Localities and dates of collection of individuals of
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Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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Kharlamova is a Senior Postdoc at the Institute of Materials Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, and Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology. She co-authored 2 books and 50 research articles on Raman spectroscopy investigations of carbon nanomaterials.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"285875",title:"Dr.",name:"Marianna V.",middleName:null,surname:"Kharlamova",slug:"marianna-v.-kharlamova",fullName:"Marianna V. Kharlamova",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/285875/images/system/285875.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marianna V. Kharlamova holds a Ph.D. degree in Physics (Spectroscopy) from the University of Vienna (Vienna, Austria) and a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Inorganic Chemistry, Solid State Chemistry) from Lomonosov Moscow State University (Moscow, Russia). She graduated from Lomonosov Moscow State University with an MSc degree in Chemistry and a BSc degree in Materials Science. She is currently working as a Senior Postdoc at the Institute of Materials Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology (Vienna, Austria), and Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (Dolgoprudny, Russia). Her research interests include the electronic properties of carbon nanomaterials, including carbon nanotubes, and spectroscopic investigations of the physical and chemical properties of carbon nanomaterials. In particular, she uses Raman spectroscopy for the investigations of carbon nanomaterials. She co-authored 3 books, 6 book chapters (two chapters were published by IntechOpen), and 55 peer-reviewed research articles (including 4 reviews). 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CSLM provides morphological details with high resolution and generates en-face images with excellent depth discrimination [1, 2]. CSLM is compatible with three-dimensional (3D) live imaging provided by sequential acquisition of tomograms along the depth direction [3]. There is a broad range of experimental and clinical applications on corneal analysis with CSLM. The imaging procedure may assess stromal changes in keratoconus patients [4], experimental full-thickness corneal 3D imaging [5], the quantification of morphological features of epithelial cell layers, and the subbasal nerve plexus [6, 7, 8, 9, 10] that has become very popular in recent years.
Since its commercialization in the late 1980’s, CSLM has become one of the most applied fluorescence microscopy techniques for 3D-dimensional structural studies of biological cells and tissues [3]. Recent technological breakthroughs have led to the development of CSLM, and it has reached the current level of high resolution that can be used in many areas today. In recent years, there has been a vast increase in researchers using CSLM in many fields of medicine, especially in ophthalmology.
In this chapter, we have attempted to summarize the principles of CSLM and the application in ophthalmological and non-ophthalmological areas of medicine. Finally, it was discussed how it could give an essential direction to medical development in the future.
Objects that share a conjugate focal plane are defined as with the term “confocal”. In microscopic area, that means whereby the in-focus image plane can be seen from adjacent axial planes in case of coincidence between the focal plane of the objective lens and the detector. CSLM uses a diffraction-limited spot of light to illuminate the sample and an aperture in the collection light path at conjugate focus.
The first steps of CSLM were designed by Marvin Minsky in 1955 at his early education times and patented in 1957 [11]. However, there has been no significant improvement in CSLM technology over a long time as the required technologies which were either underdeveloped or non-existent at that time. Moreover, CSLM technology was new, and there was no pressing need for it by the scientific community. Therefore, the commercialization of CSLM occurred in the late 1980s. Petran
All confocal microscopes share the same basic principle in their designs that enable optical sectioning of a relatively thick light scattering object. A directed light is crossed through an aperture and focused with the help of an objective lens onto a small area of the specimen. At each tissue location, light is reflected or backscattered and travels the same way back. It is separated from the incident beam by a beam splitter. The reflected light from that specimen was then directed onto a second aperture by a second objective lens. By this method, out-of-focus light is strongly reduced, improving image resolution and contrast considerably. The ability of this system to distinguish between light out of the focal plane yields images of higher lateral and axial resolution compared with light microscopy. As the illumination and detection paths are at the same focal plane, the term confocal is used [2, 3, 15].
The precision of CSLM is mainly based on the concept of the confocality of the investigated object with the light source and the detector plane. Such a system was limited because of its small field of view. By the time, a larger field of view obtained either by moving the specimen whereas the microscope remains stationary, or by moving the confocal system over a stationary specimen. Modern CSLM devices use the second technique. The microscope’s temporal resolution determined by the speed at which a single image of the field is acquired. Poor temporal resolution is important as increased motion artifacts inevitable because of pulse, respiration, and eye movement when examining living human subjects [16].
Biological tissues usually slice with 2–5 μm thickness were cut, stained with various chemicals and examined by light transmission at high magnification as part of conventional microscopic evaluation. In ophthalmology, in vivo examination of semitransparent tissues is performed by slit lamp biomicroscopy thanks to the inventor Allvar Gullstrand [17]. With slit lamp biomicroscopy, optically cut planes are orientated sagittally and observed by a binocular microscope with the magnification up to 50-fold. However, single cell resolution is still impossible at this level of magnification. Nonetheless, a large number of corneal diseases could be diagnosed and followed up by slit lamp microscopy easily in many cases.
Since the corneal cells could not be evaluated by slit lamp biomicroscopy, CSLM has quite satisfactory use in this regard. CSLM provides the imaging of biological structures with up to a magnification of 800-fold that renders possible single cell evaluation (Figure 1). Secondly, the optical section is perpendicular to the slit lamp image as its direction is parallel to the corneal surface [2].
Normal endothelial cells. Endothelial pigment appeared as hyper-reflective spots in some frames of the central cornea, while peripheral endothelium appeared normal. (courtesy by Mustafa Kosker).
CSLM has been used in various ophthalmological conditions for corneal diagnostics. Corneal nerve degeneration and regeneration, assessment of corneal grafting and refractive surgery, contact lenses, diabetes mellitus, keratoconus, ocular surface disease, and normal anatomy are investigated by CSLM with a considerably high number of studies.
Fungal keratitis can be a significant problem in especially developing countries as its slow course and treatment resistance. The clinical findings are nonspecific, and there are difficulties in diagnosis due to its delayed growth even in specific cultures. Despite their infrequent nature, in industrialized countries proper management of fungal keratitis due to prolonged diagnostic procedures ends up with devastating results [18, 19, 20, 21]. Moreover, after initiation of antimicrobial therapy, it is still difficult to assess therapeutic response of some ulcers based upon clinical appearances by slit microscopy alone.
CSLM has been reported to be useful in diagnosis and follow up of patients in fungal keratitis [18, 19, 20, 21]. CSLM has provided instant diagnosis without long lasting preparations of sample cultures. Also, CSLM demonstrates activated keratocytes and directly proven fungi in the corneal ulcer in differential diagnosis of non-fungal keratitis [18, 19, 20, 21]. Although it is a rapid and noninvasive method of diagnosis of routine as well as deep-seated corneal infiltrates, its use as a primary diagnostic modality may not be possible due to its cost and limited accessibility.
Keratoconus is an ectatic corneal disorder characterized by progressive thinning of cornea, which leads to an apical corneal protrusion, irregular astigmatism, superficial scar formation, and progressive decreased vision [22]. The diagnosis of keratoconus is now easy with the development of corneal topography systems. However, CSLM is another approach for the diagnosis and follow up of keratoconus. Quantitative and qualitative structural alterations were seen in all corneal layers in eyes with keratoconus, and the alterations were more prominent as the severity of disease increased [22, 23, 24, 25].
In the keratoconus, main pathologic changes evaluated by CSLM included elongated, exfoliating superficial epithelial cells; brightly reflective material deposition within the basal epithelial cells; prominent, thickened subbasal nerves; structural changes in subbasal nerve fibers; pronounced reflectivity and irregular arrangement of stromal keratocytes; structurally abnormal anterior stromal keratocyte nuclei; folds in the anterior, mid, and posterior stroma; folds in Descemet’s membrane; pleomorphism and enlargement of endothelial cells; and endothelial guttata [22]. Moreover, keratocyte density is significantly lower in subjects with keratoconus and correlated with disease severity [26]. CSLM’s noninvasive nature allows the opportunity to study early microstructural changes in the keratoconic cornea and to understand its pathophysiology (Figure 2).
Keratoconus patient that underwent corneal cross-linking treatment. Hyperreflective cytoplasm, extracellular spaces, and anterior stromal edema give a honeycomb appearance and can be observed until the 3rd month. Although almost all of the keratocytes undergo apoptosis, sporadic keratocytes are observed (arrows). Demarcation line in confocal microscopy: The long, thin, hyperreflective, needle-like structures in the middle stroma and the transition area from the wide hyperreflective stromal bands to normal keratocytes appear as the demarcation line. These hyperreflective bands can be seen in the first six months. While these changes occur in anterior stromas, there is no significant change in the keratocyte density and endothelium count behind the demarcation line. (courtesy by Mustafa Kosker).
There has been an increased interest in using CSLM, that non-invasive technique as an objective diagnostic tool for peripheral neuropathies due to the capability to acquire high-resolution in vivo images of the densely innervated human cornea [27, 28, 29]. Also, the evaluation of the subbasal nerve plexus of the cornea has led to a significant rise in CSLM use to help clinicians diagnose various diseases (Figure 3). Morphological alterations of the corneal subbasal nerve plexus may correlate with the progression of neuropathic diseases and even predict future-incident neuropathy.
Central mosaic dystrophy in a case with Megalocornea: Central cornea: The epithelium appeared normal morphologically. (white arrow): The subepithelial nerve fibers seemed to be thickened and appeared more prominent. In the stroma, starting just below Bowman’s membrane, polygonal, moderately reflective areas of opacification separated by diagonal hyporeflective striations were observed. Peripheral cornea: The epithelium, bowman membrane, and anterior stroma appeared normal morphologically. (courtesy by Mustafa Kosker).
Corneal nerves are affected in cases with limbal stem cell deficiency, infection, corneal surgery, keratoconus, diabetes mellitus, lysosomal storage diseases, and keratitis [2]. Moreover, the evaluation of systemic diseases could also be possible by observing corneal subbasal nerve plexus. In particular, the use of CSLM in diabetic patients, who are at risk of small fiber neuropathy leading to limb amputation, may be helpful in the early detection of small fiber neuropathy, and some preventions can be taken to slow down or eliminate the incident in both industrialized and developing countries [27].
The optical slicing of CSLM is parallel to the surface of the cornea. Therefore, it provides an ideal condition to display and to quantify structures of the subbasal nerve plexus which is located between Bowman membrane and the basal lamina of the corneal epithelial cells. It has been proposed that the imaging of the subbasal nerve plexus will be possible to find new treatment strategies and more effective prevention of serious disease.
Keratoplasty is still a common method in the treatment of corneal pathologies. It has been possible because of the increase in knowledge about corneal anatomy, improvement in instruments, and advancements in technology. Today, development of modern technologies, especially in microscopy, has reached a very good position in terms of success in keratoplasty. With the widespread use of CSLM, it was possible to image a graft’s microstructure as well as calculation of endothelial cell density. CSLM detected some changes such as declining of subepithelial plexus nerves, keratocytes, and endothelial cells in the central clear graft following keratoplasty [30, 31, 32]. The graft is in a stress condition which affects the normal physiological function of keratocytes and leading to the graft failure [30, 31, 32]. Activated immune cells could also be detected in some of the clear grafts, which clearly showed that the subclinical stress of immune reaction took part in the chronic injury of the clear graft failure without any rejection episode. Therefore, morphologic alterations of corneal grafts after keratoplasty detected by CSLM enables us to be aware of corneal graft rejection and to intervene early in a possible rejection.
Refractive surgical procedures are being used frequently in the light of the increasing incidence of myopia and technological developments in refractive surgical devices. It is possible to assess the wound healing response in the living human cornea that may help in unraveling the mechanisms of corneal haze and refractive regression observed following refractive surgery. Studies are carried out in the field of CSLM in order to increase the success rate of this surgery, to detect and manage possible complications at early period [33, 34].
Contact lenses are used today for many different purposes. The effects of contact lenses on the eyes were evaluated with CSLM. Contact lens biocompatibility, its effects on cornea, limbal stem cells or conjunctiva, early diagnosis of devastating infections such as acanthamoeba keratitis are investigated by CSLM [35, 36, 37, 38].
Acanthamoeba keratitis is a serious, sight-threatening corneal infection that can cause significant corneal damage and vision loss. Its incidence is on the rise because of the increasing usage of contact lenses. The diagnose of acanthamoeba keratitis is essential as its devastating nature, and CSLM can be used as an adjunct modality to the clinical data for diagnosing acanthamoeba keratitis [38].
CSLM has been widely used to visualize the morphology of the cornea and conjunctiva and detect changes of the ocular surface in pathological conditions such as infectious, metabolic, and trauma. The micromorphology of the corneal epithelium and stroma can be changed by infections, metabolic diseases, and genetic disorders. The progression of diseases can be observed and monitorized via CSLM [39, 40]. Chemical burns, which may result in irreversible damage to the ocular surface, constitute a large part of ocular trauma. CSLM can provide images of the goblet cells on the corneal surface which is a hallmark of limbal stem cell deficiency. The application of CSLM on chemical burns also allows for evaluation of the limbal structures and ocular surface changes after reconstructive ocular surgery [39].
Dry eye disease is another area of research for CSLM. CSLM is an effective non-invasive tool for evaluation of phenotypic alterations of the conjunctival epithelium. The use of CSLM is also crucial in the diagnosis of meibomian gland disfunction [41, 42]. It demonstrated the importance of meibomian glands for the healthy ocular surface and was also used for the effective treatment modalities of dry eye disease.
The formation of a filtering bleb, which attains by postoperative wound healing process, is a key factor in surgical procedures for glaucoma. Clinical and histological evaluation of these blebs has been investigated by CSLM to visualize functioning or nonfunctioning blebs at the cellular level [43, 44]. The CSLM images of filtering blebs have good consistency with the findings from previous studies. The implantation of CSLM in glaucoma surgery will be enlightened the histological processes responsible for filtration or failure.
CSLM is mainly improved for ocular and ocular adnexal surface structures. However, it can be suited for analyzing any surface of the human body in case of convenient for the device to reach at. On the other hand, the application of CSLM in non-transparent tissue is limited due to light-tissue interaction including reflection and refraction, absorption, and scattering of photons. In human tissues, water molecules and macromolecules such as proteins and chromophores are the main factors that affect penetration depths of the device. Therefore, CSLM images with cellular resolution can only be obtained at depths up to 300 μm [2].
CSLM has been used to evaluate the oral and pharyngeal mucosal membranes and showed promising results in dentistry applications [45, 46, 47]. Studies describing the cellular morphology and pathological alterations of the oral cavity, cervix, and esophagus also showed promising results [48, 49]. Cell morphology, tissue architecture of the epithelium, and a number of pathological skin conditions were investigated [50, 51, 52]. The amelanotic epithelial tissue of the gastrointestinal tract, lip and tongue, and the oropharynx demonstrated with CSLM [52]. CSLM identified intraepidermal blisters and acantholytic cells in pemphigus vulgaris [53]. Sinonasal inverted papilloma could also be detected noninvasively by CSLM [54]. The combination of CSLM with endoscopy is helpful in detection of schistosomiasis [55].
Presently, CSLM has been a potential source of many researches and has received a high level of scientific and clinical attention in ophthalmology. Since CSLM can show high resolution images of various cellular structures within the living cornea non-invasively, it is mainly used for diagnostic purposes. However, ongoing research on this area is under development in order to improve their diagnostic potential and the usability of this technology.
Corneal cell differentiation can be evaluated under various conditions by CSLM. However, the detailed information will not be satisfactory. Multiphoton microscopy, which uses a non-linear interaction mechanism, can be more useful for evaluation of cellular morphology [2]. According to multiphoton absorption, the background signal is strongly suppressed and leads to an increased penetration depth for this technique [56]. Multiphoton microscopy can be a superior alternative to confocal microscopy due to its deeper tissue penetration, efficient light detection, and reduced photobleaching. Multiphoton microscopy is reported as a promising technique for non-invasive detection of diabetic neuropathy [56, 57]. Information derived from this technology may help to develop new drugs for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy.
Slit lamp microscopy is a revolution for ophthalmology. Despite whole anterior segment structures can be evaluated clinically, information on cellular level cannot be attained. Recently, an in vivo method for 3D volumetric reconstruction of the cornea on a cellular level with volume sizes up to around 250 × 300 × 400 μm3 has been reported. [58]. A piezo actuator is implanted to the microscope objective for image acquisition. Moreover, the automated, closed-loop control of the focal plane enables fast and precise focus positioning. Additionally, a novel contact cap with a concave surface has been presented that reduced eye movements by up to 87%. Therefore, the cuboid volume of the generated 3D reconstruction significantly increased. The possibility to generate oblique sections using isotropic volume stacks opened the window to slit lamp microscopy on a cellular level. The diagnosis can be made at cellular level during examination, and the treatment of diseases can be planned more effectively with the widespread useage of this technology,
CSLM is valuable for studying corneal morphology at cellular level non-invasively. However, certain drawbacks such as small field of view limit its usability. The exact CSLM image location and orientation inside the cornea are difficult to locate. Therefore, a combination with optical coherence tomography (OCT) was adapted to the conventional CSLM in order to overcome this limitation.
The combination of both technologies renders it possible to track image position and orientation in real-time [2, 59]. Real-time evaluation of CSLM image plane position and its orientation within the cornea through the OCT section provides an enhanced location-based diagnosis. It is now possible to specify the angle between the corneal surface and the image. Further studies will be necessary for optimizing the system design and OCT scan patterns. In the future, the combination of these technologies will be used widely for diagnostic purposes and will give direction to the treatment.
CSLM allows ocular structures and ocular surfaces to be assessed at cellular level. 2D tessellation or 3D reconstruction of the ophthalmic as well as non-ophthalmic tissue evaluation is possible. This technology is still promising, and close and direct collaboration between clinical science and basic science as well as industry partners can help it to reach its potential. CSLM’s combination with several other technologies will also affect our understanding of diseases, diagnosis, and treatment options in the near future.
The authors thank to Assoc Prof. Dr. Mustafa Kosker from Ophthalmology Clinic of Health Sciences University Dışkapı Yıldırım Beyazıt Training and Researsch Hospital for sharing his valuable work in the field of CSLM with them.
All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest (such as honoraria; educational grants; participation in speakers’ bureaus; membership, employment, consultancies, stock ownership, or other equity interest; and expert testimony or patent-licensing arrangements), or non-financial interest (such as personal or professional relationships, affiliations, knowledge or beliefs) in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.
No funding was received for this research.
The high biodiversity of Guatemala, caused by the great variety of microclimates and the convergence of the flora of North and South America, presents plants that have developed a large number of secondary metabolites to fulfill functions of defense and interaction with the environment. Many of these metabolites have biological and pharmacological activities that are used by communities, through the use of plants for the treatment of different diseases [1]. In this way, many investigations have been carried out aimed at determining the composition and biological activity of the metabolites of different medicinal plants used in Guatemala [2, 3, 4, 5].
One of the biodiverse plants of Guatemala, which also grows in neighboring countries and for which no medicinal uses have been reported in Guatemala, is
The genus
The genus
The sesquiterpenoids are by far the majority and characteristic constituents of the aerial parts and roots of the
On the other hand, the composition of the essential oil of
Other types of compounds isolated in plants of this genus include four flavonoids isolated from the aerial parts of
Likewise, two new
As for the
The species grows along pastures and roadsides in various habitats from
As for the chemistry of
Chamazulene carboxylic acid.
Regarding studies of the essential oil of the plant, the distillation of 178 g of flowers of
From left to right, structures of chamazulene, caryophyllene oxide, germacrene D, and matricine.
The plant, known in Mexico as “tlachichinole,” was used in decoction of the aerial parts for the washing of infected pimples [8], while the “donkey chili” or “sheep tail” is used as medicine to treat intestinal discomforts in Honduras [35]; the decoction of the “October flower” is used by the midwives to accelerate the contractions of the parturients during childbirth [36]. Oral administration of
The purpose of the study was to determine the composition of the essential oil of aerial parts of
Aerial parts of
Localities and dates of collection of individuals of
Population of
Seeds of
After drying, seeds were manually removed from the flower receptacles and subsequently placed for germination in peat moss previously moistened into plastic strainers (Figure 4).
Germinated seeds of
The seedlings obtained were transplanted to 4-gallon flowerpots containing potting soil. The plants were placed in direct sunlight and watered daily. After the seed production by the individuals grown in pots, their roots were removed, washed, and dried in a solar dryer. Then, the roots were pulverized in a forage mill for the extraction of the essential oil.
The oil from 50.0 g of aerial parts of
GC/MS analyses were performed using a chromatograph Shimadzu 2010 Plus system coupled with a Shimadzu QP-2010 Plus selective detector (MSD) and equipped with a DB5-MS capillary fused silica column (60 m, 0.25 mm I.D., 0.25 μm film thickness). The oven temperature program initiated at 60°C, then was raised by 3°C/min to 246°C, and then was held for 20 min. Other operating conditions were as follows: carrier gas, He (99.999%), with a flow rate of 1.03 mL/min; injector temperature, 220°C; split ratio of 1:50; and injection volume of 1 μL. Mass spectra were taken at 70 eV. The m/z values were recorded in the range of m/z 40–700 Da.
Tables 2 and 3 present the results of yields and chemical composition of the essential oils of the three sampled populations of
Composition of the essential oil of the aerial parts of
Composition of the essential oil of roots of propagated
Table 2 shows the yield and composition results of the intense blue essential oil obtained from the aerial parts of individuals of
Another probable explanation could be edaphic factors affecting the production of secondary metabolites in general, but only after new investigations could the relationship between these factors and the production of essential oil and other metabolites be determined.
Regarding the chemical composition analyzed by GC/MS, 22 compounds were identified in the SS3 (94.7% of the total area) and SS4 (97.6% of the total area) oils and 18 compounds in the SS5 oil (98.4% of the total area). A chromatogram of the essential oil of SS4 is shown in Figure 5. The most abundant compound was the chamazulene in area percentages between 42 and 62%, with the highest percentage corresponding to the SS5 essential oil. The mass spectrum of chamazulene from the essential oil of sample SS4 is shown in Figure 6. The other compounds found in high percentage in the oil were germacrene D (4.4–15.3%), caryophyllene oxide (3.2–11.8%), (
Chromatogram of the essential oil of
Spectrum of chamazulene corresponding to the essential oil of sample SS4.
The results confirm that essential oil of
It is worth noting that the composition of the three oils is in congruence with the composition obtained by Simas et al. [33] of
A seed propagation trial was carried out with seeds of plants of
After obtaining the seeds during a plant vegetative stage, the roots were collected from which an essential oil with a light green color was obtained with a yield of 0.2% (w/w), and 25 compounds representing 95.8% of the total chromatographic area were identified (Table 3). The chromatogram of the essential oil of the roots is shown in Figure 7. Due to the green coloration of the oil, it was supposed that the chamazulene was absent in the oil, which was confirmed after the analysis by GC/MS. The major components of the root oil corresponded to α-longipinene (23.5%), germacrene D (22.2%), santolina triene (12.6%), and (
Chromatogram of the essential oil of roots of
Mass spectrum of α-longipinene corresponding to the essential oil of roots of
The common components between the root and the aerial parts oils were germacrene D and (
Structures of α-longipinene and santolina triene, major components of the essential oil of roots of
It was found in this study that the essential oil of aerial parts of wild
The present research was partially funded by the General Directorate of Research of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala, project 4.8.63.1.06, within the framework of the University Program of Interdisciplinary Research in Health. The authors would like to agree to CAPES, CNPq, and FAPERJ from Brazil.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest with respect to this publication.
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",metaTitle:"Waiver Policy",metaDescription:"We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. With the need to make scientific research more publically available and support the benefits of Open Access, more institutions and funders have dedicated funds to assist their faculty members and researchers cover the APCs associated with publishing in Open Access. Below we have outlined several options available to secure financing for your Open Access publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/waiver-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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