The composition of PMMA/CNT composites manufactured by in-situ process
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6537",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Evolving Strategies in Peritoneal Dialysis",title:"Evolving Strategies in Peritoneal Dialysis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Evolving Strategies in Peritoneal Dialysis is intended as a concise compilation of articles designed to understand the basics of the current practice of the most cost-effective form of life support for patients with end-stage renal disease who require dialysis. Current strategies are understood best with a review of the historical development of catheter materials, solution packaging, and simplified machinery, which allow safe and effective nocturnal treatments. Quantitation of the efficacy of peritoneal dialysis is also reviewed because such calculations were also developed by the pioneers of nephrology to ensure adequacy of dialysis and daily fluid balance, which are responsible for the best chance for long-term patient survival. Comparison of methods for catheter placement is presented as well as the role that a dialysis center plays in the health and success of this form of end-stage renal disease patient care. The novel concept of assisted peritoneal dialysis for the infirm or institutionalized patients is probably the next direction needed to make available this treatment to many more patients than are currently eligible to receive it. This concept is explored in a separate chapter. 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He trained at the University of\nCalifornia at Los Angeles (UCLA) from 1973 to 1978. His faculty\npositions include UCLA, University of Utah, Medical College of\nVirginia, and University of South Dakota. Other positions include professor and chairman emeritus, Department of Internal\nMedicine, University of South Dakota, Sanford School of Medicine; and Bush Foundation of Minnesota Sabbatical Fellowship in Critical Care, Department of Anesthesiology at the University of Iowa in 2009. Dr. Zawada Jr. is board certified by the\nAmerican Board of Internal Medicine in Internal Medicine, Nephrology, Geriatrics, and Critical Care Medicine. Other board certifications include Nutrition and\nClinical Pharmacology. He is a Master of the American College of Physicians and\nFellow of the American College of Critical Care Medicine, the American Society of\nNephrology, the American Society of Hypertension, the American College of Chest\nPhysicians, the American College of Clinical Pharmacology, the American College\nof Nutrition, and the American Heart Association.",institutionString:"University of South Dakota",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of South Dakota",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1163",title:"Nephrology",slug:"nephrology"}],chapters:[{id:"60480",title:"Introductory Chapter: Peritoneal Dialysis, Overview and Current Concepts",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75627",slug:"introductory-chapter-peritoneal-dialysis-overview-and-current-concepts",totalDownloads:356,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Edward T. 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\r\n\tCysticercosis, caused by the metacestode stage of Taenia solium, is a serious health and veterinary problem in many developing countries and is considered one of the most important neglected tropical diseases in developed countries. In humans, T. solium cysticerci cause neurocysticercosis, which affects ~50 million people worldwide, and it has been considered as an emergent disease in the United States. T. solium also infects pigs, its intermediate host, leading to major economic losses.
\r\n\r\n\tWhen humans ingest undercooked contaminated pork meat, the adult worm develops in the small intestine. After two months of asymptomatic infection, this tapeworm starts producing thousands of eggs, that, once released with the stools, can contaminate the environment, infecting pigs (rapidly differentiating into cysticerci mainly in the muscle) and humans (where most severe symptoms are observed due to the presence of cysticerci in the brain). Thus, maintenance of the parasite's life cycle depends on the adult tapeworm development. Even in communities which do not rear or consume pigs, human neurocysticercosis can be found, because of the presence of a tapeworm carrier. Furthermore, tapeworm development in turn depends on scolex evagination, the initial step through which a single cysticercus becomes an adult parasite with the capability of producing infective eggs. A great deal of scientific advances on the field has been producing in recent times, all on the most important fields of the disease: vaccination, epidemiology, current drug design, diagnostic and host-parasite interaction at all levels. However, to date, there is no actualized book dealing with the recent advances in such an important disease in the world.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will intend to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in cysticercosis featuring an easy-to-follow, vignette-based format that focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this critically important area.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-395-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-394-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-396-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"16dae70f4745a1873fbeb34e67007b24",bookSignature:"Prof. Jorge Morales-Montor, Dr. Abraham Landa and Dr. Luis Terrazas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10354.jpg",keywords:"Delivering Methods, DNA Vaccines, Diagnostic of Cysticercosis, Diagnostic of Taeniosis, Epidemiology of Cysticercosis, Epidemiology of Neurocysticercosis, New Drugs Available, Drug-Design, Taenia Solium, Clinical Trials, Taenia Crassiceps, Immune Response",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 19th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in Neuroinmunoendocrinology of several parasite infections, including cysticercosis. He has published over 153 papers, has edited 12 books, and written around 50 book chapters. Head of the Laboratory of Neuroimmunoendocrinology, Institute of Biomedical Research in UNAM, Mèxico.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in molecular parasitology of Taenia solium cysticerci. He was part of the team that sequenced the Taenia solium genome. He has published over 33 papers on cysticercosis. Head of the Laboratory of Molecular Parasitology in UNAM, Mèxico.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in studying the immunology of taeniasis/cysticercosis, appointed Head of the Unit of Experimental Biomedicine. Recently appointed as Director of the Office of Development and Cultural and Scientific Relationships in the School of Superior Studies Iztacala, UNAM.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.jpg",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor studied biology at the Iztacala UNAM Faculty of Higher Studies, obtaining the title in 1992. He obtained a\ndoctor’s degree in October 1997. His doctoral thesis was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser-PUIS Award to the best graduate thesis at thenational level in theareaofparasitology,a recognition that he has also later received as a tutor, since one of his doctorate students won the same award in 2008. In November 1997, he began a postdoctoral stay at theDepartment of CellularBiology at the UniversityofGeorgia, USA, in the laboratory of Dr. Raymond T. Damia´n, one of the most recognized parasitologists in the world. Dr. Morales received a grant from the Fogarty Foundation (one of the most prestigious in Ibero-America) to carry out research on schistosomiasis in the baboon, being a Pan American Fellow for 4 years. Dr. Ray Damia´n would write years later, which assured that\nwithout a doubt, Jorge Morales-Montor had been the best postdoctoral researcher with whom he collaborated in his nearly 35-year career. He was repatriated to Mexico in 2001 by CONACYT and joined the Department of Immunology of the Institute of Biomedical\nResearch of UNAM as Associate Investigator “C”. In just 9 years, he managed to climb the entire ladder of university academic positions, to receive its tenure track positionas a Definitive C Titular Researcher at the Institute of Biomedical Research. The same is reflected in the Level of Premiums for Academic Performance, where it has reached the highest level currently: Level D, for the third\nconsecutive period. Also in the National System of Researchers, he has had the same growth, starting in 1997 as a candidate, and, to date, being promoted to Level III, the highest, for the third consecutive period. Dr.Morales-Montor has been invited to participate\nin different congresses (more than 100). In addition, he is part of the editorial committee of more than 15 indexed international\njournals, nd Editor in Chief of 3. Some of his most important contributions are partially determining the role of steroid hormones in immunological sexual dimorphism, in the polarization of the immune response, and in the antigenic presentation.He has alsomade very relevant studies in relation to how different physiological stages, how the estrous cycle, age, sex, or pregnancy affect the functioning of\nthe immune, endocrinological, and nervous system, and what molecules could be the determinants in this context of net. It has been\nshown that the central nervous system is involved in the regulation of the immune response to parasitic infections, and the effect\nof this activation on various behaviors of the infectedhost. But the centralnervous system has provided interesting data about its\nimpact in the parasitology approach. For instance, a modern concept is depicted by how the central nervous system modulates\nthe gene and proteomic regulation of the different sex steroids in parasites,which are involved in important functions of parasites\nsuch as establishment, growth, and reproduction. Finally, the practical use of the knowledge acquired by the earlier mentioned\nstudies has been applied to a theory that he calls old drugs, new uses: the use of hormones and antihormones as antiparasitic\ntherapy. He has also entered the study of environmental contamination, specifically endocrine disruptors and disease, studying\ntheir role in two very important diseases in the country: cancer and obesity, projects with which he has formed two consortiums\nof investigation. Its results are a very important contribution to the health of both Mexicans and Latin Americans in general, since\nthis is where serious health problems related to parasitic infections, cancer, and obesity are concentrated.His investigations are characterized by an exhaustive and meticulous experimental work, and his scientific production already has 153 articles in international indexed journals, and the majority as the first author or corresponding author. He hasmore than 3000 citations to his works, and an h-index of 29, one of the highest in the country’s scientific community. His articles published in high-impact international\njournals include Nature, PlosOne, Journal of Immunology, Journal of Infectious Diseases, Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research,\nand among others. In fact, recently, his 2015 article, The Role of Cytokines in Breast Cancer Development and Progression, published in the Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research, was the subject of a press release released by Mary Ann Liebert Publications. This is sent all over the world, to newspapers, Journals, scientists, radio, TV, popular magazines, to what is considered as a very important contribution in a certain area of science. Very few scientific articles are released as “press release.” He is also the 4th most cited author in the area of parasitology in the country. He has also edited several books and published more than 55 chapters in books, national and foreign. In this area, recently, the chapter “The Role of Sex Steroids in the Host-Parasite Interaction,” published in the international\nbook “Sex Steroids” in 2012, reached the figure of 68,000 downloads, which means the degree of attention that has after receiving\nhis work; the foregoing makes it clear that Dr. Morales-Montor’s work is highly relevant and widespread amongthenational and international academic community, and his brilliant career has earned him more than 30 awards, such as the Miguel Aleman Valdez Award in the area of Health 2006, the Distinction National University for Young Academics in the area of Research in Natural Sciences 2006, the CANIFARMA Veterinary Prize 2007 and 2009 the Heberto Castillo Martı´nez Capital City Award for Young Latin American Academics in Basic Research, and for the third consecutive congress, in 2011, one of his works was awarded the “Dr. Jose Eleuterio Gonza´lez” Award, for the best work of and research at the XXVI National Congress of Research in Medicine, to name just a few of its achievements. He has also mentored and graduated more thn 60 students at all levels (Baccularate, Masters and Doctorate) and also been awarded many distinctions, such as joining the Mexican Academy of Sciences (2005), and being one of the few Mexican scientists to be inducted to the Latin American Academy of Sciences (2008), The National Academy of Medicine, the New York Academy of Sciences, the American Association of Immunologists are deserved recognitions for his academic quality and career. His academic leadership is reflected in the trust and respect that his peers confer on him, having been President of the Mexican Society\nof Parasitology (one of the oldest and most prestigious scientific societies in the country) and currently being President, and founding member, of the Mexican Society of Neuroimmunoendocrinology, since 2011. Due to its scientific curiosity, it is in the process of founding the Mexican Society for Translational Environmental Biomedicine. He has been invited to edit special volumes\nin various magazines with international circulation and is a member of the editorial committee of magazines of\nimportance in his area of work, such as ParasiteImmunology, The OpenParasitologyJournal, among others. He has been a jury for\nthe Arturo Rosenblueth Awards for the best CINVESTAV Doctoral Thesis, a jury for the Lola and Igo Flisser-PUIS 2010 Awards, and\na jury for the Heberto Castillo Award, for the best Latin American Researcher 2012, awarded by the Federal District Government.\nIt is noteworthy that he is an outstanding scientist, who has contributed to the scientific research of Mexico with the generation of new frontier knowledge in the world and with the training of high-level human resources.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"332210",title:"Dr.",name:"Abraham",middleName:null,surname:"Landa",slug:"abraham-landa",fullName:"Abraham Landa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:'He is a Master and Doctor of Science from UNAM, he did his post-doctorate at the Harvard University School of Public Health and his sabbatical at the Tufts University in Boston. He began his career as a teacher at the Faculty of Medicine UNAM in 1992, as an assistant in the subject of Biochemistry and Molecular biology to later be the owner of it. Is currently Full Professor "C" of T.C Definitive. It is Level “D” of the PRIDE and Level III of the National Research System. Academic-administrative positions: Representative of Postgraduate Tutors in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), Member of the Review Commission of Nonconformities of the Personnel Performance Bonus Program Academic (PRIDE, 2002-2005), Secretary of the Mexican Society of Parasitology (2010-2011), Member of the Technical Council of the Faculty of Medicine (2006-2013) and currently a Member of the Judging Commission Research and Postgraduate Program CAABQyS of the FES-Iztacala (2015-1017).\r\nAwards and distinctions won the Scholarship awarded by the McArthur Foundation (1988-1989), Second place in the IV Parasitology Prize "Lola and Igo Flisser" 1992, the "Gabino Barreda" medal for his Doctorate in Science studies, 1997 and the medal "Nayarit for Scientific and Technological Research in 2001". Contributions and Scientific Productivity His research has been directed to the study of the molecular biology of Cestodes, especially of Taenia solium. He pioneered cloning and characterization of cestode genes and participated in the Consortium that carried out the university megaproject of the Taenia solium genome and three genomes\r\nmore than cestodes that resulted in a 2013 publication in the journal Nature. He has obtained with collaborators from the Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and from UAM the first crystal and inhibitor for a protein in cestodes (Cu / Zn superoxide dismutase), developed a recombinant antibody that inhibits triose phosphate isomerase. Has characterized the 3 glutathione transferases (24, 25, 26 kDa) that form the main system of detoxification and has contributed knowledge about the regulation of transcription, the foregoing has allowed reasonable knowledge of the cestodes and the diseases they cause. As a result of your work\r\nscientist has 58 publications, 12 book chapters, plus 2 books. Teaching and Training of Human Resources: Has taught since 1991, 30 courses and topics at the Postgraduate level. He has also directed 30 undergraduate theses, 9 Master\'s, 1 Specialization and 9 Doctorate. Almost all of his students PhD students are active researchers in Mexico and abroad. Doctor Landa is an active participant in conferences, as a member of committees tutorials, professional degree examinations in all programs of Postgraduate of the UNAM.',institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"332215",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Terrazas",slug:"luis-terrazas",fullName:"Luis Terrazas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031RIzxQAG/Profile_Picture_1600754945533",biography:'He is a Master and Doctor of Science from UNAM, he did his post-doctorate at the Harvard University School of Public Health and his sabbatical at the Tufts University in Boston. He began his career as a teacher at the Faculty of Medicine UNAM in 1992, as an assistant in the subject of Biochemistry and Molecular biology to later be the owner of it. Is currently Full Professor "C" of T.C Definitive. It is Level “D” of the PRIDE and Level III of the National Research System. Academic-administrative positions: Representative of Postgraduate Tutors in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), Member of the Review Commission of Nonconformities of the Personnel Performance Bonus Program Academic (PRIDE, 2002-2005), Secretary of the Mexican Society of Parasitology (2010-2011), Member of the Technical Council of the Faculty of Medicine (2006-2013) and currently a Member of the Judging Commission Research and Postgraduate Program CAABQyS of the FES-Iztacala (2015-1017).\r\nAwards and distinctions won the Scholarship awarded by the McArthur Foundation (1988-1989), Second place in the IV Parasitology Prize "Lola and Igo Flisser" 1992, the "Gabino Barreda" medal for his Doctorate in Science studies, 1997 and the medal "Nayarit for Scientific and Technological Research in 2001". Contributions and Scientific Productivity His research has been directed to the study of the molecular biology of Cestodes, especially of Taenia solium. He pioneered cloning and characterization of cestode genes and participated in the Consortium that carried out the university megaproject of the Taenia solium genome and three genomes\r\nmore than cestodes that resulted in a 2013 publication in the journal Nature. He has obtained with collaborators from the Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and from UAM the first crystal and inhibitor for a protein in cestodes (Cu / Zn superoxide dismutase), developed a recombinant antibody that inhibits triose phosphate isomerase. Has characterized the 3 glutathione transferases (24, 25, 26 kDa) that form the main system of detoxification and has contributed knowledge about the regulation of transcription, the foregoing has allowed reasonable knowledge of the cestodes and the diseases they cause. As a result of your work\r\nscientist has 58 publications, 12 book chapters, plus 2 books. Teaching and Training of Human Resources: Has taught since 1991, 30 courses and topics at the Postgraduate level. He has also directed 30 undergraduate theses, 9 Master\'s, 1 Specialization and 9 Doctorate. Almost all of his students PhD students are active researchers in Mexico and abroad. Doctor Landa is an active participant in conferences, as a member of committees tutorials, professional degree examinations in all programs of Postgraduate of the UNAM.',institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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Basically, bone cement consists of two portions: (1) powder portion including pre-polymerized methylmethacrylate (PMMA) and initiator (benzoyl peroxide) and (2) liquid portion including methylmethacrylate (MMA) monomer and promoter (N, N-dimethyl-p-toluidine). When two portions are mixed, the initiation is activated by promoters that make the free radicals (initiators). The free radicals react with monomers for polymerization (Park & Lakes, 1992). Some disadvantages of PMMA bone cement are found such as significant poor mechanical properties which may cause failure of the cement. For instance, PMMA bone cement is considerably weaker than bone (Saha & Pal, 1984) and the tensile stresses of PMMA bone cement are comparatively low (Saha & Pal, 1986). Vallo et al. used cross-linked PMMA beads to prepare cements by replacing 30% of the PMMA powder and showed an increase in the flexural strength value of 22.4%. The cross-linked beads resulted in more effective reinforcing filler than plain PMMA beads (Vallo et al., 2004). Basgorenay et al. modified acrylic bone cement by addition of hydroxyapatite and ammonium nitrate. A linear relation was observed in compression strength (from 98 to 111 MPa) and in tensile strength (from 27 to 21 MPa) upon HA addition, and in the compression strength (from 103 to 85 MPa) and in the tensile strength (from 22 to 17 MPa) with NA addition (Basgorenay et al., 2006). Kwon et al. prepared bone cements incorporated with montmorillonite (MMT) to improve their mechanical properties. The measured compressive strength of the bone cement with 1 wt % MMT was 113.6 ± 3.9 MPa, which is higher than that of the bone cement without MMT (110.1 ± 2.0 MPa). The measured tensile strength of the control bone cement with 1 wt % MMT was 27.2 ± 4.4 MPa, which is higher than that of the bone cement without MMT (22.3 ± 3.8 MPa) (Kwon et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\tCarbon nanotube is known for a larger aspect ratio and higher modulus (Iijima, 1991). Kearns and Shambaugh found that the tensile strength of polypropylene fibers reinforced with carbon nanotube could increase 40% (Kearns & Shambaugh, 2002). There are several studies related to the preparation and characterization of carbon nanotube/poly(methyl methacrylate) composites. For example, Jin et al. studied muti-walled carbon nanotube/poly(methyl methacrylate) composites fabricated by melting blending and found that the nanotube was well dispersed in the polymer matrix and the storage modulus of the composites was significantly increased (Jin et al., 2001). Stephan et al. prepared poly(methyl methacrylate)-singlewalled carbon nanotube composites by solution mixing (Stephan et al., 2000). Cooper et al. used a polymer extrusion technique to prepare carbon nanotube mixed in a poly(methyl methacrylate) matrix and found that the impact strength was significantly improved by even small amounts of single-wall nanotube (Cooper et al., 2002). Jia et al. prepared poly(methyl methacrylate)/carbon nanotube composites by an in-situ process. Their studies show that carbon nanotube could participate in the polymerization of PMMA initiated by AIBN and form a strong combining interface between the carbon nanotube and the PMMA matrix (Jia et al., 1999).
\n\t\t\tThe purpose of this study is to enhance the mechanical properties of bone cement with carbon nanotube. In this study, the various systems of bone cement reinforced with carbon nanotube were fabricated. The mechanical properties of bone cement were characterized using tensile as well as compressive analysis and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). The results show that introduction of carbon nanotube is able to enhance the mechanical properties of bone cement.
\n\t\tMultiwall carbon nanotube was able to purify by nitric acid solution. The 0.5 g of multiwall carbon nanotube and 100 ml of 3 M of nitric acid solution were mixed in round-bottom flask by ultrasonication for 30 minutes, followed by reflux at 120º C for 12 hours. Then the mixture was cooled down to room temperature. The nitric acid solution of the mixture was taken out and the multiwall carbon nanotube was washed by distilled water until pH 7 of the filtrate. The multiwall carbon nanotube was dried in oven at 120º C for 12 hours.
\n\t\t\tMultiwall carbon nanotube (CNT) (40 ~ 60 nm in diameter, 0.5 ~ 40 mm in length) was purchased from Desunnano Co., Ltd and used as received without further treatment in this study. MMA monomer was supplied from Kanto Chemical Co., Inc. The composition of PMMA/CNT composites manufactured by in-situ process is listed in Table 1. Benzoyl peroxide (BPO) was used as initiator. The procedure for fabrication of PMMA/carbon nanotube composites was first dissolution of BPO in MMA monomer by stirring at room temperature. After well mixture of BPO and MMA monomer, carbon nanotube was added into the mixture followed by sonication and polymerized at 50º C. When the mixture became viscous, it was poured into mold for further reaction by the process of baking as following steps: (1) 60º C for 2 hours, (2) 80º C for 2 hours, and (3) 100º C for 3 hours. PMMA/CNT powder was prepared from PMMA/CNT composites ground by grinder.
\n\t\t\t\tMMA (g) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCNT (g) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBPO (g) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNote | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(100/0.1) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(100/0.2) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.27 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(100/0.27) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.43 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(100/0.43) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.59 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(100/0.59) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.75 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(100/0.75) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The composition of PMMA/CNT composites manufactured by in-situ process
The commercial cement, OSTEOBOND, was used as well in this study. The OSTEOBOND was purchased from Zimmer (Warsaw, Indiana. USA). Several systems of bone cement reinforced with carbon nanotube were prepared. The composition of liquid portion of the bone cement was the same in each system. The compositions of the bone cement in each system are shown in Table 2. The specimens of bone cement were prepared by mixing at the ratio of 1/2 at the liquid portion to the powder portion and left to solidify in a designed shape.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | Powder portion (g) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCommercial Liquid portion (ml) | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
Commercial powder | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tPMMA/CNT powder (pmma/cnt)* | \n\t\t\t\t\t||
System 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3 (100/0.1) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3 (100/0.2) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3 (100/0.27) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3 (100/0.43) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3 (100/0.59) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3 (100/0.75) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
(pmma/cnt) indicates the ratio of PMMA/CNT by weight in pre-polymeric composites.The composition of the bone cement in each system
The tensile and compressive strength of bone cement was characterized using INSTRON 5582. The specimens for tensile analysis are referred to the work of Harper and Bonfield (Harper & Bonfield, 2000). The specimens have the dimensions: 75 mm in length, 5 mm in width, approximately 3.5 mm in thickness, with a gauge length of 25 mm. The crosshead speed employed was 5 mm/min. The compressive analysis of bone cement corresponded to ASTM F451. The crosshead speed was 25 mm/min. The diameter and length of the specimens were 6.0 mm and 12.5 mm, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\tThe dynamic mechanical properties of bone cements were measured using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA 2980, TA Instruments), with the clamp of single cantilever. The dimensions of the rectangular specimens for DMA were 35mm×11mm×2.7mm. The measuring temperatures ranged from 25 to 150º C at 3º C/min, and the frequencies swept at 1 Hz, 3 Hz, 5 Hz, and 10 Hz. The glass transition temperature of a sample was labelled using the tan δ peak, which occurs at the highest temperature.
\n\t\t\t\tThe surface of the gold-coated test specimens was observed using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) (JEOL, JSM-6700F) at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV.
\n\t\t\t\tThermogravimetric analysis (TGA) experiment was performed with Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA-2050, TA Instruments Inc) under air flow at a heating rate of 10º C/min. The temperature of the curing acrylic bone cement was measured using a thermocouple. The measuring probe was situated in the bone cement.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTable 3 shows the tensile and compressive strength of the bone cements tested in this study. System 1 is a commercial product which has tensile strength and compressive strength of 40.49 MPa and 105.33 MPa, respectively. Harper and Bonfield report that the tensile strength of Osteobond bone cement is 38.2 ± 2.65 MPa (Harper & Bonfield, 2000). Compressive strength of bone cement usually varies from 44 to 103 MPa (Saha & Pal, 1984). Systems 2 to 7 are the bone cements containing carbon nanotube. Both tensile and compressive strength of System 2 are about 18% and 23%, respectively higher than that of System 1. It indicates that the introduction of PMMA/CNT pre-polymeric composites is able to enhance mechanical properties of bone cement. Compared with Kwon’s study of MMT modified bone cement showed in introduction section, the compressive strength of carbon nanotube modified bone cement exhibited significant increase (23%) than that of MMT modified bone cement (2.7 % increasing in compressive strength). Figure 1 shows the stress-strain curves of System 1 and System 2 tested in tensile strength. It indicates that the toughness of System 2 is better than that of System 1. Therefore, CNT modified bone cement should be able to block crack propagation.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | Tensile strength (MPa) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCompressive strength (MPa) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSD | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t40.49 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.79 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t105.33 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t21.92 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t48.03 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.55 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t130 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t48.36 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t130.16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t48.01 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.09 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t127.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.44 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t45.55 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.65 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t130.02 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7.41 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t45.86 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t129.06 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
System 7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t46.58 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.65 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t127.83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.54 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
The tensile and compressive strength of the bone cements tested in this study
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 2 illustrates the storage moduli of the bone cement systems as a function of temperature at the frequency of 3 Hz. A storage modulus in DMA can be seen as the stiffness of material. At low temperatures, the storage moduli of the all samples do not show significant difference. Since only strength of the powder portion of bone cement was increased, the liquid portion of bone cement was remained the same as commercial product. However, when the temperature increases to more than 100º C, System 1 exhibits higher storage modulus than the others. Figure 3 is the tan δ values of the cement systems as a function of temperature at the frequency of 3 Hz. The glass transition temperature of a sample was labeled using the tan δ peak. Figure 4 is the glass transition temperatures of the
\n\t\t\tThe stress-strain curves of System 1 and System 2 tested in tensile strength
The storage moduli of the bone cement systems as a function of temperature at the frequency of 3 Hz (a: System1, h: System 2, i: System 3, j: System 4, k: System 5, l: System 6, m: System 7)
The tan δ values of the cement systems as a function of temperature at the frequency of 3 Hz. (a: System1, h: System 2, i: System 3, j: System 4, k: System 5, l: System 6, m: System 7)
The glass transition temperatures of the bone cements measured using DMA at the frequencies of 1 Hz, 3 Hz, 5 Hz, and 10 Hz
The storage moduli of the bone cements measured using DMA at the frequencies of 1 Hz, 3 Hz, 5 Hz, and 10 Hz
bone cements measured using DMA at the frequencies of 1 Hz, 3 Hz, 5 Hz, and 10 Hz. System 1 (commercial product) has the highest Tg among the bone cement. The lower Tg of the modified bone cement may be due to carbon nanotube acted as plasticizer. The dynamic mechanical properties of viscoelastic materials, such as polymeric composites, are time dependent. When sweep frequency increases, the glass transition temperatures of the bone cements exhibit higher. Figure 4 is the storage moduli of the bone cements measured using DMA at the frequencies of 1 Hz, 3 Hz, 5 Hz, and 10 Hz. The storage modulus of bone cement also increases, when sweep frequency increases. Figure 6 is the surface of the CNT modified bone cement observed using SEM. It is obvious that carbon nanotube existed in bone cement. Usui et al. uses CNTs to promote bone regeneration (Usui et al., 2008). Therefore, it is expected for CNT modified bone cement in promoting bone regeneration.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFigure 7 is the SEM image of the multiwall carbon nanotube without purification. Figure 8 is the SEM image of the multiwall carbon nanotube after purification. The multiwall carbon nanotubes after purification still retained fibrous structure without damage. Figure 9 and Figure 10 are TGA curves of the multiwall carbon nanotube samples without purification and after purification, respectively. It is obvious that the multiwall carbon nanotube without purification contained impurities about 13%. After purification, the impurities in multiwall carbon nanotube were dramatically down to about 2%. The decomposition temperature of the multiwall carbon nanotube without purification was about 623º C. After purification, the decomposition temperature of the multiwall carbon nanotube sample was increased to about 670º C. It was due to the decrease of the content of the non-nanotube carbon in multiwall carbon nanotube after purification.
\n\t\t\tThe surface of the CNT modified bone cement observed using SEM
The SEM image of the multiwall carbon nanotube without purification
The SEM image of the multiwall carbon nanotube after purification
The TGA curve of the multiwall carbon nanotube sample without purification
The TGA curve of the multiwall carbon nanotube sample after purification
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 11 is the temperature profile of the curing acrylic bone cement modified by multiwall carbon nanotube. The maximum curing temperature of the acrylic bone cement modified by multiwall carbon nanotube was about 60º C. Figure 12 is the temperature profile of the curing acrylic bone cement without modification of multiwall carbon nanotube. Since the multiwall carbon nanotube was first to be prepared as PMMA/carbon nanotube powder, the PMMA/carbon nanotube powder as a pre-polymerized composite was not reacted further during the curing of the bone cement. Therefore, the curing temperature of the acrylic bone cement modified by multiwall carbon nanotube should be similar to that of the acrylic bone cement without modification of multiwall carbon nanotube.
\n\t\t\tThe temperature profile of the curing acrylic bone cement modified by multiwall carbon nanotube
The temperature profile of the curing acrylic bone cement without modification of multiwall carbon nanotube
In this study, we have prepared a new type of bone cement reinforced with carbon nanotube. In order to achieve better dispersion of carbon nanotube in bone cement, we first fabricated PMMA/CNT composites and then ground them as powder form to be introduced into bone cement. This kind of modified bone cement exhibits excellent material properties such as tensile and compressive strength. The results show potential usage in clinical applications.
\n\t\tThe author would like to thank National Science Council, Taiwan for financial support under grant contract NSC 97-2221-E-224-068-. My students, Chiao-li Huang and Randy Hsu, did a lot of work in this study.
\n\t\tThe origin of medicinal plants use had been since time immemorial and traced back to Europe, Egypt, etc. many centuries ago [1]. The first records of knowledge documentation were, however, produced by Shen Nung (a Chinese emperor) 2500 BC ago, describing different recipes of drug preparation from more than 300 medicinal plants for the management of numerous human diseases. Records had it that the use of plants (herbs) as medicine started gaining momentum around 500 BC, though prior to this period, their use was not limited to healing but believed to possess spiritual (ritual) power as well until the advent of scientific era particularly around 1960s when much relevance was played on development of synthetic products based on assumption that they are safer and come with little side effects [2]. Despite the aforementioned, the last two decades witnessed a drastic revival in the use and acceptance of phytomedicine by a majority of the people from developing nations (70–90%) as a major source of primary health care. This was also buttressed by WHO’s submission, encouraging the discovery and development of lead drugs from plant-based formulations and/or medicines which are believed to be effective and safe [2]. In fact, the development of morphine, quinine, reserpine, ephedrine, etc., from Papaver somniferum, Cinchona spp., and Rauwolfia serpentina as first set of drugs from medicinal plants brought much popularity and attested to their acceptance and potential use across different parts of the globe especially from Europe and Egypt, with records of well over 900 drugs compiled in history by chain of scientists such as Discorides and Galen [3]. Moreover, it suffices to submit that China is the only country with complete catalog of phytomedicine [2].
Mankind relies on plants and/or its extract, an integral part of traditional medicine (TM) which as a matter of fact is the origin for medical medicine. The knowledge of TM particularly in issues relating to the health of both humans and animals has continued to emerge in many nations of the world. Despite the unproven quality, safety, and efficacy, they are becoming the major source of health care for 80% of the entire population in both developed and developing countries (such as USA, China, India) in disease control, prevention, and management [4]. Interestingly, TM or phytotherapy (traditional system of health care) in the last two decades is being adopted by every region based on the specific sociocultural context illustrating the way medicinal plants (MP) or the inherent secondary metabolites are used, as well as their disparity in the approach to health and diseases. This TM varies from one community to another and notable among them are Acupuncture (Chinese), Ayurveda (Indian), Kampo (Japanese), Unani (Arabian), Basotho (among Africans), etc., some or majority of which had been in existence many centuries even before the advent of modern medicine.
Similarly, the reliance on plants by humankind is not only limited to medicine but also to other basic needs such as food, clothing, and shelter, all produced or manufactured from plant matrices (leaves, woods, and fibers) and storage parts (fruits and tubers) [5]. Medicinally, plant harbors chemicals referred to as the secondary metabolites, which are derived biosynthetically from plant primary metabolites (e.g., carbohydrates, amino acids, and lipids) though might not be directly involved in the growth, development, or reproduction of plants [6]. These secondary metabolites can be classified into several groups depending on their chemical classes [7].
Secondary metabolites are organic compound produced and found in all plant tissues to drive metabolic activities, as well as providing self-defense against herbivore and any form of environmental toxicity [8]. Plant is a well-known source of medicinal product for both traditional and modern medicines for the treatment and management of human illnesses. The usage of the plant in this regard is attributed to the presence of secondary metabolites [9]. Apart from the fact that they are widely used in medicine, they are also employed industrially in the production and manufacturing of dyes, drugs, polymers, waxes, glues, fibers, antibiotics, herbicides, insecticides, cosmetics, etc. [10]. In general, secondary metabolites found in plants can be categorized into three major groups including terpenes (cardiac glycosides, carotenoids, and sterols), phenolics (flavonoids and nonflavonoids), and nitrogen-based compounds (alkaloids and glucosinolates).
Terpenes are the largest and highly diversified class of secondary metabolites derived as a result of polymerization of isoprenoid unit of five carbon compounds [11]. Based on the five carbon compound used as its building block, it can be subdivided into monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, tetraterpenes, polyterpenes, and steroids whose precursor is triterpenes. The therapeutic significance of terpenoids from different plants has been reported, e.g., terpenes from eucalyptus oil is known for its antidiabetic property [11], ursolic acid from Rosmarinus officinalis and β-sesquiphellandrene from Piper guineense are known to be psychoprotective [12]. Antibacterial and antifungal potential of terpenoids derived from Pilgerodendron uviferum, Picea abies and other plant sources have also been reported [13, 14, 15]. Furthermore, a steroidal terpenoids called glycyrrhizic acid elicited anti-inflammatory activity [8].
The phenolics are secondary metabolites that are produced in the shikimic acid pathway of plants involving pentose phosphate through phenylpropanoid metabolization of at least one aromatic ring of hydrocarbon attached to one or more hydroxyl groups [10, 16]. Phenolics are generally categorized into two based on their structure, namely, flavonoids and nonflavonoids. Structurally, flavonoids are derived from two aromatic rings linked to a bridge consisting of three carbons (C6▬C3▬C6) and are sub-divided into six main categories, including flavonols, flavones, flavanones, flavan-3-ols, isoflavones, and anthocyanins. However, the nonflavonoids are subdivided into five main categories, including hydroxybenzoates, hydroxycinnamates, lignans, and stilbenes [17]. Compellingly, wide arrays of pharmacological potentials, such as antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiviral, antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory, have been credited to plant-based phenolic compounds. For example, cyanidin 3-sambubioside and 5-caffeoyl quinic acid derived from the fruit of Viburnum dilatatum Thumb. had been found to elicit significant antioxidant and radical scavenging activities while also inhibiting the syndrome-linked complications of postprandial hyperglycemia [16]. Furthermore, plant-based phenolic acids such as garcinone E, kaempferol, resveratrol, syringaresinol, and quercetin are known to be potent anticancer agents [18]. The anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antibacterial potential of phenolics in the management of skin disorder have also been reported [17, 19, 20, 21].
Alkaloids are structurally diversified secondary metabolites derived from nitrogen-based amino acid with nitrogen atom in the heterocyclic ring. Based on the nature of their heterocyclic and building block, alkaloids are classified into different subgroups such as indole, tropane, piperidine, purine, imidazole, pyrrolizidine, pyrrolidine, quinolizidine, and isoquinoline alkaloids [22]. Noteworthy, therapeutic effects have been credited to a wide range of alkaloids from plants. Typical examples from alkaloids are Callistemon citrinus and Vernonia adoensis reported to elicit antibacterial effects on Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [23]. Additionally, alkaloids originating from Aerva lanata roots were able to mitigate postprandial hyperglycemia in diabetic rats [24]. The in vitro antioxidant activity of Phoebe declinata leaves extract has also been attributed to its alkaloid. It was found to inhibit 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical while consequently reducing ferric chloride to ferrous [25]. Furthermore, plant-based alkaloidal compounds such as reserpiline, α-yohimbine, methylaplysinopsin, isoquinoline, physostigmine, and pilocarpine are good psychoprotective agents [12].
Healing with medicinal plants is as old as mankind itself. The link between man and his quest for medicines in nature dates back to ancient times, when there were convincing proofs from written documents, monuments, and even original plant medicines [26]. Specifically, the oldest written evidence of usage of medicinal plants for preparation of drugs was found on a Sumerian clay slab from Nagpur, approximately 5000 years old. It comprised 12 recipes for drug preparation referring to over 250 plants [27]. Awareness of medicinal plants usage is a result of the many years of struggles against illnesses, which has prompted man to seek medicines in leaves, roots, barks, and other parts of plants [28]. The knowledge of the development of ideas related to the usage of medicinal plants, as well as the evolution of awareness, has increased the ability of health providers to respond to the challenges that have emerged with the spreading of professional services in the enhancement of man’s life. Until the advent of iatrochemistry in sixteenth century, plants had been the source of treatment and prophylaxis for many diseases [27]. This is well exemplified globally where medicinal plants have always being an integral part of the health care system since time immemorial.
During the last decades, it has become evident that there exists a plethora of plants with medicinal potential, and it is increasingly being accepted that medicinal plants are offering potential lead compounds in the drug discovery process. In fact, the developed world has also witnessed an ascending trend in the utilization of complementary or alternative medicine (CAM) particularly herbal remedies [29]. While over 80% of the population in Sub-Saharan African countries like Nigeria and South Africa use herbal remedies for their primary health care, reports from developed countries such as Canada, Germany, and the US revealed that more than 70% of their populations have tried CAM at least once [29]. The most common traditional medicine in common practice across the globe is the use of medicinal plants. In most of the countries, medicinal plants are the most easily accessible health resource available to the community. In addition, they are most often the preferred option for the patients. For most of these people, traditional healers offer information, counseling, and treatment to patients and their families in a personal manner, as well as having an understanding of their patient’s environment [30].
Indeed, modern allopathic medicine has its roots in traditional medicine, and it is likely that many important new remedies will be developed and commercialized in the future from plant biodiversity, as it has been till now, by following the leads provided by traditional knowledge and experiences. The extensive use of traditional medicine, composed mainly of medicinal plants, has been argued to be linked to cultural and economic reasons. This is why the WHO encourages member states to promote and integrate traditional medical practices in their health system [31]. While a good number of plants (with only selected representatives listed here) have elicited significant therapeutic and pharmacological effects against well-known debilitating and degenerating diseases such as diabetes (Artemisia afra, Chilianthus olearaceus, Vernonia amygdalina [32], Dicoma anomala [33], Psidium guajava [34], and Solanum incanum [35]), cancer (Taxus brevifolia, Podophyllum peltatum [36], and Catharanthus roseus [37]), malaria (Plumbago indica, Garcinia mangostana, Dioscorea membranacea, Artemisia annua, Piper chaba, Myristica fragrans, and Kaempferia galangal) [38], HIV/AIDS (Geranium phaeum, Sambucus racemosa [39], Tuberaria lignosa, and Sanguisorba minor magnolia [40]), schizophrenia (Abrus precatorius, Acacia ataxacantha, Adansonia digitata, Datura innoxia, Ficus sycomorus, Parkia biglobosa, and Ximenia Americana) [41], tuberculosis (Adhatoda vasica, Alpinia galangal, and Ocimum sanctum) [42], microvascular and macrovascular disorders (Anisodus tanguticus, Salvia miltiorrhiza [43], Camellia sinensis, Castanospermum australe, Curcuma longa, Ocimum santum [44], Stigma maydis [45], Spondias mombin [46], and Gazania krebsiana [47]), etc., studies are also in the forefront on the evaluation of plants against the neglected tropical diseases (NTD). Table 1 presents some of the medicinal plants with reported significant efficacy against the NTDs.
Disease/infection | Selected plants for treatment | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|
Buruli ulcer | Acacia nilotica, Ageratum conyzoides, Albizia zygia, Allium sativum, Capsicum annuum, Cassia alata, Chalcas exotica, Carica papaya, Dysphania ambrosioides, Moringa oleifera, Nauclea latifolia, Pergularia daemia, Psidium guajava, Spondias mombin, Zingiber officinale | [66, 67] |
Chagas disease | Argemone ochroleuca, Capparis spinosa, Commicarpus grandiflorus, Cucumis prophetarum, Euphorbia ammak, Hypoestes forskaolii, Kleinia odora, Marrubium vulgare, Peganum harmala, Psiadia punctulata, Ricinus communis, Solanum villosum, Tribulus macropterus, Withania somnifera | [68] |
Dengue and chikungunya | Aloysia gratissima, Andrographis paniculata, Artemisia douglasiana, Citrus limon, Cymbopogon citratus, Cleome aculeata, Eupatorium catarium, Heterotheca latifolia, Hyptis mutabilis, Lantana grisebachii, Momordica charantia, Ocimum sanctum, Pelargonium citrosum, Senna angustifolia, Tridax procumbers, Vernonia cinerea | [69, 70, 71] |
Dracunculiasis | Moringa oleifera | [72] |
Echinococcosis | Azadirachta indica | [73] |
Foodborne trematodiasis | Artemisia annua | [74] |
Helminthiasis | Aloe ferox, Cassinopsis ilicifolia, Coddia rudis, Combretum molle, Elephantorrhiza elephantina, Gazania krebsiana, Hypoxis colchicifolia, Leonotis leonurus, Markhamia obtusifolia, Tulbaghia violacea | [75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81] |
Leishmaniasis | Aloe vera, Chenopodium ambrosioides, Hyptis pectinata, Pfaffia glomerata, Ruta graveolens | [82] |
Leprosy | Achyranthes aspera, Amaranthus spinosus, Aristolochia indica, Azadirachta indica, Calotropis gigantea, Eclipta alba, Ficus benghalensis, Jasminum grandiflorum, Michelia champaca, Piper betle, Thespesia populnea, Trichodesma indicum | [83] |
Lymphatic filariasis | Acacia auriculiformis, Aegle marmelos, Centratherum anthelminticum, Ficus racemosa, Hibiscus mutabilis, Mallotus philippensis, Moringa oleifera, Sphaeranthus indicus, Zingiber officinale, Vitex negundo | [84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90] |
Mycetoma | Acacia nilotica, Acacia nubica, Boswellia papyrifera, Citrullus colocynthis, Cuminum cyminum, Moringa oleifera, Nigella sativa | [91, 92] |
Onchocerciasis | Annona senegalensis, Anogeissus leiocarpus, Polyalthia suaveolens, Discoglypremna caloneura, Homalium africanum, Khaya senegalensis, Margaritaria discoidea, Parquetina nigrescens | [93, 94, 95, 96] |
Rabies | Amarantheus spinosus, Croton macrostachyus, Phytolacca dodecandra | [97, 98] |
Scabies | Abelmoschus esculentus, Aegle marmelos, Boerhavia diffusa, Clerodendrum infortunatum, Heliotropium indicum, Pongamia pinnata, Phyllanthus emblica, Schleichera oleosa | [99, 100] |
Schistosomiasis | Abrus precatorius, Allium sativum, Citrus reticulata, Pterocarpus angolensis, Ozoroa insignis, Vernonia amygdalina | [101, 102, 103, 104] |
Snakebite envenoming | Allium cepa, Areca catechu, Aristolochia shimadai, Byrsonima crassa, Casearia sylvestris, Davilla elliptica, Delonix elata, Eclipta prostrata, Emblica officinalis, Hemidesmus indicus, Schumanniophyton magnificum, Vitis negundo | [105, 106, 107] |
Taeniasis | Capillipedium foetidum, Cymbopogon nardus, Cyperus rotundus, Gardenia lucida, Hedychium coronarium, Hedychium spicatum, Inula racemosa, Litsea chinensis, Pistacia integerrima, Randia dumetorum | [108, 109, 110, 111] |
Trachoma | Abrus precatorius, Aloe marlothii, Calpurnia aurea, Dodonaea viscosa, Erythrina abyssinica, Eucomis pallidiflora, Gethyllis namaquensis, Hypoxis obtusa, Kleinia longiflora, Primula auriculata, Protea caffra, Terfezia claveryi, Tinospora smilacina, Tribulus terrestris, Ziziphus mucronata | [112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118] |
Trypanosomiasis | Acacia nilotica, Allium sativum, Albizia gummifera, Bombax buonopozense, Heterotis rotundifolia, Morinda lucida, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Securinega virosa, Terminalia avicennioides, Vernonia subuligera, Ximenia americana, Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides | [119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125] |
Yaws | Alafia multiflora, Boerhavia diffusa, Commicarpus plubaginieus, Dioscorea hispida, Hibiscus diversifolius, Indigofera hirsuta, Spondias mombin, Strychnos ignatii | [126] |
Some selected medicinal plants used against neglected tropical diseases.
The development of new drug is a complex, time-consuming, and expensive process (Figure 1). The time taken from discovery of a new drug to its reaching the clinic is approximately 12 years, involving more than 1 billion US dollars of investments in today’s context [48]. Essentially, the new drug discovery involves the identification of new chemical entities (NCEs), having the required characteristic of drug ability and medicinal chemistry. These NCEs can be sourced either through chemical synthesis or through isolation from natural products. Initial success stories in new drug discovery came from medicinal chemistry inventions, which led to the need of development of higher number of chemical libraries through combinatorial chemistry. This approach, however, was proven to be less effective in terms of overall success rate. The second source of NCEs for potential use as drug molecules has been the natural products. Before the advent of high throughput screening and the post genomic era, more than 80% of drug substances were purely natural products or were inspired by the molecules derived from natural sources (including semisynthetic analogs) [49]. There are various examples of development of new drugs from the plant sources. Morphine was isolated from opium produced from cut seed pods of the poppy plant (Papaver somniferum) approximately 200 years ago [50]. Pharmaceutical research expanded after the Second World War to include massive screening of microorganisms for new antibiotics, inspired by the discovery of penicillin [50]. Few drugs developed from natural sources have undoubtedly revolutionized medicine like antibiotics (e.g., penicillin, tetracycline, erythromycin), antiparasitics (e.g., avermectin), antimalarials (e.g., quinine, artemisinin), lipid control agents (e.g., lovastatin and analogs), immune-suppressants for organ transplants (e.g., cyclosporine, rapamycins), and anticancer drugs (e.g., paclitaxel, irinotecan) [51].
Modern drug discovery and development processes from the medicinal plant [127].
The WHO has estimated that the majority of the populations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America still use TM for their primary health care needs [52]. In industrialized countries, plant-based TM or phytotherapeuticals are often termed complementary or alternative medicine (CAM), and their use has increased steadily over the last 10 years [53]. In the USA alone, the total estimated “herbal” sale for 2005 was $4.4 billion, a significant increase from $2.5 billion in 1995 [54] while also accounting for an estimated 1 billion Malaysia ringgit annually [55]. However, such “botanical dietary supplements” are regulated as foods rather than drugs by the United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) [54].
With the recent interest in molecular modeling, combinatorial chemistry, and other synthetic chemistry techniques by pharmaceutical companies and funding organizations, natural products, and particularly medicinal plants, remains an important source of new drugs, new drug leads, and NCEs [56]. In both 2001 and 2002, approximately one quarter of the bestselling drugs worldwide were natural products or derived from natural products. Some of the plant-derived drugs and their significance are listed in the Table 2. Many plant-derived compounds have been used as drugs, either in their original or semisynthetic form. Recent developments in drug discovery from plants, including information on approved drugs and plant extracts or compounds now in clinical trials, are available [57]. It is anticipated that in the future, plant-derived compounds will still be an essential aspect of the therapeutic array of medicines available to the physician [57].
S/N | Compound | Plant name | Classification | Biological function |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Aescin | Aesculus hippocastanum | saponins | Anti-inflammatory, vasoconstrictor and vasoprotective effects |
2 | Ajmalicine | Rauwolfia spp., Catharanthus roseus, and Mitragyna speciosa | alkaloid | Antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure |
3 | Berberine | Berberis vulgaris | alkaloid | Treatment for bacillary dysentery |
4 | Colchicine | Colchicum autumnale | alkaloid | Antitumor agent |
5 | Curcumin | Zingiberaceae | phenols | dietary supplement |
6 | Emetine | Cephaelis ipecacuanha | alkaloid | Amoebicide, emetic |
7 | Hesperidin | Citrus species | Flavonoid | Treatment for capillary fragility |
8 | Lapachol | Handroanthus impetiginosus | phenols | Anticancer, antitumor |
9 | Nordihydroguaiaretic acid | Larrea tridentata | phenols | Antioxidant activity |
10 | Quinine | Cinchona officinalis | alkaloid | Antimalarial drug |
Selected compounds derived from medicinal plants.
Phyto (plants in the form of leaves, flowers and roots) therapy (treatment) has continued to reflect a great deal of significance in health care around the world in curing diseases while also ensuring a good state of health and/or conditions is maintained. In fact, a significant proportion of the entire global populace had found solace in phytomedicine, embracing it as a major source for their health care system as maintained by WHO in one of their submissions; hence, presenting the impact or relevance of herbal therapy in this chapter cannot be out of context with regard to medicine or medicinal products emanating from these MPs such as Papaver somniferum, Cinchona, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Rosmarinus officinalis, Nigella sativa, Artemisia afra, Vatica rassak, etc., some (about 5000 out over 250,000) had either being developed (as drugs or vaccines) and commercialized (morphine, quinine, ephedrine, etc.) and many others in the final process of drug development [2] for confirmation of safety and efficacy (clinical trials) against avalanches of illnesses including but not limited to hypertension, asthma, malaria, pain, hemorrhage, psychosis, cancer, migraine, etc. [58, 59]. This makes herbal medicine to become a basic health service to people of diverse culture irrespective of their status (poor or rich) and location (remote or urban), and this acceptance (in use either singly or combination with orthodox medicine) has continued to escalate in recent times [60], thereby complementing or reducing the use of modern medicine (despite its availability) probably due to inadequacies in providing holistic healing where behavioral, emotional, and/or spiritual factors are the underlying causes of the diseases [61]. In view of the foregoing, continents such as Asia, Africa, and Latin America with countries such as China, India, etc., had embraced the adoption of the two systems (phytotherapy and modern medicine) for their national health care needs. Although issues of safety, efficacy, and quality of herbal medicines have undermined their integration into national health care policy in some countries, this had not prevented, in any big amount, the popular use by the citizenry. Interestingly too, because MPs are core sources for pharmaceutical manufacturing, they in addition to herbal medicines play an important role in pharmaceutical market (PM). In fact, in a reported submission, in 1995, they occupied 33.1% of the total PMs [55].
Globally, the high demand of use for herbal medicine for the treatment of illnesses is undisputable, and one begs to ask or wonder whether these products are actually of good quality, safe, and effective. There are assumptions and/or claims that despite general usage, few of them have been attributed to illnesses and fatalities as some of them have reported to cause liver and kidney damage [62, 63, 64]. In fact, this was also attributed to why they have not been globally accepted as par with conventional medicine within the national health care policy of many countries. The reason for this was not far-fetched. A lot of people believed that many herbal formulations lacked safety evaluations such as clinical trials as to why they cannot be placed in the same pedigree with modern medicine, but this was somehow disagreed by some researchers and/or policy makers who opined that clinical trials may be conducted only when large batches are intended. Additionally, in clinical practice, the failure to integrate phytotherapy as one of the courses or modules in medical school was seen in some quarters as the reason why it became somehow extremely difficult for medical practitioners to prescribe it, hence, the advantage convention medicine enjoys nowadays. Other problems include but not limited to storage conditions, inexplicit dosage, wrong labeling information, individualization of prescription with numerous active ingredients and other components, lack of information on the industrial use of MPs, little or no fact on the market benefit and business potentials, etc. [65]. It is worthy of mention that despite these limitations, phytotherapy had the potentials in salvaging numerous human diseases.
The use of phytotherapy in preventing or curing ill-effects faced by mankind was established by the great roles played by natural products obtained from MP. With continued efforts in research and utilization of HM on daily basis, it is envisioned that it would attain its rightful place and be embraced as efficient system worthy of acceptance within the global health care practice.
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