each year [23]. It is estimated that proper disposal of a ton of e-waste would cost 2500 USD in a developed country [23]. Developing countries rarely have these resources for e-waste disposal. Despite this, these countries allow imports of e-wastes at 3 USD per tonne.
These findings call for urgent measures especially as human existence is increasingly confronted with more health challenges such as the Covid-19 pandemic.
The trend in e-waste generation has emerged a serious health and sustainability issue globally [37, 38]. For over two decades, there has been a continuous engagements of several global and regional organizations including the various agencies of the United Nations, African Union, European Union, national agencies for environmental protection, and non-governmental agencies. These efforts have been directed towards developing strategic interventions that would enable humanity deal with the peculiar and lasting challenges occasioned by e-waste. Some of the notable engagements include:
The Libreville Declaration on Health and Environment in Africa: this was held in 2008. It was the premier Inter-Ministerial Conference (IMC) to consolidate the pledges and declarations on environment, health, and safety [38];
The Busan Pledge for Action on Children’s Environmental Health [37, 39]. This was an offshoot from the third conference on Children’s health and the Environment by the World Health Organization (WHO) held in 2009 at Busan, Korea
The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration which adopts a 9-point strategy to restore the degrading global natural ecosystem [40]
United Nations Framework convention on Climate Change [41]
Amid the calls from different quarters in respect of climate change and environmental protection especially as it affects e-waste management it appears the ongoing programs and initiatives have adopted a collective approach in the sense that electronic wastes is a term that is all encompassing. Accordingly, some distinctions are important as not all electronic wastes emanate from computing devices and not only computer devices contribute to pollution and environmental degradation. It therefore follows that a particularized approach which would x-ray all the vital areas of computing deployments and applications taking into consideration the entire computing device forms and lifecycle (production, acquisition, deployment, use, withdrawal, and destruction/recycling) and their contributions to sustainability domains such as environmental protection, safety, and health. The destruction/recycling phase is a critical point in the lifecycle of electronic products generally. It is also the most demanding phase. Direct destruction through burning and deposition into landfills create sustainability problems. The by-products of burning are pollutants and usually toxic to humans and in some cases plants. Though recycling e-waste is promising, however, with the present poor recycling facilities across Africa, weak policies and regulations, and lack of recycling programs [38], the continent is in dire need of green ICT reforms. The aim of this chapter is to showcase the relevance of green computing on fostering sustainability through the design and entrenchment of mechanisms and approaches including policies and legislations that would forestall the impending danger that might be occasioned on humanity by the continuous accumulation of computer-based wastes, and the deployment of energy-intensive computing facilities.
Ordinarily, computer-based wastes are often in the solid form as opposed to liquid and gaseous wastes from other sources (see Figure 1). Examples of such wastes include: Computers including PCs, high end server hardware, Telephones and smart phones, Network devices (routers, switches, gateways, radios, etc.), Chips, Base stations, Motherboards, Printers, Wireless devices, Fax and copiers, Cathode ray tubes and Monitors, and Transformers. However, due to the physicochemical complexity of the components that constitute these electronic products, the tendency to generate liquid and gas emissions are very high. Typically, materials used to produce computing hardware contain several reactive elements such as lead, silicon, silver, mercury, platinum, copper, cobalt, palladium, aluminum, cadmium, lithium, selenium, etc. According to a report by the environmental protection agency of the United States [23], while comparing the amount of certain elements contained in the e-wastes and that mined from raw ores indicated that it is estimated that the amount of gold in a ton of electronic circuit boards is 40–800 times more than that from the ore, and that the quantity of copper in one ton is 30–40 times more than the quantity of mined copper from a metric ton of raw ore. With these reactive elements in electronic dumps, the underlying health implications of these components are brought to bear.
Computer-based e-wastes for sale in Ikeja Lagos Nigeria.
It is interesting to note that computer-based wastes like other e-wastes contain toxic heavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, beryllium, plastic (polyvinyl chloride), and hazardous chemicals (e.g. brominated flame retardants) that are harmful to the health of individuals in particular and the environment generally. It has been observed that most of these wastes are shipped to developing countries for use and possible recycling [21, 42, 43]. These wastes produce gaseous emissions that pose health risks to the individuals within and around such e-wastes are dumped or recycled [42]. Having recognized the dangers associated with such wastes, countries such Nigeria has made necessary legislative provisions to guard against such hazardous or harmful wastes. Section 15 of the Harmful Wastes (Special Criminal Provisions etc.) Act, rightly provides that “harmful wastes depicts any injurious poisonous, toxic or noxious substance and, in particular, nuclear wastes emitting any radioactive substance … as to subject a person to the risk of death, fatal injury or incurable impairment of physical or mental health”. The effect of this provision is that any waste whether or not electronic that could cause some harm is a harmful waste. There is no gainsaying that wastes from computing equipment could be hazardous enough to pollute the air, water, and soil. The contamination of these three environmental layers is akin to humankind intentionally creating a hazardous ecosystem antithetical to sustainable development and growth. These hazardous e-wastes could route toxic chemicals through the soil, air, water thereby providing the channel for generalized environmental degradation and pollution that promotes health anomalies and imbalances such as infections, respiratory stress, allergic reactions, visual impairment, poisoning, hematological problems, etc. (See Table 1). It has been reported that these wastes have strong nexus with adverse birth outcomes, thyroid dysfunction, behavioral changes, lung failure, and adverse cellular changes [30], Kidney failure, cancer, etc. Table 1 shows some toxic metals and compounds from computer wastes and their health implications.
Metal/ Compound | State | Where used in computing hardware | Health implications | Route |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cadmium [44, 45, 46] | Solid. Its pyrolysis generates toxic fumes | Resistors, Nickel-cadmium batteries, Screens, lasers | Kidney, lung, bone damage, muscle pain, chills, fever, nausea, vomiting, decreased memory and cognition abilities, impaired neuro-motor skills | Inhalation, Ingestion |
Lead [30, 37] | Solid. Lead oxide is formed when burnt/heated | CRT monitors, printed boards, polyvinyl chloride formulations | The mucous membranes within the lungs, skin, abdomen, easily absorb lead into the blood which may predispose the individual to lead poisoning, high blood pressure, liver and kidney damage, reduced nervous development and permanent nervous damage in children | Inhalation, ingestion |
Mercury | Liquid/ Gaseous | Fluorescent tubes and flat screen monitors. | Whether alone or in methylated forms, this substance is harmful to the digestive, nervous and immune systems respectively. The lungs, kidneys and other internal organs are affected. Mercury salts are corrosive to the eyes, skin and the gastrointestinal tract | Inhalation Ingestion |
Beryllium oxide | Solid/Liquid | Thermal grease for heat-sinks; Processor, power transistors, vacuum tubes. | Causes irritation skin, throat, nose, and lungs. | Inhalation Contact |
Barium | Solid/Liquid | CRT monitors | Poisoning | Inhalation Ingestion, contact |
Zinc [30] | Solid | CRTs, Metal coatings | Poisoning, vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, cramps | Inhalation, ingestion |
Some health implications of computer/ICT wastes.
EC involves the deployment and utilization of energy-intensive computing equipment especially to drive socioeconomic activities. Data centres globally fall within the ranks of energy-intensive computing. They are not only common in developed countries but are also at the cornerstone of industry in developing countries. The intensive use of data centres and high capacity computing hardware are popular from the telecommunications subsector to banking and finance, manufacturing and production, agricultural and food processing, mining and extraction, and educational institutions. EC infrastructure popular in mission critical applications such as in manufacturing, production, mining, telecommunications, and the financial services subsectors. EC is a creator of both computer wastes and pollution. Despite the economic importance of EC infrastructure in driving industrialization, they are noted as potential causes of greenhouse emissions (GHG), pollution, and agents of climate change [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. The gases contribute to warmer climate can affect the ecosystems locally and globally [47]. For instance, extreme weather affects agricultural crop production and yield, livestock production, desertification, health challenges including epidemics, ocean acidification, heavy precipitation, flooding, food supply and security challenges, new diseases, and energy supply problems [27, 48, 49].
Green computing is confronted with many challenges. These are categorized into: Manufacturer-induced bottlenecks, Economic challenges, Policy, Consumer attitude, and Social exploitation.
The manufacturer-induced bottlenecks are a major barrier to the adoption, implementation and enforcement of green computing practices and policies. The equipment manufacturer is a major player in the distribution and supply business chain. In the local parlance, the equipment manufacturer is tainted as having ‘the fork and the knife’ in the sense that the equipment manufacturer is technically the addition to influencing the life span of computing equipment, the manufacturers are in principle aware of how long a device would be supported or maintained. Generally, these manufacturers play a major role in determining when a device becomes obsolete. These they may do by intentionally modifying the design, embedded software, or even withdrawing their support for specific models of the device. They often project the benefits of the newly produced variant of the device in terms of cost and functionalities while at the same time hyping the costs of maintenance of the older models. Experience has shown that many of such claims do not reflect the reality rather the manufacturer’s desire to maximize profits at the expense of the consumer and the environment. Another area of concern is the use of materials that are not ecofriendly in the synthesis and production of electronic goods. If green manufacturing is strictly adhered to, green computing challenges would be significantly reduced [50, 51, 52, 53]. In the same vein, the power consumption requirements by devices may depend on the manufacturer’s specifications and readiness to use ecofriendly and sustainable materials [52]. It therefore follows that manufacturers can drastically reduce power demands by carefully selecting and using materials that require less energy to operate. However, [52] note that manufacturers face challenges of incurring high cost and low returns in their bid to switch to greener technologies, green production and manufacturing processes, compared to the traditional methods. Their study also revealed that these companies encounter difficulties in generating the required energy by greener and/or renewable methods.
Inequities in the distribution of resources is a major factor in the battle against electronic dumping and green technologies. As has been adumbrated by researchers, developing countries are grossly disadvantaged in the management of e-wastes. This may be connected to the poor economies, political will and leadership failure [54]. The developed countries often exploit these gaps while dealing with the developing nations. Due to indebtedness to the developed nations, many developing nations lack the willpower to reject such exploitation. As survival is the ultimate desire of every individual, small and medium scale businesses involving in buying and selling of second-grade electronic products is common. It is also not uncommon to see large businesses who are involved in the importation of these second-hand computing equipment and by extension e-waste. For instance, Alaba market located in the Ojo area of Lagos Nigeria is popularly known in the sub-Saharan Africa for its exploits in deals involving second-hand computing equipment from Europe and America. The same is true for the popular computer village in Lagos and Agbogbloshie in Accra Ghana [55]. In Lagos, these small and medium Majority of these thousands of businesses involving the importation of and trade in fairly used computing products reflect the inequities occasioned on the masses by the leadership and economic maladies. It is important to stress that despite the ban on the importation of some of those goods in developing countries such as Nigeria, such goods are either smuggled or concealed in other cargoes during shipping and inspection of those cargoes at the destination port is often fraught with a lot of irregularities including corruption currently owing to human intervention which has remained a major problem in the inspection and clearance processes at the ports [56, 57, 58]. With the rising spate of unemployment and no remedy in sight, it is believed that trade in contraband goods would always thrive despite the policies and regulations in place. There, the inflow of e-waste is very much likely going to abate in continental Africa till the various governments implement functional policies and machineries to reduce economic hardship and unemployment.
Like developing countries, majority of developing countries have policies, legislation, guidelines, etc. associated with environmental protection [6). Often, the problem in developing countries may not be the legislation or policy per se but the machinery to realize the provisions contained by the policy. Where these machineries are not properly harnessed gaps would continue to widen [6]. Several pitfalls connected to the operations of these machineries have been noted ranging from poor and crude infrastructure, incoherent initiatives of government operatives, poor maintenance culture, corruption, nepotism, social stratification with the emergence of the ‘untouchables’ that include individuals and organizations which are covertly above the law, poor enforcement, to negligence and abdication of responsibilities on the part of the personnel manning the public agencies. Two major problems confronting majority of policies including legislations and guidelines for driving GC ideals are noncompliance and weak enforcement [6, 59, 60]. Noncompliance and weak enforcement had linked to sociopolitical and economic problems [47, 61, 62].
Consumer attitude is a major factor in the supply and demand chain. In developing countries, the demand trend especially for electronic products such as smartphones and other mobile computing devices does not often reflect the true status of the economies. Consumers regardless of their social statuses often desire to have sophisticated devices. It is common to see a student in a secondary school with two or more smart phones. In recent times ownership of such devices has become a denominator for social class differentiation and imposition among people. Consequently the drive to upgrade to latest technologies is a common behavioral disposition among the young and the old. There is need for a public re-orientation if this problem is to be nipped in the bud otherwise it would continue to promote energy overload and environmental menace as more devices are discarded on a daily basis.
Social exploitation involves taking advantage of the lapses in the policies, rules, guidelines, and legislations as well as customer’s ignorance and demand, by manufacturers and importers of computing devices. For instance, in societies where there are no clear laws applicable to enforcement of green computing ideals, importers and manufacturers are bound to exploit this gaps in shipping all manner of products without recourse to anything.
Going forward, the following points are stated as steps towards resolving the challenges confronting green computing globally.
International and National Policies on Green Computing including trans-border movement restrictions and enforcement which would necessitate mutual understanding between countries within a region. Adoption of regional taskforces to police the movement of computer-based products regardless of their condition. Review of trans-border customs guidelines and entrenchment of stricter inspection at border posts, airports, and sea ports. Initiating a global ban on the export and import of second-hand computing devices would be an ultimate global policy to control the menace of electronic waste movements generally.
Strict regulation on manufacturers: Computing device manufacturers are the biggest player in the fight against dumping. Policies on the use of eco-friendly and biodegradable materials in the manufacturing process cannot be overemphasized.
Creation of vibrant machinery for consumer awareness programs, consumer protection and enforcement of consumer rights including the right to repair, disassemble and replace parts of malfunctioned equipment. This would relieve the manufacturers the pressure of providing support for its equipment over a long period.
Establishment of global grants for the development of electronic recycling industry subsector. E-waste disposal is somewhat a difficult enterprise. Recycling is plausible means of generating economically viable products from the wastes, reducing environmental pollution and promoting healthy environment. However, in the last decade, informal recycling is predominant in developing countries.
Continued advocacy for the adoption of green production and manufacturing practices i.e. the use of environmentally friendly and sustainable materials
Design and Standards advocacy: Green computing should be developed as a standalone international standard and maintained by the international organization for standardization (ISO) just like other plethora of standards it defines and sustains. Once internationalized, governments can domesticate and adopt them into their mainstream economic policies, guidelines, and regulations.
Promotion of circular economy [63, 64]. A circular economy has the potentials of mitigating against the challenges posed by dumping and poor manufacturing practices. Entrenching a circular economy implies that there would be no waste in the lifecycle of the computing equipment. In other words, appropriate machineries and policies are put in place to ensure compliance across board. Every product produced by a manufacturer would be recyclable once it reaches its end of life or ungracefully discarded. The producers and other recycling facilities are readily accessible to consumers. Thus collection, dismantling, refurbishing, re-use, and recycling of e-waste are formally implemented in the producer-consumer experience cycle.
Adoption of technology-driven architecture that would employ a resource planning system to support collective and collaborative management of risks associated with computer wastes and the adoption of multi-platform waste management systems including bioremediation, biomining, etc. [65, 66]. The proposed architecture would extend any existing practices through the deployment of intelligent computerized approaches that includes risk and hazard profiling of various industry subsectors, industry operators, location of operation, environmental impact etc.
SD is connected to GC and greener ICT. The post-covid period is an era of uncertainties especially in public health and safety ecosystem [67, 68]. This calls for a review of and the strengthening of the existing measures, policies, legislations, guidelines and controls on SD. As noted by [68], in the post-covid era, environmental degradation and climate change have higher tendency of causing more terrifying ecological catastrophes. According to [69] social inclusion, environmental sustainability and economic growth are the major objectives of SD. GC is a major driver of SD because its ideals, practices, and principles focus on a cleaner, safer, and sustainable environment that promote the total wellbeing of all members in the natural ecosystem. Table 2 summarizes the relationship between green computing and SD. The 17 SD goals are presented I sequence with the projected contribution of green computing practices stated against each goal.
S/N | SD goal | Contributions of GC practices |
---|---|---|
1 | No poverty | GC would ensure cleaner environment in the workplace which would guarantee the productivity, health, and safety of the average worker. |
2 | Zero hunger | GC would reduce soil pollution and contamination thereby promoting better crop yields and food security |
3 | Good health and Well-being | Green houses gases from computing devices and e-waste threaten the health and wellbeing of humans. If such threats are eliminated, there would be improvement in the social wellbeing of the people. |
4 | Quality education | Learning, research, and teaching are all affected positively by a clean and safe environment. Education under such circumstances produces knowledgeable experts who would contribute to national and global development |
5 | Gender equality | GC would eliminate water, air and soil contamination as well as good health. With cleaner environment and water women and girls would be relieved of the roles they play in homes such as searching for water and cleaning of the environment |
6 | Clean water and sanitation | Proper disposal of e-wastes and control of carbon load from large computing environments would prevent leaches that pollute underground water |
7 | Affordable and clean energy | GC advocates renewable and clean energy for computing equipment and allied devices |
8 | Decent work and economic growth | Safer and cleaner work environment motivate workers and this would boost productivity and by extension economic growth. |
9 | Industry, innovation and infrastructure | GC is an innovative ideology that promotes pollution-free industrial environment and harmony. It advocates for the development of sustainable devices and infrastructure |
10 | Reducing inequality | Pollution governance and actions can ensure that no group or community bears a disproportionate share of the harmful effects of pollution. |
11 | Sustainable cities and communities | Safe, clean and non-toxic environment promote sustainable production and economic activities in local and urban areas |
12 | Responsible consumption and production | GC drives sustainable consumption and manufacturing activities by encouraging the adoption of greener manufacturing and production processes by manufacturers which would reduce the incessant demand of newer devices by consumers owing to the fall in the utility value of existing devices |
13 | Climate action | GC promotes use of renewable energy devoid of high carbon loads; and the clean disposal of computer-based wastes which could pollute the environment thereby adding to the climate change burden |
14 | Life below water | Toxic wastes from electronic dumps contaminate underground waters leading to the death of essential aquatic organisms. GC advocates for proper e-waste disposal |
15 | Life on land | One of the main goals of GC is safe, healthy and clean environment at all times |
16 | Peace, justice and strong institutions | Enforcement of GC policies and regulations without prejudice would promote peace and safety across all socioeconomic spheres thereby attracting confidence and trust for public institutions |
17 | Partnerships for the goals | GC ideal and policies should operate at national, regional and international levels. Such collaborations would engender unity of purpose and maximum impact as to the control of electronic dumping as well as the enforcement of greener production practices. The result would affect all spheres of the ecosystem |
How GC practices promotes SD goals.
This chapter examines the green computing domain and articulates the implications of advances in the development and deployment of computing and ICT infrastructure globally laying emphasis on the growing spate of electronic dumping in the sub-Saharan Africa where countries like Nigeria and Ghana are greatly affected. It identifies some of the health and environmental problems which GC is intended to eliminate or reduce. Though it makes case for the adoption of the green computing ideals to ensure the realization of SDGs [69] in the post-covid era, however, it contemplates various barriers and challenges to the adoption of green computing ideals and proffers various feasible solutions that could help eliminate these challenges. In conclusion, it is established that GC is a viable machinery for sustainable development through a one-to-one mapping of SD goals to the goals of green computing.
There is no conflict of interest in this work.
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