Criteria for the definitions of the metabolic syndrome.
\r\n\t
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He is a member of various international professional societies and a founding member of the Pakistan Society for Computational Biology.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185476/images/system/185476.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari is an Assistant Professor of Molecular Biology at Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, GC University – Faisalabad, Pakistan. He obtained his BSc (Hons) in Plant Breeding and Genetics from University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan in 2003. He got MPhil and PhD in Molecular Biology from National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, Lahore, Pakistan in 2006 and 2011 respectively. He has published over 50 papers in international peer-reviewed journals in the field of Molecular Biology, Biotechnology, and Bioinformatics. Moreover, he has published more than 10 book chapters and edited 3 books so far. His research group aims to understand the molecular mechanisms of stress tolerance in plants. He is member of various national and international professional societies. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"69197",title:"The Effect of Ramadan Fasting on Metabolic Syndrome (MetS)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89333",slug:"the-effect-of-ramadan-fasting-on-metabolic-syndrome-mets-",body:'\nLifestyle plays significant role in metabolic syndrome. Habitual diet, physical activity status, type of sleep—including quantity and quality—and unhealthy behaviors such as smoking, consuming alcohol, etc. may affect metabolic syndrome markers [1]. This chapter will demonstrate overview of lifestyle during the month of Ramadan including diet, physical activity and sleep. Moreover, the effects of Ramadan fasting on each metabolic syndrome (MetS) markers will be revealed including central obesity, plasma triglyceride, high density lipoprotein-cholesterol, fasting plasma glucose and blood pressure.
\nThe month of Ramadan is a holy month in the Islamic calendar (lunar calendar vary between 29 or 30 days) once a year. About 1.5 billion Muslims worldwide are—religiously—abstained from having any kind of food, oral intake such as medicine (unless in necessary cases) or smoking during the daylight starting from dawn to sunset. The Holy month of Ramadan retreats 11 days each year. As a result, Ramadan month moves in all seasons over time including summer season. Usually fasting time extends between 13 and 18 hours per day depending on season (spring, summer, autumn or winter) and the geographical location of the country. During the month of Ramadan, lifestyle of most Muslim people changes. In most Muslim country, people become less active during the daytime (before the sunset) compared with the nighttime (after the sunset), especially when most are Muslims population [2]. The reason is mainly due to their nature of life during the night as majority of them engaging in social activities with friends and family. Moreover, most of the markets and media become more vital. However, the lifestyle of some Muslims will not change greatly during Ramadan [3]. Hence, the change in habitual diet, physical activity and sleep may change the body composition and some blood markers such as cholesterol, triglyceride, glucose which may alert MetS markers.
\nMuslims break their fasting just after sunset by having a main meal and then they may have two or three meals during the night until the dawn time. Current study found that diet did not change significantly during the month of Ramadan while comparing before or after Ramadan [2]. However, Al-barha’s study recruited apparently healthy graduate and undergraduate students. Data from different studies reported that diet during the month of Ramadan varies due to the differences between Muslim population in different countries and their habitual lifestyle. Further, seasonal and weather differences may play role in the quality and quantity of the food intake as well as the diet behavior during the month of Ramadan. In a review study, 9 out of 13 publications reported either significant reduction or no significant difference in energy intake between during and pre-or-post the month of Ramadan [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Only four studies showed a significant increase in energy intake during Ramadan [13, 14, 15, 16]. However, all of the studies in these publications use self-report to assess the energy intake, which is known to be less accurate comparing to objective measures [17, 18]. Amount and type of food intake as well as timing are key factors in diet and its effect on body including metabolic syndrome. During the month of Ramadan, carbohydrate and fat are consumed just after sunset. Different Muslim population reported high intake of dietary fat during Ramadan which exceeded the dietary recommendations [6, 11, 19]. In contrast, some studies found no significant change in carbohydrate and protein. However, the type of carbohydrate switched from complex sugar such as bread, cereal and vegetable to more simple sugar such as sweets [20]. These changes could elevate blood parameters such as blood lipids level. Hence, it could affect the metabolic syndrome markers negatively.
\nThe recent guidelines of physical activity and exercise encourage people to be physically active. The recommendation has been issued for each age group such as children and adult as well as people with special conditions such as elderly, diabetics and obese individuals [21]. The changes in people lifestyle may affect health and wellbeing [3]. During Ramadan, lifestyle may change including habitual physical activity. Although some studies found that there is no significant change in physical activity levels during Ramadan comparing to pre-Ramadan [2], numerous evidences reported significant changes in physical activity levels during the month of Ramadan. Ramadan fasting has been found to affect physical activity level in different ways. Some studies indicated that habitual physical activity may change during the month of Ramadan [22, 23]. Moreover, number of previous studies has investigated the association between Ramadan fasting and physical activity in Muslim population. These studies reported that physical activity levels were lowered in Muslim population during the month of Ramadan [24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. For instant, about one-third of Saudi families reported a decrease in physical activity levels [29]. Furthermore, recent study found that Ramadan fasting is associated with decrease in physical activity levels [30]; and may causes a decline in the physical work capacity in adolescent soccer players especially cardiorespiratory fitness capability [31]. However, these evidences showed no significant change in resting metabolic rate (RMR) or total energy expenditure (TEE) [30].
\nThe reduction in physical activity and exercise may alert the metabolic syndrome markers. Several studies have shown significant association between low physical activity level and negative changes in some of the metabolic syndrome markers. Individuals with low physical activity are more likely to have negative changes in metabolic syndrome [20, 32]. More about the impact of low physical activity in MetS will be discussed later in this chapter. These results may help to understand the influence of Ramadan fasting on body composition and the characteristics of metabolic syndrome.
\nBody mass, BMI and waist circumference (WC) decreased gradually, especially in the end week of Ramadan compared with the reading before Ramadan. However, most of the recent studies concluded that the slightly decrease in some body composition parameters were not significant [4, 20, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Although some the studies reported significant reduction in body weight at the end of Ramadan, the reduction was temporary. In a recent review study, the relationship between body composition parameters (i.e. body mass, body mass index, fat percentage and waist circumference) and Ramadan fasting is elucidated. Fernando and colleagues [29] concluded that there was a significant reduction in fat percentage at the end of Ramadan compared with pre-Ramadan in overweight or obese individuals, but not in those of normal weight. Moreover, even the change in body composition during the month of Ramadan was temporary as most of the investigated body composition parameters return to the normal weight [37].
\nIn terms of sleep pattern, working hours during the month of Ramadan—at least in some countries—are shorter for those who fast. In such countries, workers are given more time to sleep after having the last meal just before the dawn time. For this reason, people start work later in the morning (between 09:00 and 10:00 am) instead of the early morning (i.e. 07:00–08:00 am). This change could affect sleep patterns. Hence, this may affect the times they go to bed and wake up [38]. Moreover, sleep habits may change more during the daytime. In turn, the change in sleep pattern may lead to some changes in some of the physiological parameters including metabolic syndrome as well as body composition [39, 40]. In a recent review study, they found that well-organized studies that controlled sleep/wake time, sleep duration and light exposure do not influence Ramadan fasting.
\nFurthermore, well-designed studies showed no effect of Ramadan fasting on circadian rhythms. However, in unstable society in which they do not control for lifestyle changes, evidences have demonstrated sudden and significant delays in bedtime and wake time [41]. Controllable and uncontrollable MetS risk factors may lead to cardiovascular and metabolic diseases as illustrated in Figure 1.
\nRisk factors of MetS including controllable and uncontrollable factors that might lead to cardiovascular and metabolic diseases.
Historically, the first time metabolic syndrome (MetS) was defined by Kylin, a Swedish physician, in 1923 [42]. He described MetS as a cluster of cardiovascular risk factors comprising of hypertension, hyperglycemia and gout. Since then, the metabolic syndrome has gradually progressed over time with definition modification. However, the core turbulences, hypertension, consisting of glucose intolerance, obesity and dyslipidemia remain the cornerstone of all diagnostic criteria. In turn, these features may develop and increase the risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality [43, 44]. The term “Syndrome X” was commonly used in 1980s to describe the proposed interrelationships between resistance to insulin-stimulated glucose uptake, hypertension, type 2 diabetic and cardiovascular diseases. Now, the term MetS has the International Classification of Disease (ICD-9) code 277.7. In 1990s, visceral adiposity becomes important when obesity is considered as a main factor of the insulin resistance syndrome [45]. World Health Organization (WHO) launched the first formal definition of the MetS in 1998 [46]. In 2001, the National Cholesterol Education Program’s Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP:ATPIII) issued a set of criteria based on common clinical investigations: WC, blood lipids, blood pressure and fasting glucose [47, 48, 49].
\nOver the years, there have been several societies attempted to issue the diagnostic criteria for metabolic syndrome [50]. In 1998, WHO is the first organization that launched the worldwide definition of MetS, which was modified by other organizations such as the European Group for the Study of Insulin Resistance (EGSIR). In 2003, the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE) proposed their definition. However, the definition of the cut-off for obesity was not agreed yet. Table 1 illustrates the development stages of the MetS diagnostic criteria [52].
\nWHO, 1998 | \nEGIR, 1999 | \nNCEP:ATPIII, 2001 | \nAACE, 2003 | \nIDF, 2006 | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
High insulin levels, IFG or IGT, and two of the following: | \nTop 25% of the fasting insulin values among nondiabetic individuals and two of the following: | \nThree or more of the following: | \nIGT and two or more of the following: | \nCentral obesity as defined by ethnic/racial, specific WC, and two of the following: | \n
Abdominal obesity: WHR 0.9, BMI 30 kg/m2, WC 37 inches | \nWC: 94 cm for men, 80 cm for women | \nWC: 40 inches for men, 35 inches for women | \nTriglycerides 150 mg/dl | \nTriglycerides 150 mg/dl | \n
Lipid panel with triglycerides 150 mg/dl, HDL-C 35 mg/dl | \nTriglycerides 2.0 mmol/liter and HDLC 1.0 mg/dl | \nTriglycerides 150 mg/dl | \nHDL-C: 40 mg/ dl for men, 50 mg/dl for women | \nHDL-C: 40 mg/dl for men, 50 mg/dl for women | \n
BP 140/90 mm Hg | \nBP 140/90 mm Hg or antihypertensive medication | \nHDL-C: 40 mg/dl for men, 50 mg/dl for women | \nBP 130/85 mm Hg | \nBP 130/85 mm Hg | \n
\n | Fasting glucose 6.1 mmol/liter | \nBP 130/85 mm Hg FPG 110 mg/dla | \n\n | FPG 100 mg/dl | \n
Criteria for the definitions of the metabolic syndrome.
WHR, Waist-to-hip ratio; BP, blood pressure; FPG, fasting plasma glucose. In 2003, the ADA changed the criteria for IFG tolerance from 110 to 100 mg/dl.
Source: Ref. [51].
In this section, the role of Ramadan fasting positively affect the MetS markers including central obesity, waist circumference (WC), fasting plasma glucose (FPG) level, triglycerides (TG) level, high density lipoprotein (HDL) and blood pressure (BP), will be deliberated with recent evidences. In terms of metabolism and hormonal serum levels, Ramadan fasting may affect the metabolism of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins, as well as related hormones levels. Although there are beneficial changes in HDL and LDL levels, evidences showed that Ramadan fasting could lead to elevate the urea and uric acid which may be attributed to dehydration during the Holy month of Ramadan [23]. In the next sessions, the effect of Ramadan fasting on metabolic syndrome markers will be elucidated with more details.
\nIntermittent fasting during the month of Ramadan may enhance the cure from some of the MetS markers including body weight reduction. Although some evidence showed increase in some of the body composition parameters [53], Ramadan fasting has been found to reduce waist circumference even in apparently healthy young adults [54]. In some studies, the reported weight reduction occurred without significant changes in energy and macronutrient intake and physical activity level [4]. The reduction was interpreted as loss of body water and body fat percentage.
\nThere is a strong recent evidence that support the effect of Ramadan fasting on reducing body fat percentage and even fat-free mass especially with obese/overweight people. In a recent review and meta-analysis study, data obtain from 70 publications found a significant reduction in fat percentage between pre-Ramadan and post-Ramadan in overweight and obesity individuals. (−1.46 [95% confidence interval: −2.57 to −0.35]%, P = 0.010). However, there was no changes reported in those of normal weight (−0.41 [−1.45 to 0.63]%, P = 0.436). The reduction also reported in fat-free mass between pre-Ramadan and post-Ramadan. Nevertheless, the changes in body composition measurements seem to be temporary. Evidences showed that body weight body composition parameters were returned toward the pre-Ramadan measurements just after 2–5 weeks from the month of Ramadan [37]. Furthermore, it has been suggested that this decrease in body weight could be attributed to a decrease in fluid intake [34, 55, 56, 57]. Sequentially, dehydration during the month of Ramadan may cause increase in urea and uric acid which is attributed to the reduction of the glomerular filtration rate [58]. The physiological aspects that may explain the association between Ramadan fasting and body composition parameters has been investigated. For instance, plasma leptin and insulin have been found to play a key role in body weight regulation homeostasis. Leptin level send signals to the brain about the amount of energy stores which in turn, stimulates the hypothalamic centers to regulate the energy intake and energy expenditure [59]. Although an evidence showed that there is a positive association between plasma leptin and insulin levels and body fat, the elevation in plasma leptin and insulin during the month of Ramadan is probably due to the energy intake and diet behavior [14]. In sum, Ramadan fasting may help to reduce body composition including central obesity such as waist circumference. However, the reduction may not be healthy as the weight loss attribute to loss of body water. One possible reason for this greater weight loss is that people with greater BMI are due to greater glycogen stores than people of normal weight, and hence would be expected to lose more fluid in response to fasting [60], and in some cases loss of lean tissue [34] carry more body. One of the most challenges is that body composition parameters are affected by different factors including calorie intake, physical activity level, age and gender. More investigations are needed to clarify the role of Ramadan fasting on central obesity.
\nIn general, the role of Ramadan fasting on triglyceride concentration tends to be more positive in many case studies. This may enhance health promotion for people who have no clinical conditions that may prevent them from fasting during the month of Ramadan. In a systematic review study, data revealed that 6 out of 15 studies reported reduction in triglyceride level at the end of Ramadan month. Nevertheless, other 9 studies showed no significant changes in triglycerides concentration [61]. Moreover, Ramadan fasting also has been found to be healthy by helping diabetic patients to reduce triglycerides level especially those who can fast the whole month of Ramadan. Recent evidence indicated clear effect of Ramadan fasting on triglycerides level in diabetic patients. Bener et al. [62] tried to investigate the effect of Ramadan fasting on some blood parameters including blood lipids (total cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, etc.) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in Turkey. They concluded that fasting during the month of Ramadan may help to reduce triglycerides level even in people with type 2 diabetes [62]. Interestingly, rare of the available evidences showed negative effect of Ramadan fasting on triglycerides concentration. Thus, Ramadan fasting could enhance health promotion and reduce the risk of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases via the positive control of different lipid profile including triglycerides level.
\nHealth organizations recommend lifestyle that help to elevate high-density-lipoprotein (HDL) [46]. In general, a desired improvement has been found in plasma HDL at the end of Ramadan month and even after few weeks afterward [63]. Although there are some few studies that found no favorable changes in HDL as a result of Ramadan fasting [2, 64], recent strong evidences approved the health effect of Ramadan fasting on plasma HDL [61, 62]. However, the contradictory may due to the limitations of some studies. Kul et al. [65] did a meta-analysis to investigate the impact of Ramadan fasting on some health-related parameters in healthy population including blood lipids. They analyzed the data obtained from 13 studies to explore the effect of Ramadan fasting on HDL concentration (661 healthy individuals: 462 men and 199 women). They concluded that Ramadan fasting may help to reduce HDL concentration in women but not in men [65]. Moreover, the negative effect of Ramadan fasting has been observed in special population such as older adults with hypertension disease [66]. In sum, most of the recent and soled evidences have proved the beneficial effect of Ramadan fasting on plasma HDL level. Furthermore, more studies are encouraged to clarify the role of Ramadan fasting on HDL in different cases and population.
\nUnhealthy elevation in fasting plasma glucose (FPG) has been found to be one of the MetS markers. The holy month of Ramadan has different lifestyle in most Muslim populations including diet and physical activity pattern which may influence the FPG [20]. Nevertheless, Ramadan fasting may help to reduce FPG even in diabetic individuals in both male and female [62]. However, the beneficial reduction in FPG during or end of Ramadan month seems to be temporary [67, 68]. Hence, any change in blood glucose during Ramadan is minor and improbable to affect healthy people especially if there is no major changes in diet or physical inactivity levels [69]. Recently, the effect of Ramadan fasting on FPG has been investigated in health young adults. The study found that Ramadan fasting elevated FPG significantly during the end of Ramadan comparing the levels before Ramadan. Nevertheless, the elevated value of FPG was within the normal level in both occasions [2]. On the other hand, Ramadan fasting may reduce FPG of apparently healthy young adults (19–23 years old) during the end of Ramadan month [70]. Furthermore, intermittent fasting such as Ramadan fasting improve FPG in obese/overweight adults. One of the main outcomes of Ramadan fasting is losing weight and FPG as well as related metabolic parameters such as insulin, Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) [71]. Insulin promotes the storage of glucose in liver and muscles as glycogen. However, during Ramadan fasting, circulating glucose levels decrease which lead to decrease the secretion of insulin and increase the level of glucagon hormone and catecholamines to enhance the breakdown of glycogen to provide body with energy [64]. Hence, one can conclude that Ramadan fasting may improve FPG especially after a couple of weeks. One of the explanation is that alterations in lifestyle during the month of Ramadan may lead to changes in the rhythmic pattern of different related hormonal including thyroid hormones, melatonin, pituitary hormones (prolactin, luteinizing hormone, follicular stimulating hormone, growth hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone) and steroid hormones (cortisol and testosterone) [72]. These hormones are related to energy metabolism and regulation of energy intake [14, 72]. These hormonal changes could explain decreases in blood glucose levels.
\nHowever, FPG may return to previous level afterward. Thus, intermittent fasting is recommended to reduce the risk of having one or more of the MetS markers such as FPG.
\nBlood pressure (BP) is one of the complicated factors liked to different cardiovascular diseases.
\nHigh blood pressure is one of the MetS that may develop cardiovascular and metabolic diseases [52]. Although some studies reported slight, but significant, elevation in blood pressure in apparently healthy young adults during the month of Ramadan [2], different evidences concluded that Ramadan fasting may lead to reduce blood pressure in apparently healthy people as well as patients with hypertension, stable cardiovascular, metabolic syndrome and dyslipidemia [73]. In a systematical review study, Mazidi and colleagues found that data from different studies reported reduction in blood pressure especially systolic blood pressure (SBP) but no significant changes has been observed in diastolic blood pressure (DBP) [61]. Data from several investigations revealed that Ramadan fasting could reduce blood pressure unless there are some conditions that may influence BP such as diet and stress [74, 75, 76]. However, Topacoglu et al. [77] observed an increase in the number of admissions for hypertension during the holy month of Ramadan [77]. The reduction in blood pressure parameters during the month of Ramadan can be explained as a result of dehydration due to the long fasting time. On the other hand, it can be attributed to lower daytime activity which may cause a noticeable reduction in sympathetic tone [78]. In some countries the holy month of Ramadan comes in hot season (June–August) which makes people fast longer (~15 hours). Therefore, hypertensive patient should be advised to avoid diuretics during fasting and they can fast with paying attention to type and amount of food that may raise BP [79]. Remarkably, very few available evidences observed unhealthy effects of Ramadan fasting on hypertensive patients. In fact, the role of Ramadan fasting on controlling blood pressure is controversial. Partly, it is due to the lack of the available evidences that investigated the comprehensive effect of Ramadan fasting on blood pressure in people with different health conditions. Thus, more investigations are recommended to clarify the role of Ramadan fasting on blood pressure parameters.
\nThe effect of Ramadan fasting on most of the MetS markers is still controversial. However, most of the available evidences showed positive effect on most of the MetS markers. In general, Ramadan fasting may help to reduce the risk of MetS. Nevertheless, most of the positive results seem to be impermanent and reading of many of the variables (MetS markers) return to the previous reading after few weeks (~3–4 weeks). Therefore, intermittent fasting such as Ramadan fasting could be one of the cure alternatives especially in people with MetS, cardiovascular or metabolic diseases with considering their physician supervision. In general, Ramadan fasting is associated with positive improvements in different related hormones such as insulin, leptin, adiponectin, adipocytokine, Gamma glutamyl transferase and others that may be directly or indirectly affect MetS markers. Hence, Ramadan as an intermittent fasting might be more beneficial for most population and cardiovascular and metabolic patients should consult their physicians when they decide to fast during the month of Ramadan. Again, more evidences are recommended to clarify the controversial issues related to the role of Ramadan fasting on MetS markers.
\nThe Japanese Islands are mainly composed of the Eurasian (EUR) and the North American (NA) plates, and a number of small islands are on the Philippine Sea (PHS) and the Pacific (PAC) plates (Figure 1). The PHS and PAC oceanic plates are subducting beneath the EUR and the NA plates. A number of earthquakes occurred both at the plate interfaces and within the plates.
\nName of plates and location.
After the Kobe earthquake in January 1995, the Japanese government enacted the Special Measure Law on Earthquake Disaster Prevention in July 1995. This was to promote a comprehensive national policy on earthquake disaster prevention. Based on this goal, the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience (NIED) contracted the deployment of the nationwide high-sensitivity seismograph network (Hi-net) [1] since NIED had already accumulated the experience for the Tokyo metropolitan deep borehole array and operated the Kanto-Tokai seismic network since 1979. NIED operates the Hi-net with approximately 800 stations since 2000 [2] and the full range seismograph network (F-net) [3] with approximately 70 stations composed of broadband seismographs since 1994 [4]. The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), the national universities, and other institutes operate other seismic networks with a total of approximately 600 stations for the detection of microseismicity. NIED operates ocean-bottom seismic stations beneath the Sagami Bay, while the JMA operates offshore the Tokai and Boso regions. The Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo, operates the network offshore Sanriku, and the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) operates offshore Kushiro and Muroto networks. JAMSTEC started the construction of the Dense Oceanfloor Network System for Earthquakes and Tsunamis (DONET) [5] off Kii and Muroto Peninsulas near the Nankai Trough in 2010, and they started operation networks offshore Kii (in 2014) and Muroto (in 2016) Peninsulas. NIED deployed the Seafloor Observation Network for Earthquakes and Tsunamis along the Japan Trench (S-net) [6] after the 2011 offshore Tohoku Earthquake (the Tohoku-oki event), which began operating in 2016 [7, 8]. DONET was transferred to NIED from April 2016. NIED started the operation of Monitoring of Waves on Land and Seafloor (MOWLAS) composed of Hi-net, F-net, S-net, DONET, strong-motion seismograph networks (K-NET and KiK-net) [9], and Volcano Observation Network (V-net) [10].
\nNIED S-net and DONET teams manually pick the arrival time data at the oceanic seismic stations after NIED Hi-net team has determined the hypocenters using the land stations. We confirm the difference of shallow hypocenters between the determination by only NIED Hi-net and that by NIED Hi-net and NIED S-net. Stars in Figure 2 show the hypocenters at depths shallower than 20 km beneath the PAC plate determined by NIED Hi-net from September 11, 2017, to the end of 2018. The shallow hypocenters near the main island tend to remain shallow; however, hypocenters more than 200 km off the coast shifted significantly deeper to 40–80 km depth when including the S-net arrival time data (Figure 2). Deep events determined by NIED Hi-net on the east side of a longitude of 144°E are also shifted shallower. This suggests that it is important to include the S-net data for reliable hypocenter locations of offshore events.
\nComparison of hypocenters determined by the NIED (a) Hi-net and (b) Hi-net and S-net. Stars denote hypocenters determined at depths shallower than 20 km by only Hi-net in (a) and redetermined by Hi-net and S-net in (b).
Three-dimensional (3D) seismic velocity structure beneath the whole Japanese Islands has been studied using the vast data of seismic stations within the Japanese Islands maintained by NIED, JMA, national universities, and the other national and local governmental institutes (e.g., [11, 12, 13, 14]). These studies used data obtained mainly at land-based seismic stations with a very few seismic stations on the sea floor such as Sagami Bay, off Kushiro, Sanriku, Boso, and Tokai regions. Reference [14] investigated the structure beneath the PAC plate at depths of 30–50 km using events that occurred under the Pacific Ocean (PO) with focal depths determined by NIED F-net. However, that study was not able to clarify the shallow structure beneath the PO at depths of 0–20 km because of the lack of seismic stations on the seafloor of the PO. The seismic ray takeoff angles proceed downward from the events to the seismic stations on land, and they do not pass through the shallow zone beneath the ocean since the distance from the hypocenter to the seismic stations is usually over 150 km. We investigated the 3D seismic velocity structure of and around Japanese Islands including the Sea of Japan and PO by the seismic tomographic method. We added the arrival time data detected in the S-net, the DONET, and the Hi-net datasets, operated by NIED, as well as other datasets, operated by multiple organizations, after 2016 in addition to the data used in [14]. Then we applied the seismic tomography to these datasets.
\nThe target region, 20–48°N and 120–148°E, covers the whole Japanese Islands from Hokkaido to Okinawa and the seismic stations both Hi-net on land and S-net and DONET beneath the ocean. In addition to the arrival time data used by [14], 1,782,425 P- and 1,528,733 S-wave arrival times from 32,952 earthquakes recorded at approximately 2000 stations including NIED S-net and DONET from April 2016 to June 2018 were selected. A total of 7,853,757 P-wave arrival data and 4,604,780 S-wave arrival data from 112,631 events are available after merging the new datasets (Figure 3).
\nDistribution of hypocenters and seismic stations used for seismic tomography.
We used the seismic tomographic method [15, 16] with spatial velocity correlation and station corrections to the original code by [11]. Grid nodes were placed with half of the spatial resolution. We performed smoothing in order to stabilize the solution for the inverse problem with the LSQR algorithm [17] since arbitrary damping matrix with combination of diagonal and smoothing matrices could be assumed.
\nWe placed 3D grid nodes to construct the velocity (slowness) structure with the grid spacing shown in Table 1 and adopted the 1D structure used in the routine determination of hypocenters at the Hi-net and S-net [18] as the initial velocity model (Figure 4). No velocity discontinuities such as Moho discontinuities or the plate boundary between the EUR and PAC or PHS plates were assumed in this study. This is because there were enough data to estimate the steep velocity gradient to represent plate boundaries so that velocity discontinues in the model were not necessary [13, 16, 19]. The total number of unknowns, 4,417,505, for P-wave slowness is the same as those for S-wave slowness. We solved the P- and S-wave slowness at each grid node from more than 10 associated rays.
\nDepth | \nGrid interval | \nResolution/checkerboard pattern | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
Horizontal | \nVertical (km) | \nHorizontal | \nVertical (km) | \n|
0–10 | \n0.1° | \n2.5 | \n0.2° | \n5 | \n
10–40 | \n5 | \n10 | \n||
40–60 | \n10 | \n20 | \n||
60–180 | \n15 | \n30 | \n||
180–300 | \n20 | \n40 | \n||
300− | \n25 | \n50 | \n
Grid interval and resolution size.
Seismic velocity structures of the initial model and the average of the final 3D model.
First, we inverted the P- and S-wave seismic velocities using the initial hypocenter location. Second, both hypocenters and 3D seismic velocity structure were inverted simultaneously. We included the arrival times from the events beneath the ocean before 2015 in addition to the data used by [14]. Focal depths of offshore events were determined by NIED F-net or [20] since offshore events determined by only NIED Hi-net are not reliable. For these offshore events, only epicenters are inverted by the 3D seismic velocity structure, while hypocenter depths are fixed. We do not fix any condition for the events after 2016 detected by NIED S-net and DONET and the events within 50 km of the onshore seismic networks before 2015 during the inversion.
\nResiduals are improved to within 0.5 s for P-wave and 0.6 s for S-wave in the travel time inversion. In the final iteration, we used 6,356,481 P-wave arrival data and 3,534,482 S-wave arrival data to solve for the P-wave slowness at 1,135,165 grid nodes and the S-wave slowness at 1,103,525 grid nodes. The inversion reduces RMS of the P-wave travel time residual from 0.561 to 0.192 s and that of the S-wave data from 0.812 to 0.239 s after 11 iterations.
\nWe conducted a checkerboard resolution test to evaluate the reliability of our solution [21]. We assumed a ± 5% checkerboard pattern and calculated synthetic travel times with random noise of 0 mean and standard deviations of 0.13 and 0.24 s for P- and S-waves, respectively. The standard deviations for random noise were derived from the average of the estimated uncertainty of the manually picked arrival times. The weight of data is inversely proportional to each width of picking error. The damping factors for the P-wave inversion are twice those for the S-wave inversion, since the average standard deviation of P-wave picking errors is almost half of that of S-wave.
\nFigure 5 shows the results of checkerboard resolution test. We calculate the recovery rate and stability with surrounding grid nodes in order to confirm well-resolved area [15]. The resolutions of Vp and Vs at depths of 5–30 km beneath main four islands are good. At depths of 40–60 km, resolutions are not good along the Sea of Japan coast because there are few deep earthquakes that can be used for inversion.
\nMap views of checkerboard resolution test for Vp and Vs. green line surrounds the well-resolved area.
NIED S-net data increase the resolution at depths of 10–60 km from Honshu to the Japan Trench (Figure 5). Reference [14] used the offshore events such as aftershocks of the Tohoku-oki earthquake. The presence of a seismic station above the events is extremely important for the estimation of velocity structure as well as the determination of hypocenters. The resolutions at depths of 0 and 5 km are still not good in spite of the use of S-net data because the incident angle to the S-net stations are mainly steep and ray paths do not run horizontally because of the lack of shallow earthquakes. Resolutions near the triple junction of Japan Trench and Sagami Trough where three plates, PAC, PHS, and EUR, meet are good at depths of 20–30 km. This is an advantage of using NIED S-net.
\nBeneath the DONET area, the resolution at depths of 10–60 km is good for Vp, and those at depths of 5–40 km are good for Vs. The resolved zone extends to the Nankai Trough since there is sufficient seismicity in this area.
\nWe calculated the average 1D model from the final 3D velocity structure (Figure 4). We also showed the perturbation from these average velocities (Figure 6).
\nMap views of Vp and Vs perturbation and Vp/Vs. Colored area is the resolved area. Broken white lines at depths of 10 and 20 km denote the median tectonic line.
At a depth of 5 km, low-Vp and low-Vs regions are located along the PAC coast beneath southeastern Hokkaido, northeastern Honshu, most of Kanto, Sagami Bay, southern Kinki, and southern Shikoku regions. A low-Vs region extends beneath the entire Shikoku and southern Chugoku regions. A low-Vp/Vs region runs along the Ou backbone range in northeastern Japan and central Japan. Other regions have high Vp/Vs.
\nAt a depth of 10 km, low-Vp regions extend beneath the active volcanoes in the northeastern and central Honshu and Kyushu regions. Low-Vs regions are almost the same as those at a depth of 5 km. High-Vp/Vs regions are distributed at central Hokkaido and coastal area in northeastern Japan. Low-Vp/Vs covers the other regions.
\nAt a depth of 20 km, low-Vp regions lie beneath volcanoes in Hokkaido, central Honshu, and Kyushu. Low-Vs regions extend beneath the volcanoes and back-arc side of Honshu. Both low-Vp and low-Vs regions extend from central Kinki to Kyushu region across central Shikoku. This low-V zone remains the same as at a depth of 5 km. High-Vp/Vs regions cover the Ou backbone range and back-arc side of northeastern Honshu.
\nAt a depth of 30 km, low-Vp extends beneath the northeastern Honshu, central and southwestern Honshu, and northern Kyushu regions. Low-Vs regions extend beneath most of Honshu, Kyushu, and northern Shikoku regions. High-Vp/Vs regions cover almost all Japanese Islands except the central Hokkaido.
\nAt a depth of 40 km, low-Vp regions exist beneath the volcanoes in southeastern Hokkaido and northeastern and central Honshu regions. The low-Vp regions beneath the volcanoes in the northeastern Japan extend to back-arc side. Low-Vs regions are clarified beneath the volcanoes in southeastern Hokkaido and central Honshu regions. Low-Vs regions beneath the northeastern Honshu can be found east of the volcanic front as are low-Vp regions. Low-Vp/Vs regions cover the central mountains across Hokkaido and northeastern and central Honshu.
\nAt a depth of 60 km, low-Vp and low-Vs regions extend beneath the volcanoes in Honshu and central Honshu. High-Vp and Vs regions extend beneath the Kinki, Shikoku, and eastern Kyushu regions where the PHS plates subduct. High-Vp/Vs regions are distributed across western Hokkaido, central Honshu, and central Shikoku regions.
\nAt a depth of 90 km, low-Vp and low-Vs regions exist beneath the volcanoes beneath Hokkaido and Honshu. High-Vp and Vs regions extend to the east of northeastern Japan where the PAC plate subducts. High-Vp/Vs regions cover northern and southwestern Hokkaido, central Honshu, and central Kyushu regions.
\nAt a depth of 10 km, a low-Vp and low-Vs zone extends along the coast of the PO in the northeastern Honshu. A high-Vp and high-Vs zone exists between the longitudes of 142 and 143°. East of longitude of 143° (Figure 6A and B), low-Vp, and low-Vs zone shows again. Vp/Vs is generally low except in some small regions.
\nAt a depth of 20 km, a high-Vp and high-Vs zone extends along the coast of the PO in the northeastern Honshu, in contrast to the structure at a depth of 10 km. Low-V zones extend to the east of the high-Vp zone; however, some high-Vp zones exist among the low-Vp zones (Figure 6C). High-Vs zones are mixed with minor low-Vs zone off the east of northeastern Honshu, extending to a longitude of 143.5° (Figure 6D). This pattern can be seen with Vp at a depth of 10 km. Vp/Vs is also broadly low, and this pattern of Vp/Vs can be seen when the depth is 10 km except in some regions.
\nAt a depth of 30 km, low-Vp zone extends off the east of northeastern Honshu between longitudes of 142 and 143.5 and to the region off the southeast of Hokkaido. High-Vp zone can be seen along the Japan Trench. Two patches of low-Vs zones exist in the east of northeastern Honshu at latitude of 37–40° and longitude of 142–143° and at latitude of 35–36° and longitude of 141–142°. High-Vp/Vs region is bounded by the low-Vp/Vs region, a north–south “stripe” pattern.
\nAt a depth of 40 km, low-Vp and low-Vs zones extend between longitude of 142–143° and latitudes of 37–41°. These low-Vp and low-Vs zones extend to the west of the Hidaka Mountains. High-Vp and high-Vs zones can be seen on the east of the low-V zone and reach the east of the Japan Trench. Vp/Vs in this area is moderate except for some low-Vp/Vs regions with north–south trend.
\nAt a depth of 60 km, low-Vp and low-Vs zones extend just off the coast of the PAC in the northeastern Honshu. High-Vp and high-Vs zones extend broadly on the east of the narrow low-V zone. Vp/Vs in this area is high.
\nAt depths of 20 and 30 km, low-Vp zones extend around the hypocenters of the large events with magnitude 6.9 and 7.4 that occurred on September 5, 2004. Low-Vs zones partly exist within the low-Vp zone. We cannot resolve the continuous structure from Honshu at depths of 5–10 km since the number of events for seismic tomography beneath the DONET stations is small. This is because the DONET picked data are basically added after the Hi-net manual picking. The seismic tomography will be recalculated when the microearthquake data triggered at DONET stations become available.
\nThe station corrections for the final model are shown in Figure 7. Red stations denote positive O-C travel times. It means that the modeled velocity is too high due to thick sediment or low-V materials since the calculated travel time is too small. It also depends on the depth of borehole of Hi-net stations. The seismometers of the Hi-net stations are typically deployed at depths of around 100–200 m, and low-Vp sediment materials are estimated beneath the backbone range and back-arc side of Japan. Large station corrections are estimated along the Sea of Japan coast in northeastern Honshu since there are thick sediments, while borehole stations are relatively shallow. For Vs, there are many blue-colored stations meaning that the velocity model is too slow. Large station corrections are also estimated on the Sea of Japan side of northeastern Honshu.
\nStation corrections for (a) Vp and (b) Vs.
For S-net stations, blue stations can be seen near the coast and the Japan Trench. Red stations are shown between them for both Vp and Vs. It suggests that the seismic velocity model is too slow near the coast and the Japan Trench and too fast between them.
\nFor DONET stations, red stations are shown near the coast and blue stations reside off the coast. It means that the modeled seismic velocity is too high near the coast.
\nFigure 8 shows the histogram of the epicentral movement during the iterations. Epicenters determined by NIED F-net and [20] are shifted over 50 km after the inversion. Epicenters determined by NIED Hi-net or by NIED Hi-net, S-net, and DONET are mainly less than 10 km in spite of 11 iterations of inversion.
\nHistogram of the earthquake epicentral movements during the inversion. The initial epicenters are determined by (a) NIED Hi-net; (b) NIED Hi-net, S-net, and DONET; (c) NIED F-net; and (d) Ref. [20]. The Hi-net system also uses the seismic stations operated by the other organizations.
Ref. [14] also clarified the seismic velocity structure beneath the PO at depths of 30–50 km; however, that study could not resolve the shallow structure at depths of 0–20 km since the ray paths, such as head waves, from the oceanic event to the land seismic stations pass through the deep zone. The ray paths from the events to NIED S-net stations run through the shallow part of the PO. In this study, we can clarify the structure at depths of 10–60 km and even east of the Japan Trench at depths of 20–30 km (Figures 5 and 6). This is a major improvement enabled by including NIED S-net data
\nOne important feature is the probable Mesozoic rift structure trending NS from the coast of Tohoku to the west of Hidaka Collision Zone. The recent 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi earthquake (M6.7) (Iburi earthquake) occurred at a depth of around 32 km, which is much deeper than the usual inland crustal earthquake. Unfortunately, the structure beneath the PO between the Honshu and Hokkaido islands at a depth of 20 km is not clear; however, a low-Vp zone at a depth of 30 km in north–south direction between 142 and 143° (Figure 9) is resolved. Low-Vp zones also exist west of the Hidaka Mountains and between the Honshu and Hokkaido at the northern extension of this low-V zone, although the high-Vp zone parallel to the Japan Trench along the coast of Honshu and Hokkaido invades the low-Vp zone. The high-Vp zone is consistent with the large positive Bouguer gravity anomaly [22] and large positive aeromagnetic anomaly zones [23]. It implies that high-V mantle mafic material is located in the shallow zone. The depth of the Moho is also shallow near the coast of northern Honshu [24]. The Iburi earthquake may be related to the reactivation of the rift related to the structure in the upper mantle to the lower crust, where it is marked by high-Vp.
\nMap views of (a) Moho depth, (b) aeromagnetism, (c) Bouguer gravity anomaly, Vp perturbation at depths of (d) 20 km and (e) 30 km beneath northern Japan.
We clarified the seismic velocity structure beneath the Sea of Japan at depths of 10–20 km from offshore Hokkaido to Wakasa Bay (Figure 6). The Vp beneath the Okushiri and Sado Islands is low at a depth of 10 km; however, Vp beneath the Sea of Japan is high at depths of 10–35 km. Vp along the coast of Sea of Japan in western Japan gives moderate value. The lithospheric velocity structure in this region is strongly affected by the Mid-Tertiary breakup and formation of the Sea of Japan. Through the reactivation of the younger compressed tectonic terrain, tsunamigenic source faults have been developed. The lithospheric structure provides essential information to infer the structure of faults.
\nRef. [25] imaged the bending-shaped low-Vp oceanic crust of PAC plate subducting from the Japan Trench at latitudes of 38–38.5° offshore Miyagi where the rupture of large interplate earthquakes propagated. In this study, low-Vp material is imaged at depths of 40–50 km bounded by the high-Vp materials with a number of earthquakes surrounded with red ellipse in Figure 10. It indicates the subducting oceanic crust of the PAC plate
\nVertical cross section beneath the Pacific Ocean off Miyagi in WNW-ESE direction. Black circle shows the relocated hypocenters used for seismic tomography in this study.
The isovelocity contour of Vp = 7.0 km/s lies around depths of 25–40 km. Active-source seismic experiments off Sanriku region imaged the same contour lying at depths of 20–35 km [25] on the west side of Japan Trench, at depths of 15–30 km at the Japan Trench [26], and at depths of 15–25 km in NS direction between Honshu and Japan Trench [27]. The seismic velocity model of this study is relatively slower than those models derived from seismic experiments. The difference may depend on the initial velocity model of the oceanic region being set as the same as the land area in this study. The Moho depth becomes shallower with the EUR crust toward the Japan Trench. The oceanic crust of the PAC plate has also thinner crust than the EUR island arc crust.
\nFigure 11 shows the Vp perturbation just above the upper boundary of the PAC plate within the overriding EUR plate. The plane with the upper side at surface has a dip angle of 15°. Reference [28] also showed the Vp perturbation [29] above the upper boundary of the subducting PAC slab and three low-V zone offshore Sanriku, Miyagi, and Ibaraki. In our results, we obtain velocity structure in fine scale; however, we do not estimate the shallow structure along the Japan Trench. We obtain the broad low-Vp and low-Vp/Vs zone within the overriding EUR plate between the Japan Trench and Honshu. A high-Vp and slightly high-Vp/Vs zone exists on the west side of the low-Vp and low-Vp/Vs zone. There are some small high-V zones within the low-V zone near the hypocenter of the Tohoku-oki event.
\nVp perturbation on the plane just above the upper boundary of the PAC plate within the overriding EUR plate. The plane has strike with S17degW from the point with a longitude of 144.5 and a latitude of 41.0 with dip angle of 12 deg. The depth of the upper edge of the plane is 10 km.
Figure 12 also shows the Vp perturbation and Vp/Vs on the coseismic plane of the Tohoku-oki event [30]. We do not obtain the shallow structure along the Japan Trench although the extremely large slip of the Tohoku-oki event is estimated near the Japan Trench. The western edge of the large slip zone is consistent with the high-Vp zone; however, the surrounding region has low-Vp and low-Vp/Vs. Low-Vp/Vs material is difficult to deform so that it can generate large elastic waves if it fails. Low-Vp/Vs on the coseismic slip region may be one of the reasons for the extreme size of the Tohoku-oki event.
\n(a) Vp perturbation and (b) Vp/Vs on the coseismic slip plane [30].
We conducted the seismic tomography for entire Japanese Islands including oceanic area. This is the first tomographic study to use the data from NIED S-net. The hypocenters of oceanic events are greatly improved using the S-net data. We also obtain the detailed seismic velocity structure beneath the PO at depths of 10–60 km. Low-Vp and low-Vs zones are revealed between 142 and 143° at a depth of 30 km and in western Hokkaido where the Eastern Iburi Earthquake in 2018 occurred. The lithospheric velocity structure on the coast of Sea of Japan on Honshu is strongly affected by the Mid-Tertiary breakup and formation of the Sea of Japan. Tsunamigenic source faults have been developed through the reactivation of the younger compression. Subducting low-V oceanic crust is imaged within the mantle of overriding EUR and subducting oceanic PAC plate. The coseismic slip plane of the Tohoku-oki event has low-Vp/Vs; however, the shallow structure along the Japan Trench will be improved in the future with increased data. Previous seismic reflection and refraction studies found the oceanic crust at the uppermost part of the PAC plate with Vp of approximately 6–7 km/s; however, the seismic tomography with NIED S-net clarified the 6–7 km/s Vp zone at depths of 25–40 km. The result may depend on the initial velocity model beneath the PO, which was the same initial model as the land area in this study. Applying the initial velocity model derived from the refraction or reflection seismology would improve the results beneath the ocean in the future.
\nWe used the seismic data provided by the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, the Japan Meteorological Agency, Hokkaido University, Hirosaki University, Tohoku University, the University of Tokyo, Nagoya University, Kyoto University, Kochi University, Kyushu University, Kagoshima University, the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, the Geographical Survey Institute, Tokyo Metropolis, Shizuoka Prefecture, Hot Springs Research Institute of Kanagawa Prefecture, Yokohama City, and Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology. This study was supported by the project on the Operation of Seismograph Networks for NIED. We thank academic editor Masaki Kanao for checking and commenting on our manuscript. We also thank David Shelly and Tomoko E. Yano for their helpful comments and improvement of our manuscript. Some of the figures were drawn using Generic Mapping Tools software [31] and the software for viewing 3D velocity structures beneath whole Japan Islands [32]. This work was financially supported in part by Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and by the Council for Science, Technology and Innovation (CSTI) through the Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion Program (SIP), entitled “Enhancement of societal resiliency against natural disasters” (Funding agency: Japan Science Technology Agency).
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