Gradation measurements of the sand.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1436",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Immunocytochemistry",title:"Applications of Immunocytochemistry",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Immunocytochemistry is classically defined as a procedure to detect antigens in cellular contexts using antibodies. 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She is currently an assistant professor in the Department\nof English Studies at Complutense University of Madrid, and a\nmember of the research groups Studies on Intermediality and\nIntercultural Mediation (SIIM-UCM) and Biopoetics, Cognitive\nSemiotics and Neuroesthetics (IUIBS-ULPGC). Her academic\ninterests revolve around the new cognitive studies in neuroesthetics, semiotics, and\nnarratology. In particular, her research is based on investigating the importance of\naffective neuroscience in the invisible and visible mechanisms of human creativity.\nFor information on her activities and publications, please visit https://www.ucm.es/\nsiim/marta-silvera-roig",institutionString:"Complutense University of Madrid",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"302731",title:"Dr.",name:"Asunción",middleName:null,surname:"López-Varela Azcárate",slug:"asuncion-lopez-varela-azcarate",fullName:"Asunción López-Varela Azcárate",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302731/images/system/302731.jpeg",biography:"Asunción López-Varela Azcárate is a Professor at Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Her research interests are comparative literature, cultural and education studies, and cognitive and intermedial semiotics. In 2007 she established the Research Program Studies on Intermediality and Intercultural Mediation (SIIM), which has received funding from various sources for several projects. She is an external evaluator in various research programs of the European Commission and other national agencies (the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) and the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), etc.). She is also an editor of several journals in her research areas. 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It is in utmost interest for the engineers and researchers to understand the structure and dynamics of the open channel flow. Numerical modeling and laboratory experiments are two tools used by the researchers to explain the sediment transport, resuspension, formation of channel bed, entrainment in the flow and the exchange of energy and momentum in an open channel flow. Turbulence affects the horizontal and vertical transfer of energy and momentum and causes disruption to nutrition/oxygen utilization rates of some benthic organisms. Turbulent mixing increases with the increment of current speed and enhances the transport of phytoplankton. There were lot of studies with the explanation of mechanism of the above-mentioned phenomena but there are still a lot of unanswered questions and dispute. As indicated by [2] that a significant modulation of turbulence can be the result of average bed particle volume fractions as low as 10−4. The other contribution factors to the modulation of turbulence are the shape, size and arrangement of bed particles. The research in open channel turbulent flow is much less comparing the vast amount of research done on turbulent boundary layer and pipe flow. Although there are significance in engineering application for the flow over rough surfaces but research study on turbulent flow over smooth surfaces [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] in both form of experimental and numerical since 1970 superseded the research on flow over rough surfaces. As research grows on the flows over rough surfaces but remains to be the Achilles heel of turbulent research [10]. There are basic differences between the flow in open channel and boundary layer due to the presence of the free surface and channel aspect ratio in an open channel flow and always debatable among researchers to use turbulent boundary layer data for modeling open channel flow [11]. Formation and enhancement of secondary currents occur due to the presence of the free surface and the side walls of the open channel. Free surface also dampens the vertical velocity fluctuations.
\nThe flow progression from a developing state to a fully developed condition was studied by [12]. They have observed that for the case of a section with fully developed flow and the aspect ratio b/d ≥ 3, the boundary layer extends to the surface of the water. At the channel centerline and near free surface, the velocity profile does not dip even for channel aspect ratio as low as b/d = 3. As discussed earlier about the differences between the flow in open channel and turbulent boundary due to the existence of free surface, [13] observed similarity on the velocity field due to the effect of roughness in a zero-pressure gradient turbulent boundary layer. The formation of secondary currents in an open channel flow is related to the aspect ratio (width/depth ratio of flow, b/d) and [7] noted the velocity-dip phenomenon for b/d < 5 where the measurement of maximum velocity on the centerline of a flume are seen to be below the free surface. In Ref. [14] indicated that the streamwise mean velocity profiles follow the well-known logarithmic law for the smooth surface, and with an appropriate shift, for the rough surface. In Ref. [15] observed that wall roughness led to higher turbulence levels in the outer region of the boundary layer. In Ref. [13] noted that roughness enhances the levels of the turbulence intensities over most of the flow.
\nParticle motion near a solid boundary causing sediment deposition and entrainment is influenced by the coherent structures near the wall as noted by [16] in their study of the particle behavior in the turbulent boundary layer. The generation of high-speed regions by vortices in the viscous layer sweeping along the wall causes particles pushing out of the way [16]. In Ref. [17] reported that for locations above the roughness sublayer, the distributions of the second-order turbulent stresses are similar to the smooth-wall distributions. In Ref. [13] noted that roughness enhances the levels of the Reynolds shear stress over most of the flow. The specific geometry of the roughness elements causes significant enhancement to the levels of the Reynolds stresses as stated by [18]. The enhancement to the levels of the Reynolds stresses does not contain near the bed only but progresses over most of the flow creating a stronger interaction between the regions of flow (inner and outer) than would be implied by the wall similarity hypothesis.
\nIn case of the three-dimensional flow (when b/d ≤ 5) [7] predicted a reversal of the sign of the Reynolds shear stress (\n
In Ref. [17] reported that the relative contributions of sweep and ejection events within the sublayer showed that sweep events provide the dominant contribution to the Reynolds shear stress within this region. In Ref. [13] noted that triple correlations and turbulence diffusion were strongly modified by the surface roughness. In Ref. [18] noted that surface roughness significantly enhances the levels of the turbulence kinetic energy, and turbulence diffusion in a way that depends on the specific geometry of the roughness elements. In Ref. [8] showed that the wall condition affects the variation of the triple products and the effects are not restrained to the near wall but extended to the full depth of flow. Ejection events shown clear dominance over other events for the full depth of the flow as noted by [8] and they also noted significant variation of ejection events with respect to bed roughness. To compare the effect of rough wall with smooth wall on the magnitude of the extreme events, they did the quadrant decomposition of the instantaneous velocity and found much higher magnitude for the flow over rough bed compared to the smooth wall flow. This is an indication of the effect of roughness propagating into the full depth of flow and not constraint to the region closer to the bed. Quadrant analysis is also done by [11] to compare the turbulent structures of open channel flow with the same in boundary layer flow. They found that the turbulent structures are very similar if all turbulent events are included in the analysis but found very significant difference if only the extreme events are used in analysis.
\nA 9-m long open channel flume at the University of Windsor with a rectangular cross-section dimension of 1100 mm × 920 mm is used to perform the experiment. Figure 1 shows the schematic of the experimental setup with open channel flume. A squire cross-section dimension of 1.2 m and depth of 3 m header tank is placed at the beginning of the flume. The depth of flow for this series of experiments are kept to 100 mm, eventually achieving the aspect ratio (width/depth ratio of flow, b/d) of 11. Choice of this aspect ratio is based on the expectation that the generation of the secondary current will be minimum and the flow can be a representation of two-dimensional flow [7]. Two centrifugal pumps of 15 horsepower capacity each are used to recirculate the water. Tempered transparent glass materials are used to build the sidewalls and bottom of the flume and will enable the LDA (laser Doppler anemometer) to measure the instantaneous velocity. There were many previous studies [20, 21] confirmed the quality of the flow of this permanent facility. The flume has an adjustable slope mechanism at the bottom but was kept horizontal for this series of test. 720 and 450 GPM are the two constant flow rate used for the tests.
\nSchematic of the open channel flume and experimental setup.
One hydraulically smooth and three characteristically different rough surfaces are used in this study to capture and understand the open channel flow characteristics. Figure 2a shows the hydraulically smooth bed condition made up by a polished aluminum plate spanning full width of the flume. Sand composed of uniform particles with gradation characteristics as shown in Table 1 is used to create the three different rough surfaces. Four different types of bed surface conditions were used in this study. Figure 2b shows the ‘distributed roughness’ rough surface, Figure 2c shows the ‘continuous roughness’ rough surface and Figure 3 shows the ‘natural sand bed’ rough surface. A 18 mm wide sand strip is glued on top of the polished aluminum plate spanning full width of the flume alternate by a 19 mm wide smooth strip to generate the distributed roughness. The same sand grain is glued on top of the entire polished aluminum plate spanning full width of the flume to generate the continuous roughness. Natural sand bed condition is consist of 3.7 m long 200 mm thick uniform sand of the same characteristics spanning full width of the flume. Special care had been taken in maintaining the flow condition in such a way that there were no sand movement in any period of time of running the test. As a precautionary measure of accidental sand movement and sand entering into the pipe/pump system causing damage to the pump, a sand trap is constructed at the end of the flume.
\nPlan view of different fixed bed condition. (a) Hydraulically smooth surface, (b) Distributed roughness surface, (c) Continuous roughness surface.
d50 (mm) d95/d5 d95/d50 d84/d50 \n\n \n\n | \n2.46 1.91 1.34 1.26 1.24 1.00 | \n
Gradation measurements of the sand.
Section of natural sand bed.
Two different flow Reynolds numbers (Re = Uavgd/ν ≈ 47,500 and 31,000) correspondence to two different Froude numbers (Fr = Uavg/(gd)0.5 ≈ 0.40 and 0.24) respectively are used for each four bed surface conditions. The parameters used for Reynolds and Froude number calculations are the average streamwise velocity (Uavg), nominal depth of flow (d), kinematic viscosity of the fluid (ν) and gravitational acceleration g. The flow conditions are maintained to be subcritical (i.e., Froude numbers less than unity) and choose the flow Reynolds numbers accordingly. The variation of water surface elevation were measured for the test section and there are less than 1 mm variation of surface water for a streamwise distance of 600 mm proves that pressure gradient is negligible. In order of conditioning the flow, two sets of flow straighteners are placed at the beginning and end of the flume. A turbulent boundary layer presence is ensured by tripping the flow using a 3 mm diameter rod at the upstream of the measurement section as shown in Figure 1. Shape factor of the boundary layer (the ratio of displacement to momentum thickness) for the flow over smooth bed is found for this case as 1.3 and flow can be considered as fully developed turbulent flow [22]. The instantaneous velocity measurement is carried out on top of the 60th sand strip for the flow over distributed roughness bed. To minimize the effect of secondary current, measurements for all flow test conditions are carried out along the flume centerline. Preliminary tests for all bed conditions are carried out to confirm that the flow condition is fully developed. Table 2 presents the summary of various test conditions.
\nTest | \nBed condition | \nd (mm) | \nRe | \nFr | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nSmooth bed | \n∼100 | \n∼47,500 | \n∼0.40 | \n
2 | \n∼100 | \n∼31,000 | \n∼0.24 | \n|
3 | \nDistributed roughness | \n∼100 | \n∼47,500 | \n∼0.40 | \n
4 | \n∼100 | \n∼31,000 | \n∼0.24 | \n|
5 | \nContinuous roughness | \n∼100 | \n∼47,500 | \n∼0.40 | \n
6 | \n∼100 | \n∼31,000 | \n∼0.24 | \n|
7 | \nNatural sand bed | \n∼100 | \n∼47,500 | \n∼0.40 | \n
8 | \n∼100 | \n∼31,000 | \n∼0.24 | \n
Summary of test conditions to study the effect of roughness.
Velocity measurements were done using A commercial two-component fiber-optic LDA system (Dantec Inc.) which is powered by a 300-mW Argon-Ion laser. Details of this is avoided for brevity because using the same system in several previous studies [20, 23, 9]. A Bragg cell and a focusing lens of 500 mm with beam spacing of 38 mm are the optical elements of the LDA system. A large amount of data collected (10,000 validated samples at each and every measurement location) to minimize the uncertainty of the data collection. The data rate varied widely based on the location of the measurement and ranges from 4 Hz to 65 Hz. The water used in the test is seeded with hollow spheres with density of 1.13 g/cc with mean particle size of 12 microns after filtering the water for many days and it is done prior to the start of the measurement. The seeded particles can stuck on the flume side wall and can cause extraneous scattered light distributed throughout the illuminating beams. The glass side wall around the measurement region were cleaned before each set of measurement to avoid the erroneous data collection due to the scattered light. Due to the measurement location at the flume centerline, two scattered beams of the present two-component LDA system measuring the vertical component of the velocity cannot reach at very close to the bed or very close to the free surface but measurement of streamwise one-component velocity were carried out for full depth of flow. Following the footsteps of other researchers [16, 6] who have successfully tilted the probe by 3o and 2o, respectively, in their pursuit to collect two dimensional velocity data closer to the wall, the LDA probe for the present tests was tilted 2o towards the bottom wall to capture data for two-component velocity measurements at near proximity of the wall.
\nThe purpose of the present study is to explain how the roughness and Reynolds number affect flow characteristics in an open channel flow (OCF). Tests were conducted with four different types of bed surface conditions (an impermeable smooth bed, impermeable rough bed, permeable sand bed and an impermeable bed with distributed roughness) and at two different Reynolds number (Re = 47,500 and 31,000) for each and every bed surface. Instantaneous velocity components are used to analyze the streamwise mean velocity, turbulence intensity in both streamwise and vertical direction, Reynolds shear stress including shear stress correlation and higher-order moments including vertical flux of the turbulent kinetic energy. Quadrant decomposition was also used to extract the magnitude of the Reynolds shear stress from the turbulent bursting events.
\nFigure 4 shows the variation of streamwise component of the velocity with respect to the depth of flow in outer coordinates. The mean velocity (U) is non-dimensionalize by the maximum velocity (Ue) and the wall normal distance (y) is non-dimensionalize by the maximum flow depth (d). As one can see in the inset in Figure 4 that the velocity profiles of every flow conditions show a slight dip in the outer region where the location of maximum velocity happened to be occurred below the free surface with dU/d∂y is negative in the location close to the free surface. Velocity dip is different with different rough bed conditions with flow over natural sand bed showing the biggest dip followed by distributed roughness and continuous roughness bed. However, the flow over smooth surface shows the dip higher than the flow over distributed roughness and continuous roughness bed. Effect of bed roughness is very evident at the location close to the bed with velocity profile for the flow over smooth wall is fuller compared the flow over different rough beds. The same phenomenon was also observed by [15] and blamed it to the increment of surface drug due to the effect bed roughness. Comparing the effect of various type of bed roughness on the streamwise velocity component as one can see from Figure 4a that distributed roughness profile has the biggest deviation from smooth bed profile with continuous roughness and natural sand bed shows identical deviation. The variation of streamwise component of the velocity with respect to the depth of flow in outer coordinates with respect to the lower Reynolds number is shown in Figure 4b. The velocity profile characteristics are very similar for the lower Reynolds number flow compared to the flow for higher Reynolds number with the exception of flow over natural sand bed, which shows much higher deviation than flow over the bed of continuous roughness. One can correlate this with the interchange of fluid and momentum across the boundary, which is permeable like the flow over the bed of natural sand. The subsequent momentum/energy loss due to the effect of infiltration and corresponding differences on mean velocity reduces with the increment of Reynolds stress.
\nStreamwise mean velocity profile for flow over different bed condition.
Figure 5 shows the variation of streamwise component of the velocity with respect to the depth of flow in inner coordinates. The Clauser method was used to calculate the friction velocity for flow over smooth and rough bed conditions by fitting the respective mean velocity profiles of different bed conditions with the classical log law, U+ = κ−1 ln y+ + B – ΔU+. Log-law constants used here are U+ = U/Uτ, y+ = yUτ/ν, κ = 0.41, B = 5 and the downward shift of the velocity profile represented by the roughness function ΔU+ with ΔU+ = 0 for the flow over the bed which is smooth. The present test data over the smooth bed has better agreement with the standard log-law represented by the solid line. For the flow over rough beds there are downward shift of the profile compared to the smooth bed which is fully expected and clearly visible. The effect of roughness can be measured by the downward shift of the profile and one can note from Figure 5a that the distributed roughness shows the highest deviation from the smooth bed with flow over natural sand bed shows the least deviation and flow over continuous roughness fall in-between. The variation of streamwise component of the velocity with respect to the depth of flow in inner coordinates with respect to the lower Reynolds number is shown in Figure 5b. The velocity profile characteristics are very similar for the lower Reynolds number flow compared to the flow for higher Reynolds number.
\nMean velocity profile in inner coordinates for flow over different bed condition.
The magnitude of friction coefficient Cf (Cf = 2(Uτ/Ue)2) is found to be dependent on the type of bed roughness with distributed roughness has the highest value followed by the flow over the continuous roughness bed surface and the sand bed. The magnitude of friction coefficient is also found to be dependent on the Reynolds number with the reduction of the magnitude of friction coefficient with the increment of the Reynolds number. The magnitude of Cf is seen to be smaller for the flow over a permeable bed (natural sand bed) compared to the flow over an impermeable bed (distributed and continuous roughness bed). One can correlate this with the development of finite slip velocity across the permeable boundary layer causing the reduction of the magnitude of friction compared to the flow over impermeable layer. In contrary, [24] discovered that for the boundaries with similar rugosity the magnitude of friction resistance is seen to be higher for the flow over a permeable bed compared to the flow over an impermeable bed. Dissipation of energy happened in the transition zone of the porous permeable medium with added loss of energy due to interchange of fluid and momentum across the permeable boundary translated back into the main flow. They commented that the net effect of combined energy loss might be responsible for the higher resistance.
\nThe distribution of the streamwise component of the turbulence intensity for flow over both smooth and rough beds is shown in Figure 6. Computed quantities can bring additional uncertainties in relation to the scaling parameters and to avoid any additional uncertainties, the streamwise turbulent intensity (u) is non-dimensionalize by the maximum velocity (Ue) and the wall normal distance (y) is non-dimensionalize by the maximum flow depth (d). Magnitude of the streamwise component of the turbulence intensity reaches to the maximum at the location very close to the bed irrespective of the bed condition as one can note from Figure 6a. The location of maximum streamwise component of the turbulence intensity is different with different bed conditions. The location of the peak for the flow over smooth bed is very close to the bed at y/d ∼ 0, whereas the peak for the flow over rough surfaces varies with the different type of roughness. As one can note from Figure 6a that the distributed roughness shows the highest peak compared to the flow over continuous roughness and flow over natural sand bed. The location of the peak for the flow over rough beds are also varied depending on the type of roughness. The location of the peak for the flow over distributed roughness is at around y/d ∼ 0.08 whereas the location of the peak for the flow over continuous roughness and natural sand bed have occurred at the same location of y/d ∼ 0.04 which is a distance closer to the bed compared to the flow over distributed roughness. Immediately after reaching the peak the streamwise component of the turbulence intensity for flow over both smooth and rough beds reduces but the trend of reduction is very different for the flow over smooth bed compared to the flow over rough surfaces. There is a sharp drop of the magnitude of the streamwise component of the turbulence intensity for the smooth bed before a more constant drop towards the free surface and reaching a near constant value at y/d ∼ 0.5. For the flow over rough surfaces the drop of the value towards the free surface after the peak is linear and attains a near constant value but the location and magnitude of constant value is different for different rough surfaces (distributed roughness does not attain constant value but variation near free surface is minimal). The location of a near constant value for the flow over continuous roughness and natural sand bed is at the same level of y/d ∼ 0.62. The streamwise component of the turbulence intensity near the free surface also shows the effect of roughness with natural sand bed shows the highest intensity followed by the distributed roughness with flow over continuous roughness is the lowest. The effect of roughness on the distribution of the streamwise component of the turbulence intensity is very evident throughout the flow depth with distributed roughness shows the highest deviation followed by natural sand bed and continuous roughness compared to the smooth surfaces with the exception at the location very close to the bed. Although the sand grain used to create all three bed roughness is of the same gradation characteristics but the geometry of the roughness formation is different causing the differences in the distribution of the streamwise component of the turbulence intensity.
\nStreamwise turbulence intensity for flow over different bed condition.
The variation of streamwise component of the turbulence intensity with respect to the depth of flow for the flow conditions to the lower Reynolds number is shown in Figure 6b. The streamwise component of the turbulence intensity profile characteristics are very similar for the lower Reynolds number flow compared to the flow for higher Reynolds number with the exception of flow over distributed roughness bed, which shows much higher deviation than flow over the smooth bed at the lower Reynolds number. In lower Reynolds number flow, the differences in streamwise component of the turbulence intensity for continuous roughness and natural sand bed is negligible.
\nThe distribution of the vertical component of the turbulence intensity for flow over both smooth and rough beds is shown in Figure 7. Significant effect of roughness can be seen for lower two third of the depth of flow with the effect tapered off at the location closer to the surface. Comparing the effect of various type of bed roughness on the vertical component of the turbulence intensity as one can see from Figure 7a that distributed roughness profile has the biggest deviation from smooth bed profile with continuous roughness and natural sand bed shows identical deviation for most the depth of the flow. For the location closer to the surface, the flow over natural sand bed shows higher magnitude of the vertical component of the turbulence intensity compared to any other surfaces. The variation of the vertical component of the turbulence intensity for flow with respect to the lower Reynolds number is shown in Figure 7b. The profile characteristics are very similar for the lower Reynolds number flow compared to the flow for higher Reynolds number with the exception that there are almost no effect of roughness on the vertical component of the turbulence intensity for the location closer to the surface.
\nVertical turbulence intensity for flow over different bed condition.
The distribution of the Reynolds shear stress in outer variables for flow over both smooth and rough beds is shown in Figure 8. Magnitude of the Reynolds shear stress reaches to the maximum at the location very close to the bed (y/d < 0.2) irrespective of the bed condition as one can note from Figure 8a. Effect of roughness on the Reynolds shear stress is very evident for lower two third of the depth of flow with the effect tapered off at the location closer to the surface. The peak for the flow over rough surfaces varies with the different type of roughness. As one can note from Figure 8a that the flow over natural sand bed shows the highest peak compared to the similar peak for flow over continuous roughness and flow over distributed roughness. Immediately after reaching the peak the Reynolds shear stress for flow over both smooth and rough beds reduces but the trend of reduction is very different for the flow over smooth bed compared to the flow over rough surfaces. There is a sharp drop of the magnitude of the Reynolds shear stress for the rough beds compared to the smooth bed before a more constant drop towards the free surface. For the region further away from the near bed (y/d > 0.2), flow over distributed roughness shows generation of higher Reynolds shear compared to the other two rough beds where the generation of the Reynolds shear stress is very similar. As one can see in Figure 8a that the Reynolds shear stress falls below zero and becomes negative in the location close to the free surface for flow over both smooth and rough beds. The location of zero Reynolds shear stress is different for flow over smooth bed (at y/d ∼ 0.5) compared to the flow over rough beds (y/d ∼ 0.7). The location of negative Reynolds shear stress for different bed conditions are on the same location where dU/d∂y is negative as one can see in Figure 4. Few other researchers [25, 6, 26] found the visible effect of roughness on Reynolds shear stress for the depth of flow y/d ≈ 0.2–0.3 but the distinct effect of roughness for the present study can be seen penetrating deep into the flow y/d ≈ 0.7. In case of the study by [3] where the researcher did not find any effect of roughness (2 mm sand and 9 mm pebbles) on Reynolds shear stress compared to the flow over smooth bed. The sample size used for the tests by [3] were rather very small rendered to the unexpected conclusion. The variation of the Reynolds shear stress for flow with respect to the lower Reynolds number is shown in Figure 8b. The profile characteristics are very similar for the lower Reynolds number flow compared to the flow for higher Reynolds number with one of the exception is that the flow over continuous roughness and flow over distributed roughness shows the similar highest peak compared to the flow over natural sand bed. Another exception can be seen as much higher generation of Reynolds shear stress for the flow over distributed roughness for the region further away from the near bed (y/d > 0.2) followed by flow over natural sand bed and continuous roughness.
\nReynolds shear stress distribution for flow over different bed condition.
The distribution of the correlation coefficient of the Reynolds shear stress \n
Distribution of correlation coefficient for flow over different bed condition.
Velocity triple products \n
Distribution of different velocity triple products for flow over different bed condition at Re ∼ 47,500.
For the flow condition over the smooth bed and very close to the bed, the magnitude of \n
The magnitude of various velocity triple product reaches near-zero at the location very close to the free surface irrespective of the bed surface conditions as one can note from Figure 10 which is a clear indication of significant reduction of turbulent activity at near free surface. There is another significant finding one can note from the same figure that the type of bed roughness does not affect the location of maximum/minimum of various velocity triple product although there is clear effect of roughness on the magnitude of various velocity triple products. Flow over distributed roughness shows higher magnitude of various velocity triple product comparing with flow over other rough beds followed by very similar magnitude for flow over continuous roughness and natural sand bed. Turbulent activity at the near bed (y/d < 0.1) location also seen to be dependent on bed surface conditions. Flow over smooth bed shows the ejection type activity near bed location whereas the flow over rough beds show the sweep type activity at the location close to the bed. Interpolating this scenario to the real life stream or river flow, one can clearly note the influence of strong ejection/sweeping motion of the fluid parcels to the resuspension/transport of the bed particles. Ejection type events are very evident throughout the depth of flow with the exception of the location very close to the bed with flow over smooth bed only where one can observe some sweeping type of event. Bed surface conditions clearly affect the strength of the ejection like events with distributed roughness again shows the highest strength compared to similar strength from continuous bed roughness and natural sand bed. Figure 11 shows the variation of same velocity triple products for the flow with respect to lower Reynolds number. The profile characteristics of all velocity triple products are very similar for flow with respect to lower Reynolds number compared to the flow with respect to higher Reynolds number. The differences in magnitude of various velocity triple products are seen to be reduced in the case of lower Reynolds number flow comparing the flow over smooth bed to the flow over continuous bed roughness and natural sand bed. The value of \n
Distribution of different velocity triple products for flow over different bed condition at Re ∼ 31,000.
The distribution of the vertical flux of the turbulent kinetic energy described as Fkv and which is normally measured as \n
Distribution of vertical flux of the turbulent kinetic energy for flow over different bed condition.
In Ref. [6] noted that the location of the outer (larger) peak of Fkv is closer to the wall (albeit slightly) as the roughness effect increases. The maximum value of Fkv is also noted in Ref. [8] where they found it occurred near the bed for the flow over rib roughness. As one can note from Figure 12 that there are obvious effect of roughness on the variation of the vertical flux of the turbulent kinetic energy with the magnitude of the peak is very different for different type of rough surfaces but the location of the peak for all rough beds are more or less at around y/d ∼ 0.3. The differences in magnitude of the vertical flux of the turbulent kinetic energy when comparing between smooth bed flow and flow over rough beds is a clear indication that the strength of the vertical flux of the turbulent kinetic energy is very different for flow over different surfaces. The slope of the variation of Fkv is different between smooth and rough beds representing difference in loss or gain of turbulent kinetic energy resulted from turbulent diffusion. Flow over distributed roughness shows the highest deviation compared to the flow over smooth bed. The vertical flux of the turbulent kinetic energy approaches near zero value after a peak value around y/d = 1 at the location near free surface for all bed conditions. Location of reaching zero value for the vertical flux of the turbulent kinetic energy also varies with the bed surface condition with flow over different rough beds show zero values closer to the free surface compared to the flow over smooth bed. Figure 12b shows the variation of the vertical flux of the turbulent kinetic energy for the flow with respect to lower Reynolds number. The profile characteristics are very similar for flow with respect to lower Reynolds number compared to the flow with respect to higher Reynolds number. The differences in magnitude of Fkv is seen to be reduced in the case of lower Reynolds number flow comparing the flow over smooth bed to the flow over continuous bed roughness and natural sand bed.
\nIn order to extract the magnitude of the Reynolds shear stress related to turbulent bursting events researchers often use quadrant decomposition as a convenient tool. A hydro dynamically unstable low-speed fluid particle lifted up from the surface because of the turbulent flow over a fixed bed can be swept away by comparatively high-speed fluid from the outer layer moving towards the bed surface. All different type of turbulent flow events that eventually contributed in the four different very important turbulent characteristics closer to the wall can be described by coupling streamwise and vertical fluctuating velocity components u and v based on their sign. Four different quadrants formed by using u and v with proper sign are related to four very important turbulent bursting events. Quadrant 1 represents the bursting effect called as outward interaction where the value of u is >0 and the value of v is >0. Quadrant 2 represents the bursting effect called as ejection where the value of u is <0 and the value of v is >0. Quadrant 3 represents the bursting effect called as inward interaction where the value of u is <0 and the value of v is <0. Quadrant 4 represents the bursting effect called as sweep where the value of u is >0 and the value of v is <0.
\nThe contributions from Q2 and Q4 events for different threshold values to the Reynolds shear stress are shown in Figure 13 with higher Reynolds number (Re = 47,500). For the flow over rough walls and inclusive of all turbulent events, it was noted higher magnitude of Q2 and Q4 contributions as shown in Figure 13a and b compared to the flow over smooth wall for H = 0. The effect of roughness is not limited to the near-bed region but well progressed into the outer layer (y/d ≈ 0.7). A local peak can be seen at y/d = 0.1–0.2 for the Q2 and Q4 contributions as one progresses from the bed towards the free surface for the flow over all rough beds. The peak magnitudes of both of the events eventually reduced to a near-zero constant value as flow moves towards the free surface. The location where the contributions from Q2 and Q4 events attains a near-zero constant value is not the same but varied with bed conditions. For the smooth bed condition the distance of the attainment of near-zero constant value is 0.5d from the bed, for the continuous roughness and sand bed condition the distance is 0.6d from the bed and for the distributed roughness the distance is 0.75d from the bed. Different rough bed conditions show different deviation from smooth wall with distributed roughness showing the highest deviation. The maximum deviation comparing the flow over smooth wall with the flow over rough bed occurs at a depth of around 0.2d from the bed with distributed roughness shows the highest deviation and continuous roughness and sand bed show almost equal deviation. In Ref. [31] found significantly higher magnitude of Q2 and Q4 events in the region very close to the bed but found very similar distribution for the flow over smooth bed and rough beds for the outer layer.
\nContribution of different quadrant events to the Reynolds shear stress for flow over different bed condition with higher Reynolds number.
In order to investigate the contribution of the extreme turbulent events quadrant analysis at different threshold levels (H = 2–5) was also carried out. The respective approach was taken to take care of the contribution of the more energetic eddies and filtering out the small random turbulent fluctuations. The contributions from the extreme events whose amplitude exceeds the threshold value of H = 2 are shown in Figure 13c and d. Although due to the change of threshold value from 0 to 2, the number of events occurring corresponding to Q2 and Q4 reduce quite sharply but the events corresponding to H = 2 produced very large instantaneous Reynolds shear stress \n
Contribution of different quadrant events to the Reynolds shear stress for flow over different bed condition with lower Reynolds number.
Figure 15 shows the ratio to the Reynolds shear stress contributions of Q2/Q4 for H = 0–5 and for two different Reynolds numbers. The Q2/Q4 ratio is near unity at the location very close to the bed indicating identical strength of sweep and ejection event as one can note from Figure 15. The Q2/Q4 ratio increases from near unity to maximum at around mid-depth of the flow (y/d ∼ 0.5) as one progress from the bed and towards the free surface which is an indication of relatively stronger ejection events compared to the sweep events. The corresponding strength of the ejection events increases in comparison to sweep events with respect to increasing H and as one can note from the Figure 15 that there is a 100 over fold increase for the threshold value of H = 5 compared to H = 0. As one can also note from Figure 15 that there is little dependency on bed conditions of smooth and rough for H = 0 on the ratio of Reynolds shear stress in Q2 and Q4 but for the same value of H = 0 there are some effect of roughness for y > 0.5d.
\nRatio of different quadrant events to the Reynolds shear stress for flow over different bed condition.
Figure 16 shows the ratio to the number of events occurring/contributing in Q2 and Q4 for H = 0–3 and for two different Reynolds numbers. The ratio to the number of events occurring/contributing to Q2 and Q4 shows different trends for the threshold value of H = 0 (Figure 16a and b) compared to the threshold value of H = 2–3 (Figure 16c–h). This is very unlike to the ratio of the Reynolds shear stress contributions of Q2/Q4 as shown in Figure 15. The NQ2/NQ4 ratio is near unity at the location very close to the bed indicating almost equal occurrence of ejection and sweep events as one can note from Figure 16a and b. The NQ2/NQ4 ratio decreases from near unity to minimum at around mid-depth of the flow (y/d ∼ 0.5) as one progress from the bed and towards the free surface which is an indication of relatively reduced ejection events compared to the sweep events. Moving farther away from bed (y > 0.5d) and towards the free surface, the ratio of NQ2/NQ4 ratio is keep on increasing again and reaches to near unity indicating almost equal occurrence of ejection and sweep events. Figure 16c–h show a trend different from Figure 16a and b. As one progress from the bed towards the free surface, there is an increment of 30 over fold for the value of NQ2/NQ4 at around y ∼ 0.5d, indicating substantial increase of ejection events. As one can also note from Figure 16 that there is little dependency on bed conditions of smooth and rough for H = 0 on the ratio of number of events in Q2 and Q4.
\nRatio of number of different quadrant events for flow over different bed condition.
The purpose of the present study [1] is to explain how the roughness and Reynolds number affect flow characteristics in an open channel flow (OCF). Tests were conducted with four different types of bed surface conditions and at two different Reynolds number for each and every bed surface. Instantaneous velocity components are used to analyze the streamwise mean velocity, turbulence intensity in both streamwise and vertical direction, Reynolds shear stress including shear stress correlation and higher-order moments including vertical flux of the turbulent kinetic energy. In order to extract the magnitude of the Reynolds shear stress related to turbulent bursting events quadrant decomposition was used. The main findings are summarized as follows:
Surface drug increases due to surface roughness making the mean streamwise velocity profile to be more fuller for the smooth bed compared to the rough beds. It is very much evident throughout the depth of the flow that the mean velocity profile is very much affected by the different type of bed roughness. Comparing the effect of various type of bed roughness on the streamwise velocity component and flow with higher flow Reynolds number, distributed roughness profile has the biggest deviation from smooth bed profile with continuous roughness and natural sand bed shows identical deviation. For the flow with lower flow Reynolds number, it was found that the flow over natural sand bed shows much higher deviation than flow over the bed of continuous roughness.
The magnitude of friction coefficient is found to be dependent on the type of bed roughness with distributed roughness has the highest value followed by the flow over the continuous roughness bed surface and the sand bed. The magnitude of friction coefficient is also found to be dependent on the Reynolds number with the reduction of the magnitude of friction coefficient with the increment of the Reynolds number. The magnitude of friction coefficient is seen to be smaller for the flow over a permeable bed (natural sand bed) compared to the flow over an impermeable bed (distributed and continuous roughness bed).
The effect of roughness on the distribution of the streamwise component of the turbulence intensity is very evident throughout the flow depth with distributed roughness shows the highest deviation followed by natural sand bed and continuous roughness compared to the smooth surfaces with the exception at the location very close to the bed. Comparing the effect of various type of bed conditions on the vertical component of the turbulence intensity, it was seen that distributed roughness profile has the biggest deviation from smooth bed profile with continuous roughness and natural sand bed shows identical deviation for most the depth of the flow. At locations very close to the bed and due to the introduction of roughness, streamwise turbulence intensity reduces but vertical turbulence intensity increases. Although the sand grain used to create all three bed roughness is of the same gradation characteristics but the specific geometry of the roughness formation is different causing the differences in the formation of turbulence structure.
Wall similarity hypothesis is disputed by the present experimental results where the researchers suggested that in the location of outside the roughness layer, the turbulent mixing properties should be essentially the same for the flow over smooth and rough walls which was initially proposed by [33] and generalized by [34].
Effect of roughness on the Reynolds shear stress is very evident at the location close to the bed generating much higher Reynolds shear stress than the smooth bed. The distinct effect of roughness for the present study can be seen penetrating deep into the flow and distinctly visible at the location as high as y/d ≈ 0.7.
The trend of the changes of the value of R (correlation coefficient) in the near-bed and outer layer indicating the changes of flow structure characteristics between the near-bed region and outer region. The present results clearly dispute the observation of [5] that the distribution of R is independent of the properties of the wall roughness, mean flow, and called the distribution of R is universal.
The magnitude of various velocity triple products changes in the range of 200–300% when comparing the flow over the smooth bed to the flow over rough beds. This is a clear indication that the transportation of turbulent kinetic energy and Reynolds shear stress is significantly affected by the bed roughness.
Turbulent activity at the near bed location also seen to be dependent on bed surface conditions. Flow over smooth bed shows the ejection type activity near bed location whereas the flow over rough beds show the sweep type activity at the location close to the bed. Interpolating this scenario to the real life stream or river flow, one can clearly note the influence of strong ejection/sweeping motion of the fluid parcels to the resuspension/transport of the bed particles.
Ejection type events are very evident throughout the depth of flow with the exception of the location very close to the bed with flow over smooth bed only where one can observe some sweeping type of event. Bed surface conditions clearly affect the strength of the ejection like events with distributed roughness again shows the highest strength compared to other form of bed roughness.
Effect of roughness is clearly visible well beyond the near-bed region and deep into the outer layer (y ≈ 0.7d) from the analysis/result of turbulent bursting events (through quadrant decomposition). For the flow over rough walls and inclusive of all turbulent events, it was noted higher magnitude of Q2 and Q4 contributions compared to the flow over smooth wall for H = 0.
Analysis were also carried out to investigate the contribution of the extreme turbulent events at different threshold levels (H = 2–5). The region affected over the depth of flow for active sweep (Q4) events reduces with respect to the increase of the threshold level of H but the affected region goes deep into the outer layer (y ∼ 0.7d) for the active ejection (Q2) events even for the value of H as high as 5. Although due to the change of threshold value from 0 to 2, the number of events occurring corresponding to Q2 and Q4 reduce quite sharply but the events corresponding to H = 2 produced very large instantaneous Reynolds shear stress \n
The ratio to the Reynolds shear stress contributions of Q2/Q4 is near unity at the location very close to the bed and location close to the free surface indicating identical strength of sweep and ejection. With the exception of near bed and near free surface, relatively stronger ejection events compared to the sweep events can be seen for throughout the flow depth and the strength of the ejection events increases many fold with increase of the threshold value of H.
The ratio to the number of events occurring/contributing in Q2 and Q4 is near unity at the location very close to the bed and location close to the free surface indicating almost equal occurrence of sweep and ejection events. With the exception of near bed and near free surface, relatively reduced ejection events compared to the sweep events can be seen for throughout the flow depth for H = 0 but shows substantial increase of ejection events compared to the sweep events for H > 0.
The acts of eating and choosing the diet transcend the demand of nutrients. Though eating is a need for the living body maintenance, it is, fundamentally, a social fact that prescribes what must be eaten, and when, how much, and how.
Eating habits are cultural goods that may identify a nation, a region, a group. What ones eat translate a feeling of cultural belonging as well as communion.
In complex and fragmented societies, the identity may be related to a lifestyle, not necessarily linked to the relations of production, but related to the belonging in groups that share some elective affinity that, through consumption, communicate the corresponding worldview to others.
This chapter aims to consider about how the construction of identity based on the denial of meat consumption and on the adoption of other types of food that end up translating a lifestyle, shortly understood as a distinctive one, shared by others, and a guide to a meaningful behavior. I am specifically talking about vegetarian and vegan people and the contradictions they find in their everyday lives.
As Douglas and Isherwood [1] sustain, goods give marking services, intrusion, exclusion, and the consumption classifies and organizes the world, as part of the cultural system. According to the authors, including consumer goods, even the trivial ones, serve to this meaning, like dance and poetry. Likewise, Featherstone affirms that the consumption is fundamentally a producer of signs, despite consumer goods values of use [2].
From this perspective, I intend to comprehend the adoption of a vegetarian diet and the everyday tensions that vegetarian people, vegans and critics of this diet, despite the internal conflicts that they live at least during their basic meals on a daily basis. The thesis sustained is that this tension does not refer to only consumption divergences, but to what consumption represents: it is about the organization and sense of the world in conflict.
The motivations of the individuals on their decisions of consumption can also be superposed. In general, studies on consumption classify three tendencies that superpose historically and we can notice in empirical studies: (1) consumption by distinction – they used to believe that consumption worked as social distinction among social classes. Lower classes used to imitate, possibly because of envy, the consumption among higher classes that used to modify their consumption so the distance remained visible. (2) hedonistic consumption – a kind of consumption in which the distinction matters less or barely nothing, since the value is the individual pleasure with no need of ostentation. (3) consumption ethically motivated – ethics above pleasure and health and, therefore, above the individual.
In this chapter, we are analyzing the motivations, conflicts and contradictions among those who adopt a vegetarian diet or a strict vegetarian one, also known as vegan. To achieve this goal, we have interviewed ten people that are self-declared vegetarian and vegan based on an open script. We have conducted most of the interviews in Cuiabá, state capital of Mato Grosso, Brazil, as well as other cities in Brazil. We have incorporated these spontaneous testimonies and informal talks to this research. We have kept the anonymity of all participants. In order to complement the analysis, we have also followed virtual group discussions. The results vouch for the existence of sociability conflicts in general, with particular reference to the family, but also reveal internal conflicts in which the individuals question their own practice, the reach of their option when it comes to animal protection or the environment and, above all, the difficulty in obtaining coherence between the theory and the practice.
The abstinence of meat consumption and animal source foods, may it be total- or partially, is the element of some religious practices as Buddhism and Seventh-day Adventist Church [3]; there is rejection of pork by Jews and Muslims and of beef in India [4]. Others opt for a secular vegetarianism, free of religious motivations [5].
The contemporary society provided the creation, diffusion, and resignification of restrictive diets that appear regardless of a religious belonging stricto sensu even considering a cultural heritage that leans to the habit of eating or rejecting meat or vegetables. However, it is likely to be connected to a more wide understanding of spirituality and reconnection to nature, as seen in some new era speeches, or might as well be or not be linked to groups whose coefficient of belonging is, sometimes, subtle, as in virtual communities.
According to Whorton [5], vegetarianism has grown because of moral and social tendencies based on appropriated precepts on the mystic from the Orient, and has created a relation between the neglecting of meat consumption and the demand for peace, with a concern related to environmental crisis and the demand of body health.
As stated by Beardsworth and Keil [4], vegetarianism is sustained by the interrelation of beliefs, attitudes, and nutritional practices, and the vegetarians1 are converted after close and critical examination of their diets until then. Therefore, their practices are the results of processes of reflection and opposition to what they have culturally received. In a similar way to the ones presented by Beardsworth and Keil, with the adoption of a specific diet, it becomes possible to see that the vegetarian diet is more related to individual experiences and to wishes that have been built more reflexively from information than acceptance, either authoritative or not, from shared group codes.
Claiming to be vegetarian has a meaning that, under the risk of misinterpretation, cannot be aprioristically considered. Its meaning is given and renewed on a daily basis. Generally, vegetarianism is a staple diet that abolishes meat or the one that consists of an exclusive vegetable-based diet. Vegetarian practices are more plural and do not negatively merge in a way to avoid the consumption of specific products, but in the construction of consumption habits of other products, in the discovery and invention of new recipes that can even be inspired or imitate recipes that take meat on their preparation.
Beardsworth and Keil [4] classify six types of vegetarian diets according to a set of feeding practices that vary on a scale from lower to higher strictness. Down to the less strict side, there are those who may eventually have some meat and, in general, the white ones. The second type includes those who accept fish; in the third one are those who consume eggs, milk and other dairy products, followed by those who may have some dairy as long as they do not contain any derived product from the slaughter, such as rennet. Up to the strictest side are those who do not eat any animal products. Conforming to these authors, it is important to identify the types of vegetarian diets, but they highlight that their participation is not permanent in each of the categories. Individuals move along the scale both ways until abandoning the category.
Among those who we have interviewed, all self-declared vegetarians, none claims to consume any kind of meat, although there might be times when they suspend their diet. However, some of them declared they know people who claim to be vegetarian but eat fish or white meat. Some of them might accept eating dishes prepared with meat, others reject any contact with the animal origin, including their handling. One mentioned the discomfort of using cutlery that had previously been utilized with meat even though they had also been washed up.
One of the participants, besides being a vegetarian, claims to have a macrobiotic diet and another one claims to be vegan, and refuse to consume animal products of any source and not just regarding food. The others refuse to eat meat, but they accept eggs, milk, and other dairy products, and among these, some of them manifested against the leather and the animal testing industry, even though they still consume them.
The reactions of disgust or indifference towards meat and/or animal products and the decisions of what one puts or does not put on the plate and what one takes or does not take to their mouth taken at least three times a day and every day are different. Each one of them explains the reasons why they have joined the particular diet. None of them was raised in a vegetarian diet and they have decided to join it at their adult stage. Their reasons and their corresponding lifestyle are various, though not excluding, and they mix ethical impulses concerning animals as well as demand of health.
Their motivations differ on the rank of importance and on each one’s life among the participants. It shows that even though they did not have an ethical impulse at first, they end up having it through the course of their lives and it becomes related to an essential aspect when having to justify their lifestyle. Considering the testimonies we have analyzed, the protection of animals appears as the top factor, even more than the demand of health, for either participation or maintenance of their diet. This fact is at least curious once health has become a highly valuable capital in the contemporary culture.
Fox and Ward [3] have studied the motivations that led youngsters to the conversion into vegetarianism mainly in The United Kingdom, Canada and The United States. They have noticed that the decision of a diet without meat, the fight against animal abuse and the worry with personal health are the main elements cited as encouraging, but they have also listed items related to disgust when eating meat, the association with patriarchy, their friends’ beliefs, and family influence.
Concerning health, this motivation seems to preponderate among partial vegetarians, the ones who do not eat red meat or only fish or those who consume organic products. The vegetarians have been classified into two main types concerning their motivations: the “health vegetarians” and “the ethical vegetarians”; however, participants of both groups also practice lacto-ovo vegetarianism and end up, during this process, joining a semi-vegan diet.
I decided to stop eating meat because I wanted to be healthier. I have read some books about natural food that said meat would rot in our stomachs. I felt disgust and decided to stop eating meat so I would be healthier. At that time, I cut off everything, including white flour, white rice, white sugar, and soda. Gradually, I started eating some things, back to my old habits, but I could never eat meat again. I have not even tried, have I? I had not craved meat because it was still disgusting to me. After years, I started thinking about environmental and animal issues. Today, I politically defend vegetarianism and I want to become a vegan. Doing without cheese is still quite difficult though. (Woman 1).
For this participant, a young self-employed woman, and in other similar testimonies, when I asked which factor is the most important so they would keep in their diet, animal protection appeared more than demand of health, again for either participation or maintenance of their diet.
According to Lipovetsky [6], we live in a new phase of consumption that represents the society in which he calls hypermodern, among other things, as a time of medicalization of life and consumption. Health is a responsibility of social actors.
In the testimonies we have analyzed, the ethics regarding animal life is the biggest reason for those who keep being vegetarians. Two of them abandoned their vegetarian diets because of health issues and are, nowadays, omnivorous and critics of the vegetarianism they had adopted at a stage of their lives, which partially confirms Lipovetsky’s diagnosis that the homoconsumericus is giving its place to the homosanitas. [6].
Once we clarify the heterogeneity of the diets within the vegetarian label and the motivations that reveal this multifaceted character of contemporaneity, we start discussing everyday conflicts due to the diet, even though we do not ignore the peacemaking feeling provided by food.
Changing food patterns has an effect on social relations, mainly the family ones, but also on friend’s network; by converting into vegetarianism one can find sympathy and support or even criticism, confusion, and hostility, as attested by Beardsworth and Keil [4], who have realized, among their respondents, the contrast between acceptance and criticism. This last one appears to be more emphasized concerning parents’ reactions given their children’s conversion. Mothers seem to be more sympathetic and tolerant about the conversion.
The first conflict revealed in the respondents’ speeches happened in their families. Besides the transformations observed in the contemporary family, the mom is traditionally the one responsible for her children’s first socialization and it is about her role that the obligations to feed the family lie. It also carries her activities of affection and anxiety, once the mother is the one whose success of socialization depend on. Mothers feed their children according to a rule of society in terms of what, how, and how much to eat.
A disagreement related to this manifested learning when refusing appropriate food and the intake of other inappropriate food cause some family conflicts. This is precisely what we see in the relations between a vegetarian and a non-vegetarian family. This individual becomes a disruptive element of family tradition, of union during meals and communion of values. The refusal of the shared dish is seen as a refusal of ideas as well as the family’s worldview.
Beardsworth and Keil [4] affirm that as vegetarianism can involve a rejection of the food that parents offer, such practice can be understood as rejection to their own parents. According to these authors, several family occasions are turned into tension occasions, and the most critical one is Christmas, given the importance of this celebration for the maintenance of the family identity. The tension exists either when vegetarians visit their families or when relatives visit vegetarian families. Furthermore, the situations of conflict are less common when one member of the couple is vegetarian; they also observe that vegetarian couples tend to hold on to each other against the rest of the family.
Two of the participants, declared as middle-class ones, mentioned Christmas specifically and spontaneously when questioned about situations of conflict. One of them, a woman, said she feels a bit excluded of this festivity, when she would never share the main course, even though she had a very strong participation in the arrangements of the party, with typical abundance and exaggeration promoted by her mother. The other one, a man, said he would starve in these occasions for meat would be in every single dish, even in the salads. During the Holy Week, it would not be different because the only dish was the “bacalhoada,” a codfish dish popularly consumed at this time of the year.
As he cannot cook, the others would commit him to their choices, which did not consider his restriction. The decision of not sharing the so-called appropriate dish may become a non-sharing of habits, ideas, and worldviews. Likewise, the refusal of an offered dish might be read as insubordination to rules of family relationship.
As an example, we have the testimony of a woman, omnivorous, 45 years old. Her only child has become a vegetarian at the age of 20, influenced by friends. She confirmed she did not understand her motivations and feared for her health. Through the testimony, which she participated spontaneously when aware of this research, she mentioned several situations of arguments and fights. She claimed to feel rejected by her kid’s rejection of her motherly food. By refusing not eating a dish prepared by her, she used to feel rejected affectionately and the non-consumption tended to become non-affection.
Mauss [7], when studying human transactions through the analysis of ethnographical exchanges in Polynesia, Melanesia, and the American Northwest, realizes that the gift-exchange demands three obligations: giving, important for building reputation; receiving; and reciprocating. In this sense, we can conclude that giving is a fundamental social action for gratitude and, hence, receiving prestige. Receiving would mean a representative action of acceptance of an alliance, while the refusal would mean an affront.
This idea contributes to understanding the feeling of a mother when her child refuses her food for feeling offended by the offer of meat, which represents indifference regarding ideological option. This is all about linguistic incompetence.
Beyond the family situation, conflicts rise in other sociability loci, mainly when the imagination of omnivorous people of what vegetarian people should be is not compatible with the actual practice.
The stereotype of vegetarian people pictures individuals linked to alternative movements, intention to become healthier, eastern religions, concerns about nature and animals above all, according to the participants in this research. Linguistic incompatibilities lie on face-to-face relations, when one presumes the other one is not a vegetarian and, by acknowledging their food choice, one presumes the ideal type of a vegetarian.
One of the participants, a former vegetarian, affirms that “vegetarian people must eat only vegetables” and her sister-in-law is “this big” (she says making hand gestures meaning overweight or obesity) and only eats “pasta and cheese.” When I asked about her sister-in-law’s motivation, this participant affirms she is an advocate of animal causes. In this case, it becomes possible to realize the trouble there is between motivation and expectation of how vegetarians should actually be when seen by others. When imperatively affirming, “Vegetarians must eat vegetables” it is possible to see the attempt to establish the other’s consumptions based on what they expect or imagine. It is, thus, the imposition, or effort, of some sort of consumption. There is an idea of an appropriate consumption of a specific social category and they assume that that category consumes, as premises of subjective and identity construction, specific products and specific bodies that are considered validators of this very category.
In another testimony, a 21-year-old vegetarian woman tells:
Well, if you really want to know, people always want to tell me what to or not to eat. Besides the usual campaigns for me to eat meat, I remember one trip when I ate one of those cakes made of black-eyed beans. I asked many times if there were not any animal products and chose the fried one. We were able to choose between the fried or the baked one. I chose the fried one, without filling, because it was a shrimp filling. Next to me, a woman started laughing, saying… hahaha she is a vegetarian and eats the fried cake – I do not remember its name – hahaha. She found it absurd that I was eating something fried and being a vegetarian. The oil where she fried the cake was a vegetable one. It drives me crazy. I used to smoke cigarettes and people kept telling me: why, you say – even though they kept telling me I claimed to be vegetarian and was not vegetarian – then, you say you are a vegetarian and smoke? I would not eat the cigarettes and it was made of vegetables. People thought I had to be green and healthy. I just felt like not eating meat. (Woman 2)
Therefore, this claimed identity clashes with a kind of mental construction of a stereotyped individual of normative behavior. There is this prescriptive idea of how someone must be and what a vegetarian must consume as mentioned above: “Vegetarians must eat vegetables” or “She says she is a vegetarian, but she only eats cheese and pasta.” The obese body, smoking habits and not so healthy food habits affront the expectations of what a vegetarian should look like.
I was at a restaurant with someone who eats meat and we ordered a cheese skewer for me and a meat skewer for the person who was with me. As a side dish for the meat skewer, there was rice and cassava. I asked the waiter to bring the rice on the side so the meat gravy would not dirty the rice and we both were sharing this one. He said the meat would not come with gravy. I said I knew it, but I still would like it on the side, just in case. He said there was no gravy with the meat. It was hard convincing him that it happens that meat, with no gravy, still has its juice when resting, this juice would dirty the rice, and then I would not be able to eat it. He said that eating rice and cheese made no sense to him. (Woman 3)
Ideas of pollution only make sense when in Ref. to a total structure of thought, according to Douglas [1]. As for the waiter cited in the testimony, the meat would not dirty the rice given the idea the meat was clean. On the other hand, according to the woman, the meat was a pollution agent when it touched the rice. Intuitively, the waiter realizes the symbolic character of food by demanding the sense of matching cheese and rice. This sense is only understood in a cultural system, for its foundation is not on reason, which is something even more complex in a multifaceted contemporary society.
Attempts to explain it are not enough and they are countless. Explanations do not serve as an interpretation because they are not coherent or comprehensive. Douglas demonstrates that the “abominations” of Leviticus refer to ambiguities, that is to say, the abominations lie on what challenges a socially built logic. Everything that is not in accordance with the structure of classification in the culture in question is considered ambiguous or anomalous and, as these, unclean.
I have had a very unpleasant situation. My daughter and I are vegetarians. My daughter, a child, went to a friend’s house, they were making barbecue, and my daughter explained them that she does not eat meat. Her friend’s father said she could help herself with some grass from the yard. She got very sad and I found the father’s comment was quite offensive. I swore that when his daughter would come to my place, I would offer my dog for her to eat, since she could not do without meat. (Woman 4).
The intention is to offend what is different. It is clear that that man, by offering some grass from the yard, is animalizing the other. The mother hypothetically revenges the situation when she suggests the offer of her dog as food. A vegetarian does not eat grass and an omnivorous will not eat a pet dog. Everyone knows that, but they use these allegations and offers with the only purpose of offending others. It maintains and reinvigorates the belief in superiority of options on which the identity is built.
However, it is important to underline that the identity, in this perspective, is built almost as experimentally. Individuals start conceiving and noticing how far they might go, and what brings them satisfaction, in terms of craving, and not need, when they face multiple restrictions, choices, learning about new dishes, new restaurants, points of sale, recipes, relapses, and new restrictions.
For me, becoming a vegetarian was part of a long process. I have been a vegetarian for ten years. I have been defining myself as a vegetarian all this time, but actually, I believe I am more vegetarian now than back then, if I can say that. Well, I am lacto-ovo vegetarian and I have already been questioned about the fact that I say I am a vegetarian. I answer that it is, like, an abbreviation of my eating habit: the ovo-lacto vegetarianism. As I said, I used to eat feijoada (a typical Brazilian dish made of black beans, pork sausages and other cuts of pork). I used to take out the meat and eat the beans. When it was meat and potatoes, I used to eat the potatoes. Not today, I do not even try it if they were cooked together. I look at it as if I were looking at a shoe, a chair. It is an object and not food. In my opinion, food is something else. (Woman 2)
In contrast, there are those who have tried assorted diets, macrobiotic and vegetarian ones, and then returned to their omnivorous diet, even if this one was not the same way they were raised. That demonstrates the construction of omnivorous individuals is equally processual and reflexive, although it may seem natural in different speeches.
This multiplicity of comings and goings-away and dietary, gustatory, and social experiences mark individual biographies, which constitutes kaleidoscopical individuals. Dietary values are worth as an allegation, they just have rhetorical value, given the option one ingests or loathes, as they do not base food on nutrients, but a tangle of mental constructions, social representations, and personal idiosyncrasies.
The abominations of certain food can justify the protection of the body, though the adjacent objective is the maintenance of the social organism. Consequently, dietary rules extrapolate their practical aspect and are part of a symbolic system where there is a dispute of advantages and disadvantages of diets based, recurrently, on the three most popular cultural authorities: religiosity, nature and science.
The analysis conducted by Douglas [1] shows that behind an apparent rationality of Jewish dietary rules, there is a complex symbolic system and it demonstrates that human acts are influenced by a lot of things beyond rationality and medical criteria, which helps us realize that food does not just feed, but it is part of the establishment of identities. Besides this allegation of the humanity omnivorous nature, vegetarians are asked about the religious prescription that advocates that God created animals for human consumption:
This is one of the most annoying topics. People come to me and tell me I must eat meat because God said so. I reply, so what? I am not killing an innocent animal because God or the devil said so. Then they call me atheist, as if it were a flaw. The curious thing is, I remember now, is that that astonished woman who told me that was a divorcée. Does God approve the divorce? People follow God, the bible, or the law according to what is convenient and they think they have the right to criticize who decides to live by other principles. (Man 1)
Coherence is being demanded in this example. A religious individual should, according to this testimony, follow all biblical principles, including the one regarding marriage and the ingestion of meat as well as other demands. Such coherence does not exist for innumerous historical reasons that restrict the way of appropriating the testaments. On the contrary, vegetarians are charged for their coherence as well. If they defend animal rights, the opponents of the vegetarian diet discuss that one must refuse products tested on animals, including vaccines, and to the extreme living with animals considered plagues in cultivations given the impossibility of the use of pesticides and also a stimulated conviviality between predators and preys.
Even though they demand logic, neither vegetarians nor defenders of meat consumption practice it, because both deprive on the consumption of certain species or specific situations completely irrationally.
Vegetarians question the culture where they were born, but they also question the humanity omnivorous nature. All vegetarians said they had heard being omnivorous is part of the human nature. In this sense, vegetarians act against their own nature. By proposing respect to animals, vegetarians are accused of not respecting their own species and disregard all human evolution history.
What is not visible in this debate, though it is implicit, is that the man-nature relation is historic and subject to transformations, as Keith Thomas [8] demonstrates in his study on man’s relationship to plants and animals in England 1500-1800, a period with substantial changes. According to the author, man used to live in a hostile environment and it would be anachronistic to think of cruelty towards animals in a situation that imposed the need to fight to conquer and control the world.
Nowadays, we can see changes in the way to think about nature, which is a symbolic construction, and there are various alternative proposals to interact with it. One of the conflicts on what the natural world is can be observed in the context of eating. Vegetarianism, in the sense adopted in the testimonies, can be an example.
The search for coherence finds in science, or in its jargon, an allegation to defend its options. Both vegetarians and the ones against vegetarians appeal scientific allegations. The discussion is, mainly and recurrently, according to testimonies, about the genetic tendency to vegetarian or omnivorous diets, about the risk of lack and excess of proteins. Within this subject, it all comes to health, a highly valued capital in contemporaneity:
I hate it when people tell me how I replace proteins. I do not eat proteins, vitamins, carbo or other scientific names. I eat food. Then they tell me it is not healthy, but I am not worried with my health, I am worried about animals’ health. (Man 2)
If rationality is not the only thing that build an eating habit, some scientific allegations, or science-like allegations, despite the popularity they use from media, do not seem to be enough to change someone’s diet, even though doctor’s prescription cause some effect on people with heart issues, diabetes, obesity, and others, when they follow some specific dietary prescriptions. Omnivorous and vegetarians discuss about jawbone shape, presence or lack of proteins, length of intestine, among other topics involving scientific terms as a resource of persuasion.
In the dispute about which one is the best, vegetarians and omnivorous individuals appeal to religion, nature, and science to defend their consumption, but what really seems to be at stake is the system of cultural relevance.
In the world today, we watch the interdiction of all types of animals’ meat for reasons of beliefs and health, ethical motivations, and environmental concerns. They question or neglect an alleged humanity omnivorous nature, as discussed in the previous topic, and for these reasons, I highlight the abolitionist vegan aspect. As mentioned, the total or partial restraint of meat can be religious, secular, based on ethical principles, nutritional beliefs, which they defend according to some more or less irrational allegations.
Resuming the classification by Beardsworth and Keil [4], there are six general types of vegetarian diets, which are not fixed, so they can transit among them both ways, from the most rigorous to the least rigorous one and vice-versa. In this most radical diet, there are the strict vegetarians, as vegans are called, one of the groups that compose this subchapter.
Eating vegetables exclusively is the main element that compose the vegan diet, but this one is not only restricted to eating.
Despite many reasons for not ingesting meat, what really motivates veganism is the conception that its followers have about non-human animals. In synthesis, they have the conviction that these are animals with sentience, they are able to feel pain and suffering and have their own interests, and there is no distinction between them and humans that justifies their exploration, slavery, torture, and slaughter.
The conception of humanity and animality is not fixed and not natural among times and cultures. Thomas [8], for example, recalls the creation of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA) in 1824, in England. This society still exists, now with the addition of the distinctive term Royal to its name, a gift from Queen Victoria. In this same country, in 1944, Donald Watson founded a society against animal exploitation: The Vegan Society.
It is important to emphasize the existence of simultaneous values: the man of science of the industrial era, based on Cartesian allegations, justified animal exploitation for they believe they were just automata. However, Thomas [8] highlights the affection that animals start to enjoy and that today we qualify as companion animals or pets. The societies of protection are born in England, in a country where gaming was one of the most refined sports.
Back to the field of science, even though and despite all questions raised by scientists, including Charles Darwin, who lists man in the animal category, the anthropocentric border remains, and only some of them see the approximation with animals, mainly the mammals or those who have conquered some human affection. In this case, scientific allegations – the strongest ones – end up submitted to relations of affection.
Along with various social moments and with the aid of different scientific signatures, the human supremacy goes under a new review and Richard Ryder [9] coins the term speciesism, in 1970, to mean an asymmetry between humans and other animals.
In this point of view, the so-called speciesism is exactly analogous to racism and sexism, that also describe man supremacy (qualified as masculine, white, European, and western) above all the rest. Nevertheless, this term raised controversies among antiracist and feminist movements about the analogy experienced by the explored ones. After all, is talking about holocaust of cows in slaughterhouses the same as talking about The Jewish Holocaust? Is the slavery imposed to Africans lived similarly as the confinement of animals? Can milking cows and factory-farm chickens be compared to sexist relations lived by women?
For some, the analogy between speciesism and other liberation movements is viable and enriches everyone in terms of power and voice; for others, the comparison is exaggerated. It seems that feminist ecology has more sympathy to movements related to animal rights, because females are exactly the most explored ones by the industry: for milk, eggs, frequent pregnancies, rape, etc., which draws more empathy in women.
Two authors, among others, appear in the discussion about animal rights. The philosopher Peter Singer [10] claims that animals are sentient and have their own interests and it is not ethical using them for human interests. Tom Regan [11], in the field of law, questions the use of arbitrary weights and measures compared to a distinctive treatment among species, for there would be no difference between the humanity and the rest of the living beings that would rationally justify a pending scale.
The discussion proceeds towards an endless path, walking from the real desire about having a rigorous anti-speciesism attitude; finding yourself deciding whether you are going to take your son to vaccination or not, because it has been tested in animals; giving dog food made with animal by-product to a dog that has been rescued from the street; or willingly or unwillingly killing an ant. The animal rights movement divided itself mainly in these parts: (1) Abolitionists: Contrary to any type of dominance of an animal of any species. Abolitionists believe that all types of interspecific relations will end up being asymmetric and so, instead of abolishing the exploitation. For that, they defend the abolishment of any relation, including with pets and they are, despite the coherence of their speech, impracticable in every single way; (2) Welfarists: They carry the flag of better life conditions for animals, including revivifications in the field of law. For instance, welfarists are favorable to a more human cattle farming, even if it comes to beef cattle. In general, activists that are more radical criticize them and accuse them to defend only the animal welfare for the benefits they can obtain from these practices, like havening more tender meat; (3) Protectors or rescuers: they are not necessarily against beef cattle farming and not against consumption of meat, but they offer temporary or permanent shelter to species elected in terms of affection, specially feral cats and street dogs, but occasionally they also manifest against animals used to pull wagons, tortoises, guinea pigs, and others that, for a given reason, moves someone.
We have generally described the broad terms of these animal right movements, each one their own way, that fight for animals, which are incapable of fighting for their own cause.
At this point, we understand some subdivisions of the movement, because there are people who claim to be vegans, and have a restrict action to the boycott of meat consumption or clothing industry, and are less rigorous about animal products in general. Others get more directly involved in political causes; they free animals from captivity; and actively intervene for changes in the law related to animal rights, among other manifestations. However, in the case of consumption and lifestyle, the fundamental terms of this discussion, we can affirm that an ideal-typical vegan: (a) Refuses to ingest animals and animal products like meat, eggs, milk, honey, and gelatin desserts. (b) Refuse to consume clothes, accessories, and shoes made of animal products. (c) Refuse to consume health, hygiene, and esthetic products tested on animals. (d) Oppose to vivisection as a pedagogical practice at universities. (e) Oppose to the use of animals in scientific researches. (f) Oppose to entertainments that use animals, like rodeos, circuses.
Although the outlines of what a vegan “must be” are clear, the everyday life comes with surprises, from food for your pet, taking your kid to vaccination, being or not being a new target of companies that produce animal products. After all, would it be illicit for a vegan to consume a vegetable burger produced by a famous company that makes lots of profit producing other burgers made from the slaughter of cattle and chicken? The companies are interested in catching vegans, but that is when they should watch what they say. Deciding what to put in a shopping cart becomes an ethical dilemma; deciding whether adopting or buying a pet; offering or not offering vegetables to carnivorous pets in apartments; demanding or not demanding children to follow a vegan diet and restrict their socialization in children’s parties. At last, the idea is coherent and of easy understanding, but the difficulties to practice it vigorously are much more difficult and what one lives with it, at the end, is the biggest possible coherence in a world of incoherence and inequality.
The results of this research show that the option for vegetarianism or veganism finds resistance and it is subject to everyday embarrassments; nevertheless, despite the divisive role played by vegetarians and vegans in rituals surrounding eating, sociality prevails. Through the data, we realize that the negotiation, the refusal, and the acceptance of varied diets help understand the complexity this decentered society today, which favors the dilemma of individual choices, elaborated by available information and social life embarrassments, whose patterns are fragile. In the intertwining of these vectors, the options for consumption as well as the refusal of consumption provide social roles, communicate social places, and favor the reflection about the contemporary society and its multiplicity.
My thanks to Master Fernando Gil for the translation into the Inlesa language and final revision of the text.
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