Abstract
Mollicutes is a class of smallest and free-living bacteria. They have no cell wall and their plasma membrane contains cholesterol; nevertheless, cellular organization does not differ from that of other prokaryotes. They are used as simple model systems for studying general biological problems, such as those concerning membrane structure and functions, symbiosis between arthropods and microrganisms, animal and plant pathogens. Mollicutes includes the family of Spiroplamataceae, which contains Spiroplasma genus, a group of species associated, in different manner, with arthropods (insects, mites, crustaceans). Spiroplasma species can be commensals or parasites and even be involved in more close symbiosis, such as synergism or mutualism. Out of 38 described Spiroplasma species, only three have been associated with plant diseases and three with arthropod diseases. Moreover, some species have been related to animal diseases, such as transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE), and their role in human disease has been assessed. The chapter describes the taxonomic situation of the genus and reports the most important diseases due to the presence of Spiroplasma in different living organisms with special emphasis on citrus in which it causes one of the most economically damaging infectious diseases in a number of citrus growing areas worldwide.
Keywords
- Spiroplasma
- citrus
- disease
- crab
- transmissible spongiform encephalopathy
- insect vector
1. Introduction
2. Methods
Bibliographical sources have been obtained through a PubMed search, integrating the bibliographic citations from PMC. The used keywords to select bibliographic items were
3. Classification and taxonomy
The spiroplasmas belong to the Class of
Species | Host species | Geographic distribution | Authors |
---|---|---|---|
Common scorpion fly | USA (WV) | [3] | |
Honey-bee ( | France | [4] | |
Biting midge ( | USA (MD) | [5] | |
Soldier beetle ( | USA (MD) | [6] | |
False bindweed | China (Jiangsu) | [7] | |
Deerfly ( | USA (MD) | [8] | |
USA | [2] | ||
Green June beetle ( | USA (MD) | [9] | |
Lampyrid beetle | USA (MD) | [10] | |
Salt marsh mosquito ( | Worldwide | [11] | |
Corn rootworm | USA (MD) | [12] | |
Mosquito ( | Taiwan | [13] | |
Chinese mitten crab ( | China | [14] | |
Tulip tree ( | USA | [15] | |
Maryland horsefly | USA (MD) | [7] | |
Horseflies ( | USA (MD) | [7] | |
Fall flower ( | USA (MD) | [16] | |
Black-legged ticks ( | USA (OR) | [17] | |
Corn ( | America | [18] | |
Firefly beetle | USA (MD) | [19] | |
Colorado potato beetle ( | USA (MD) | [20] | |
Satin moth larvae, ( | Poland | [21] | |
Striped horsefly ( | USA (GE) | [22] | |
Horsefly ( | USA (NC) | [23] | |
Honey bee | worldwide | [24] | |
Rabbit ticks ( | USA (GE, MD) | [25] | |
Vespid wasp ( | USA (MD) | [26] | |
Tabanid fly ( | USA (MN) | [27] | |
Pacific white shrimp ( | Colombia | [28] | |
Periwinkle | Syria | [29] | |
Dragonfly ( | USA (MD) | [30] | |
Fruit fly ( | South America | [31] | |
Mosquitoes ( | France | [32] | |
Syrphid fly ( | Unknown | [33] | |
Horsefly | USA (OK) | [7] | |
Mosquitoes | Taiwan | [34] | |
Fly ( | France | [35] | |
Vespid wasp ( | USA (MD) | [36] |
4. Pathogenetic mechanisms and interactions with insect vectors
A relationship between plasmids of
The mechanisms by which spiroplasmas cause disease in plants are poorly understood, and the genetic determinants involved, are unknown. For
5. Diagnosis and epidemiology
Citrus stubborn disease (CSD) caused by
Genetic diversity among
6. Plant diseases
Only three
Citrus stubborn disease (CSD) was first detected in California, and it is a widespread bacterial disease caused by
Corn stunt (CSS) [71] is one of the major diseases of maize (
7. Arthropod diseases
Severe mortalities in the marine shrimp
In natural populations of some neotropical species of
8. Human diseases
In 2002, Lorenz et al. reported the first case of human infection due to
Two additional cases of human infections due to
9. Spiroplasma and transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE)
By entering the query “Spiroplasma and encephalopathy” or “Spiroplasma ad TSE”, you get more than 30 citations, in PubMed [85–117]. It is surprising that the first paper dates back to 1979. In fact, in the late 1979, Bastian described membranous structure very similar to
An experimental study done on newborn rabbits infected with the
As previously suggested by Leach et al. [91], even Connolly et al. [96] did not consider that there is a correlation between
We are far from having clarified the role of
10. Conclusions
CSD and CSS are the only two diseases caused by spiroplasmas of relevant economic importance on a world scale. Although, CSD cause serious damages to the citrus industry in North America and seems widespread in most citrus-producing areas, including North Africa, the Mediterranean basin, and the Middle-East, information on its distribution and incidence, as well as, its impact in citrus orchards are still limited. Routine molecular detection methods have been developed for the identification of
In 2008, as the importance of CSS was increasing in several American countries, S.
Human infections due to
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