Binomial classification method for calculating sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value when comparing a modality, practice, or test with a gold standard.
1. Introduction
The use of specific chemicals to treat specific diseases and disorders dates to 1910 when Paul Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata discovered that salvarsan, also known as arsphenamine and compound 606, killed the microorganism that caused syphilis. Their research relied on animal models of syphilis as, even currently, syphilis cannot be grown in culture medium. Arsphenamine was the first synthetic drug to actually target and kill a disease-causing organism and is credited with starting the pharmaceutical age. Ehrlich is also credited with coining the term
2. Reductionism and complexity
The use of animals as models for human anatomy and pathophysiology dates back millennia but the modern version began with Claude Bernard in the 19th century. Bernard was a firm believer in the reductionist approach to medical science and that approach has indeed served biomedical science well for decades. A review of reductionism will allow us to contrast this approach to understanding the material universe with systems biology, which is needed in order to fully understand complex living systems. [1-13]
Ernst Mayr defines reductionism as: “The belief that the higher levels of integration of a complex system can be fully explained through a knowledge of the smallest components.”[[14] p290] For example, physics attempts to describe the universe in terms of a few elementary particles, and the relationships among them. Reductionism has been very successful in describing many aspects of the material universe, including allowing successful predictions to be made. Reductionism is associated with Newton, Descartes, and determinism and the reliance on animal models in medical science arose during the time of Newtonian physics vis-à-vis reductionism and determinism. Newton said: “Therefore to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes” and went on to explain that this rule applies “to respiration in a man and in a beast, the descent of stones in Europe and America, the light of our culinary fire and of the sun, the reflection of light in the earth and in the planets.”[[15] p3-5] Both Newton and Claude Bernard subscribed to the position that similar causes yield similar effects. Indeed, this concept was one of the breakthroughs that led to the systematic method of inquiry known as the
Claude Bernard was a strict causal determinist, meaning that if X caused Y in a monkey it was also cause Y in a human. Bernard stated: “Physiologists... deal with just one thing, the properties of living matter and the mechanism of life, in whatever form it shows itself. For them genus, species and class no longer exist. There are only living beings; and if they choose one of them for study, that is usually for convenience in experimentation.”[[17] p 111] Further complicating matters, Bernard and many of his colleagues rejected the notion of evolution put forth by Darwin. [17-19] Bernard thought that organs and other tissues were interchangeable among animals and that all differences could be accounted for based on scaling; the chief difference between humans and animals being a soul.[19] This thinking persists even in recent times as exemplified by the baboon heart transplant in to the recipient Baby Fae, performed by the creationist surgeon Leonard Bailey of Loma Linda University in 1984. [[20] p162-3]
However, recent advances in other disciplines of science, namely chaos and complexity along with evolutionary biology, have called into question the use of reductionism as the sole factor in studying complex systems. Moreover, the developments in evolutionary biology and genetics are cause for further concern regarding the use of one complex evolved system, say a mouse, to predict responses to perturbations such as disease and drugs for another differently evolved complex system, say a human. For example, we now understand that the same gene can be used in different ways among species and that knocking out a gene in one species is not predictive for the function of that gene in another species.[21-27] This has implications for drug development.
Reductionism was used to study simply systems as opposed to complex systems. Animals, including humans, are complex systems and as such exhibit the characteristics listed below [from [28]].
Complex systems are robust, meaning they have the capacity to resist change. [8, 9, 29-35] This can be illustrated by the fact that knocking out a gene in one strain of mouse may produce no noticeable effects.
Redundancy tends be a part of complex systems and may explain some aspects of robustness. For example, many members of the kingdom Animalia exhibit gene redundancy. [8, 9, 29-35]
Different parts of a complex system are linked to and affect one another in a synergistic manner. In other words, there is positive and negative feedback in a complex system. [36] This is why overloading one part of a complex system with say vitamins, may not result in a healthier individual. The feedback system results in the rest of the system acting to simply excrete the unneeded vitamins.
Complex systems are also modular. But failure in one module does not necessarily spread to the system as a whole as redundancy and robustness also exist. [37-40]
The modules do communicate though. For example, genes tend to be part of networks, genes interact with proteins, proteins interact with other proteins and so on.
Complex systems communicate with their environment—are dynamic. [37-40]
Complex systems are very dependent upon initial conditions. [39] For example, very small changes in genetic makeup can result in dramatic differences in response to perturbations of the living system.
The causes and effects of the events that a complex system experiences are not proportional to each other. Perturbations to the system have effects that are nonlinear, in other words large perturbations may result in no change while small perturbations may cause havoc. [37-40]
The whole is greater than the sum of the parts. [1, 8, 9, 30, 39]
Complex systems have emergent properties. An emergent property cannot be predicted by full knowledge of the component parts. For example, the formation of a flock of birds and hurricanes are examples of emergent phenomenon as is perhaps consciousness. [39]
Reductionism is essentially
Miska states:
Nicolis & Prigogine defined complexity as the ability of a system “to switch between different modes of behavior as the environmental conditions are varied.”[44] In other words, complex systems are able to adapt to their environments just as life on this planet has adapted resulting in different species. But these adaptions mean that two complex systems that were originally identical would now be less similar and behave differently in certain circumstances. An example of this would be the susceptibility to disease between monozygotic twins. [45-56] Van Regenmortel states:
Living complex systems are the result of various evolutionary processes and as such are arguably the
The progress in these two areas of science, complexity science and evolutionary biology, results in strong theoretical concerns regarding the use of animals as predictive models in drug development. We should expect animals and humans to share responses to perturbations at the level of organization where complex systems can be described as simple systems but not for perturbations occurring at the level of organization where the system as a whole is studied or where parts of the systems that are themselves complex are studied. I will next examine the empirical evidence and place it in the context of these theoretical concerns.
3. Prediction in science
The third relevant advance in science since animal models were mandated for use in drug development is the formal evaluation of animal models in terms of their predictive value for humans. Animal models are used for ascertaining the properties of absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination and toxicity (ADMET). As all of these properties influence toxicity, an examination of the ability of animal models to predict these properties is important, as is the straightforward examination of animal models for toxicity itself. The answer to the question of the predictive ability of animal models was hinted at by the fact that Ehrlich and Hata ultimately tested the 606th compound of a series in their attempt to find a treatment for syphilis. Previous compounds had successfully treated syphilis in animal models but had failed for various reasons in humans. Even salvarsan resulted in side effects in humans that were unforeseen in animal models.
The ability to predict facts about the material universe is a hallmark of science. Hypotheses are generated that make predictions about the phenomena under study and the success or failure of these predictions can falsify or strengthen the hypothesis. This use of the term
When evaluating the predictive value of methods, practices, or tests for use in biomedical science, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) > 0.9 are sought. If a single test alone cannot yield such high values then a combination of tests can be evaluated in hopes that the combination will meet the criteria. Such evaluations have been made for toxicity testing using animal models as well as other animal model-based tests in drug development. Profound
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T+ = Test positive T- = Test negative T = True F = False P = Positive N = Negative GS+ = Gold standard positive GS- = Gold standard negative |
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Sensitivity = TP/(TP+FN) | |||
Specificity = TN/(FP+TN) | |||
Positive Predictive Value = TP/(TP+FP) | |||
Negative Predictive Value = TN/(FN+TN) |
The fact that animal models lack predictive ability is well known.[102-110] This shortcoming includes the inability of animal models to be predictive modalities for carcinogenicity.[111, 112] Salsburg stated: “Thus the lifetime feeding study in mice and rats appears to have less than a 50% probability of finding known human carcinogens. On the basis of probability theory, we would have been better off to toss a coin...”[111]
The general attitude in the drug development-related sciences reflects the empirical evidence. Cook et al:
Reuters quoted Francis Collins, Director of the NIH, as stating that: “about half of drugs that work in animals may turn out to be toxic for people. And some drugs may in fact work in people even if they fail in animals, meaning potentially important medicines could be rejected.”[113] Alan Oliff, former executive director for cancer research at Merck Research Laboratories in West Point, Pennsylvania asserted in 1997: “The fundamental problem in drug discovery for cancer is that the [animal] model systems are not predictive at all.”[114] Björquist and Sartipy stated: “Furthermore, the compound attrition rate is negatively affected by the inability to predict toxicity and efficacy in humans. These shortcomings are in turn caused by the use of experimental pre-clinical model systems that have a limited human clinical relevance...”[115] In 2006, then U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services Mike Leavitt declared: “Currently, nine out of ten experimental drugs fail in clinical studies because we cannot accurately predict how they will behave in people based on laboratory and animal studies.”[116] Zielinska, writing in
The inability of animal models to predict human response has also increased the cost of drug development as the cost for the 90-95% of drugs that fail must be recouped from the ones that go to market.[91, 118-121] Lost revenue has also resulted from the drugs that would have been marketable had animal models not derailed them in development. This lack of predictive ability for animal models is largely to blame for the cost of new medications and for the fact that the drug development pipeline is drying up.[115, 122, 123] Because animal models fail to predict drugs destined to fail, these drugs go to clinical trials and marketing which consumes roughly 95% of the cost for drug development.[124, 125] Catherine Shaffer, Contributing Editor of
Kirschner addressed this issue, asking: “could we develop a better way of predicting whether a drug will work or have intolerable side effects?” He then explains the problem in terms similar to what I have presented above:
4. This leads us to current efforts at improving drug development
4.1. Twenty-first century science
Today we have options for drug development and toxicity testing that did not exist until the 21st century, for example microdosing and pharmacogenomics. Two points need be emphasized before I address these two advances, however. First, animal models fail to meet the ends for which they are used; they are not predictive modalities for human response. Therefore using animal models is akin to relying on bloodletting as a treatment for cancer when oncologists have no cures for the cancer in question. Just as bloodletting is not effective as a treatment for cancer, regardless of whether or not other options are available, so employing animal models as they are currently utilized is nonsensical.
Second, technology is available, or is being developed, that will at least predict human response for certain properties important in drug development. However, regardless of how much time is needed in order for these technologies to be developed, animal models are simply ineffective and hence should be abandoned. Lack of effective technology does not justify the utilization of methods proven to be ineffective. Regardless of the technologies available, drug development must be human-based both when reductionism is used and when complexity is relevant. Basing drug development decisions on drug targets identified from animal models has not been effective. Human tissues can be studied instead and this will allow targets to be established in a more reliable manner. Humans must also be studied when responses to drugs are occurring at higher levels of organization; where the system is complex.
In 2006, the FDA approved microdosing for Phase 0 clinical trials.[128, 129] Microdosing is the process whereby very small doses of a drug are administered to human volunteers after which positron emission tomography (PET) and accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) are used to assess pharmacokinetic (PK) data.[130-132] While animal models are used to inform the dose for the first administration of the drug, the usual range for drugs is 100ng to 100μg. If all drugs were initially administered at a dose of 1ng and subsequently increased, this would obviate the use of unreliable animal models and ensure that the first-in-human dose was lower than the most toxic substance currently known.[133, 134] This would be a reliably safe method for conducing first-in-human trials. Although in practice microdosing is currently only used to evaluate PK (as opposed to pharmacodynamics, which is abbreviated as PD), it could be used for evaluating the other properties of interest. For example, by increasing the dose incrementally, the drug could be evaluated for toxicity. This solves the problem of unanticipated catastrophic reactions such as occurred in the TGN1412 trial [135] and allows toxicity to be determined very early in the drug development process. Long term carcinogenicity studies could not be conducted in this fashion however animal models are not predictive for carcinogenicity and human data from long terms use is the
The concept of microdosing, used in combination with pharmacogenomics (see below) would allow go-no go decisions to be made early and reliably in drug development as well as matching drug to patient. The transition to full-scale clinical trials would also be seamless. As the dose was increased, an evaluation of efficacy could be made. By starting the dose at 1ng and increasing, the entire clinical trial could be conducted much more reliably and efficiently, drugs destined to fail could be eliminated earlier thus saving money, and the drugs could be matched to genotype before being marketed thus further saving money and decreasing side effects. This leads us to the concepts of pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine.
Personalized medicine seeks to individualize medicine both in terms of treatment and diagnosis while pharmacogenomics matches drugs to patients. Rashmi R Shah, previous Senior Clinical Assessor, Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency, London stated in 2005: “During the clinical use of a drug at present, a prescribing physician has no means of predicting the response of an individual patient to a given drug. Invariably, some patients fail to respond beneficially as expected whereas others experience adverse drug reactions (ADRs).”[137] Shah echoed comments by Allen Roses, then-worldwide vice-president of genetics at GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), who stated that fewer than half of the patients prescribed some of the most expensive drugs derived any benefit from them: “The vast majority of drugs - more than 90% - only work in 30 or 50% of the people.”[138] That individual humans respond very differently to disease and drugs [139, 140], including vaccines [141, 142], has long been appreciated. During the Korean War, Alving observed that black soldiers had an increased probability, compared with white soldiers, of developing anemia when from antimalarials. This was discovered to be secondary to a commonly occurring enzyme deficiency in the black soldiers.[143] Variation in disease susceptibility and response to drugs has been noted to exist between sexes [144-150] and ethnic groups [151-159] as well as between monozygotic twins.[45-52, 56]
Many advances have been made in linking drugs to genes, in part because of spin-offs from the Human Genome Project. Differences between humans including single nucleotide polymorphisms, copy number variants, differences the regulation and expression of the same genes, differences in gene networks, and the influence of background genes can result in a drug being efficacious for one patient but not another. Diseases vary intra-species as well. Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford University School of Medicine, recently stated: “However, the bulk of the differences among individuals are not found in the genes themselves, but in regions we know relatively little about. Now we see that these differences profoundly impact protein binding and gene expression.”[160, 161] Hunter et al studied a mouse model of cancer and discovered differences in metastatic efficiency secondary to background genes. Hunter et al:
Thein likewise stated: “As the defective genes for more and more genetic disorders become unravelled, it is clear that patients with apparently identical genotypes can have many different clinical conditions even in simple monogenic disorders.” Thein assessed β−thalassemia and noted that the clinical manifestations are very diverse, ranging from life threatening to asymptomatic. Thein: “The remarkable phenotypic diversity of the β−thalassemias is prototypical of how a wide spectrum of disease severity can be generated in single gene disorders.... relating phenotype to genotype is complicated by the complex interaction of the environment and other genetic factors at the secondary and tertiary levels...”[166]
Agarwal and Moorchung reinforce the above stating: “It is now increasingly apparent that modifier genes have a considerable role to play in phenotypic variations of single-gene disorders.” This is due to factors such as: “Oligogenic disorders occur because of a second gene modifying the action of a dominant gene. It is now certain that cancer occurs due to the action of the environment acting in combination with several genes.”[167] Friedman and Perrimon explain that there are “hundreds of potential regulators of known signaling pathways.”[168]
Liu et al explain why the same genes can result in very outcomes:
Weiss et al continues this theme:
Gabor Miklos states:
Because of advances alluded to above, society is seeing the death of the blockbuster and the arrival of the “niche buster.” [171] Herscu et al write: “The era of the 'blockbuster drug model' is ending, and the development of personalized pharmaceutical system is on the rise.”[172] This is also due to the fact that diseases are being categorized into more types and individuals even within the same type react differently to drugs. Herscu et al write:
Iressa was one of the first medications administered to patients based on genotype. Iressa did not perform well in clinical trials and was to be abandoned but clinicians were adamant that it helped some people with cancer. By genotyping the patients that responded well to Iressa, researchers were able to confirm that, in certain genotypes, Iressa was efficacious. Numerous drug responses have been matched to specific mutations. [77, 173-176] The Personalized Medicine Coalition notes that personalized medicine will allow patients and physicians to:
select optimal therapy and reduce "trial-and-error" medicine;
reduce adverse drug reactions;
improve the selection of drug targets;
increase patient compliance with therapy;
reduce the time, cost, and failure rate of clinical trials;
revive drugs that failed clinical trials or were withdrawn from the market;
avoid withdrawal of marketed drugs;
shift the emphasis in medicine from reaction to prevention; and
reduce the overall cost of healthcare.[177]
5. Conclusion
We are currently living in what will become known as the Age of Personalized Medicine. While much has yet to be discovered, society is already benefitting from personalized medicine applied to specific drugs and diseases. Contrast this with using a different species in an attempt to predict human response to drugs and disease. While animals can be used in basic science pursuits, empirical evidence from drug development, placed in the context of the scientific theories of Complexity and Evolution, demands that animal testing be replaced with human-based drug development. Implementing human-based testing early in the development process is how drugs should be developed now and it will be how drugs are developed in the future.
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