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1. Introduction
The use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is increasing in children with chronic illness or disability (Mamtani&Cimino 2002; Ernst 2005; Hyman & Levy 2005; Sinha&Efron 2005). Generally, the term CAM includes complementary therapies, such as behavioural/physical therapies, in addition to products such as herbals and vitamins that are administered systemically. This study specifically considers CAM products and supplements. Prevalence of biologically-based CAM product use in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is among the highest of any population, with reported lifetime use of between 35% and 70% (Hanson et al. 2007; Christon et al. 2010; Green et al. 2006; Senel 2010). High CAM usage in autism has been attributed to the availability of few conventional pharmacological treatments that have a limited evidence base and are often associated with significant adverse effects.
Recent well-designed studies using whole-genome scanning methods, cytogenetics and genetic linkage/association analyses indicate genetic factors play a key role in the aetiology of autism (Eapen, 2011). Environmental and epigenetic factors have also been shown to impact on susceptibility to autism (Persico&Bourgeron 2006). Evidence is building that autism represents a cluster of syndromes that have distinct aetiologies involving inflammation, increased oxidative stress, impaired gastrointestinal (GI) health, mitochondrial dysfunction, autoimmune processes, and impaired ability to neutralise toxins (London 2007).
There is a belief that CAM products may ameliorate biological abnormalities that are reported to occur in autism. Reasons cited by parents for using CAM products for their children with autism include general health maintenance as well as specific symptoms such as moodiness, aggression, irritability, hyperactivity, inattention, GI symptoms, and sleep difficulties (Wong&Smith 2006). Another reason commonly cited by caregivers for implementing CAM products is that sensory processing difficulties and aberrant behaviour that can occur in children with autism may lead to poor feeding patterns and the possibility of nutritional deficiencies (Geraghty et al. 2010).
A study by Golnik and Ireland (2009) surveyed 539 medical practitioners (19% response rate using email and regular post) regarding CAM use in children with autism. The study revealed physicians encouraged use of multi-vitamins (49%), PUFAs (25%), melatonin (25%) and probiotics (19%) in children with autism and discouraged use of chelation (61%) and secretin (43%). In the same study medical practitioners responded positively when asked if they desired more complementary alternative medicine training for these patients (Golnik&Ireland 2009).
Despite this widespread use of CAM products in children with autism, it is of concern that there is a distinct lack of accurate, unbiased and evidence-based information about CAMs available for health professionals and caregivers of children with autism. Ready access to information through the Internet has contributed to the general increased frequency of caregivers implementing CAMs (Hyman & Levy 2005). Families perceive CAMs as a risk-free approach that may improve their child’s outcome (Hyman & Levy 2005). However, all treatments used in children should be judged on standards of scientific research (Levy & Hyman 2003). Studies supporting CAM usage in autism need to be evaluated for scientific study design, clinical safety and scientific validity (Levy & Hyman 2003). There have been few published reviews examining the evidence for rationale, safety and efficacy of CAM products in autism (Angley et al. 2007; Weber & Newmark 2007; Levy & Hyman 2008; Atkins et al. 2010), and none were conducted systematically. To address this gap, we have endeavoured to address this area systematically in this chapter.
This chapter presents the first part of a two-part review. The rationale for a range of CAM products that are used in the management of autism is examined in this chapter. It is hoped this information will inform researchers and health care professionals about the theoretical or proven basis for a range of CAM products used in autism.
Chapter 4 which is the second part of the two-part review includes an examination of the evidence for efficacy and safety of a range of CAM products in autism. Each CAM product for which randomised controlled trials have been conducted has been assigned to a category of the Natural Standard Research Collaboration grading rationale for efficacy (Natural Standard Research Collaboration 2010). To determine safety of the range of CAM products investigated, all types of trials where a specific CAM product has been investigated in autism have been examined.
2. Aim
To systematically review the literature to determine the rationale of a range of CAM products used in ASD. Specifically, the following interventions were investigated: vitamins A, B, C and E, dimethylglycine (DMG), calcium, iron, magnesium, selenium, zinc, probiotics, digestive enzymes, colostrum, secretin, olive leaf extract, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), melatonin, chelating agents (dimercaptosuccinic acid and thiamine tetrahydrofuryl disulphide), metallothionein promotion, glutathione and glutamine.
3. Method
For part 1 of this 2-part review (i.e. Chapter 3), a generalised review of the literature was performed to examine the possible rationale behind the use of these CAMs in ASD which included locating articles describing and investigating the biological basis of autism. Cross-sectional studies investigating biochemical abnormalities that occur in autism were also retrieved. For part 2, (i.e. Chapter 4) randomised controlled trials or randomised cross-over
Search terms used in database searches./ at the end of a term denotes a subject heading in MEDLINE, AMED or CINAHL. Some subject headings differ between these databases.In some databases the symbol $ is used to truncate a word, in some databases the symbol * is used instead
trials in which participants served as their own controls, were used to assess effectiveness of specific CAMs in individuals with ASD. Clinical trials of all designs were used to examine reported adverse effects of the CAMs in this population.
For the purposes of this review, the term CAM was used only in reference to non-conventional medications, sometimes termed ‘biological treatments’ or ‘dietary supplements’ (Levy & Hyman 2005) used in ASD, but not other forms of complementary or alternative therapy (e.g. touch therapies, manipulation therapies). Off-label use of prescription medications was not considered in this review.
The list of CAM products selected for review was developed using previous literature reporting CAM products being implemented by caregivers in their children with autism (Green et al. 2006; Wong & Smith 2006; Hanson et al. 2007; Christon et al. 2010) and consensus amongst authors based on our own research experiences.
Computerised literature searches were performed to locate articles reporting clinical trials of CAMs in children or adults with ASD. The databases searched were Medline (via Ovid), EMBASE, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts (IPA), Allied and Complementary Medicine (AMED), CINAHL, the Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database (Therapeutic Research Faculty) and The Cochrane Library.
To search for articles relevant to ASD standardised search terms were used including: autis$.mp, Asperger$.mp, developmental disabilit$.mp, pervasive developmental disorder$.mp (as key words); and Autistic Disorder/, Asperger Syndrome/, Child Development Disorders/, Developmental Disabilities/, Speech Disorders/, Child Psychiatry/ Communication Disorders/, Language Disorders (as subject headings).
These terms were combined with other terms to identify articles on specific CAMs as indicated in Table 1. Studies were restricted to English language. Searches were restricted to the years 1970 to December 2010. The reference lists of published studies and systematic reviews were also checked for relevant articles.
For the Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database the Product Effectiveness Checker was used to search for articles examining effectiveness for autism or Asperger Syndrome.
4. Results
4.1. Rationale
CAM product usage in autism generally has a theoretical basis rather than a proven rationale. However, there are some instances where biochemical abnormalities have been demonstrated in studies which can be normalised with administration of CAM products. For example James et al. (2004) showed biomarkers of oxidative stress in children with autism could be normalised following supplementation with betaine, folinic acid and vitamin B12. Some studies have also examined how the effects of biochemical normalisation translate into quantifiable outcome measures of behaviour in autism.
The rationale for the use of the CAM products investigated was found to fall into one or more of the following categories: promote GI health, reduce oxidative stress, enhance detoxification of heavy metals, modulate the immune system, normalise neurotransmitter abnormalities, promote sleep and prevent or treat nutritional deficiencies. The theoretical or proven abnormality occurring in autism, rationale for the CAM products investigated and behaviour targeted where known are summarised in Table 2.
4.1.1. Promotion of gastrointestinal health
A high frequency of GI disturbance occurring in individuals with autism was first reported almost 40 years ago (Goodwin et al. 1971), but data regarding prevalence are conflicting. High rates of functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs) in individuals with ASD have been reported in several studies including abdominal pain, constipation, diarrhoea, diarrhoea and alternating constipation and GI inflammation (Horvath et al. 1999; Molloy & Manning-Courtney 2003; Levy et al. 2007). A prospective study by Valicenti-McDermott et al. reported an increased prevalence of GI conditions in children with ASD (n=50, 70%) compared with matched controls that included both neurotypical children (n=50, 28%) and those with non-ASD developmental disorders (n=50, 42%) (2006). However, a recent well-designed population-based study by Ibrahim et al. found that the overall incidence of GI symptoms did not differ between cases of autism and controls (2009).
Functional changes have been reported in the GI tracts of children with autism including increased intestinal permeability (Horvath&Perman 2002). Intestinal permeability, as measured by the urinary excretion of metabolically inert sugars, is a surrogate marker of mucosal integrity and gut barrier function (de Magistris et al. 2010). It has been hypothesised that impaired GI function may not only be a symptom of autism but may also contribute to the phenotypic presentation by increasing absorption of chemicals from the GI tract. There is a body of thought that increased absorption of opioid-like peptides that are derived from gluten and casein (i.e. the ‘opioid excess theory’) may disturb neurological function, as may GI overgrowth of neurotoxin-producing bacteria (Shattock&Whiteley 2002).
4.1.1.2. Altered gut fermentation products in autism
A growing appreciation for the role of intestinal microflora in health and disease has emerged over the last few years, however the beneficial and potentially adverse contributions of bacterial fermentation by-products have not been well established and are largely uncharacterised in children with ASD. A recent metabonomic study revealed metabolic phenotype (metabotype) differences were observed between autistic and control children, which were associated with perturbations in the relative patterns of urinary mammalian microbial co-metabolites including dimethylamine, hippurate, and phenyacetylglutamine (Yap et al. 2010). Another study by Altieri et al. (2011) found higher levels of p-cresol in urine of young children with autism than controls and also reported a positive correlation between urinary p-cresol and autism severity. P-cresol is a toxic metabolite of tyrosine catabolism by gut bacteria such as clostridial species and Pseudomonas stutzeri (Altieri et al. 2011). Whether the observed differences in urinary metabolites observed contribute to, or reflect, GI dysfunction in individuals with ASD requires further investigation.
4.1.1.3. Altered GI microbiota profiles in autism
Several studies have found some bacterial species, particularly some Clostridium species, are present in higher numbers in children with autism experiencing GI disturbance (Finegold et al. 2002; Song et al. 2004; Parracho et al. 2005; Finegold et al. 2010). Some workers have speculated that the differences in the GI microbiotica could be contributing to the pathophysiology of ASD (Bolte 1998; Finegold 2008).
4.1.1.4. Altered digestive enzyme capacity in autism
It has been hypothesised that digestion of dietary gluten and casein in the small intestine by pancreatic and intestinal peptidases releases short chain peptide molecules (exorphins) which are structurally similar to endogenous opioid substances (White 2003). Other hypotheses suggest that excessive opioid activity linked with dietary peptides from gluten and casein have an aetiological role in the pathogenesis of autism (Reichelt&Knivsberg 2003). The ‘opioid excess’ theory of autism proposes that many of the behaviours found in individuals with ASD mimic the influence of opioids on human brain function (White 2003). In addition Horvath & Perman (2002) demonstrated that 44 of 90 (49%) of children with autism showed at least one deficient disaccharidase enzyme activity. Lactase and maltase were the enzymes most commonly measured to have deficient activity, followed by sucrase, palatinase and glucoamylase. They found that all of the children with reduced enzyme activity had flatulence and/or loose stools. It is hypothesised that disaccharide malabsorption may cause chronic diarrhoea and flatulence in children with ASD and may contribute to abnormal behaviour (Patel et al. 2002). Hence, supplementation with these enzymes may cause a reduction in autism related symptoms. For example supplementation with lactase may resolve the symptoms related to lactose malabsorption (Horvath&Perman 2002).
It is speculated that GI symptoms exacerbate the behavioural manifestations of autism contributing to the severity of the disorder (Buie et al. 2010). Abdominal pain, constipation, and/or diarrhoea are unpleasant and can be painful and likely to produce frustration, behavioural problems, and possibly sleep disturbance, aggression and self abuse, especially in children unable to communicate their discomfort.
Various CAMs are used to ameliorate the GI symptoms in children with autism as outlined in Table 2. Probiotics and prebiotics are used to promote gut health. Dietary interventions include the exclusion of gluten and casein containing foods together with dietary supplementation with peptidase enzymes. Peptidase enzymes are implemented in children with autism in an attempt to remove the opioid-like peptides that may exert a neurotoxic effect on the brain (Brudnak et al. 2002). Less obvious candidates are PUFAs which are used with the rationale that they can decrease GI inflammation and improve a \'leaky gut\'.
4.1.2. Oxidative stress
A leading theory implicated in the aetiology of autism is oxidative stress, which results from a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors. Oxidative stress occurs when reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels exceed the antioxidant capacity of a cell leading to damage and functional impairment (McGinnis 2004). “It is thought that autism could result from an interaction between genetic and environmental factors with oxidative stress as a potential mechanism linking the two” (Ming et al. 2005, p.379). These ROS target lipids, proteins and nucleic acids (Chauhan&Chauhan 2006) resulting in a risk of neurologic deficits, especially during early life (Zecavati&Spence 2009). A range of evidence has emerged in recent years supporting the role of oxidative stress in the aetiology of autism.
4.1.2.1. Lipid peroxidation
It has also been found that lipid peroxidation (an oxidative biomarker) in plasma is significantly increased in children with autism when compared to their non-autistic siblings reflecting increased oxidative stress in autism (Chauhan et al. 2004).
4.1.2.2. Antioxidants
Reduced endogenous antioxidant capacity i.e. low levels of the plasma antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase have been found in autistic individuals (Sogut et al. 2003). Furthermore, Yorbik et al. (2002) found that the activities of erythrocyte superoxide dismutase and erythrocyte and plasma glutathione peroxidase were significantly lower in 45 autistic children compared with 41 controls. Chauhan et al. (2004) also found a significant reduction of the major endogenous antioxidants transferrin and ceroplasmin in the serum of children with autism as compared to their typically developing siblings. An excess of toxic free radicals e.g. nitric oxide has also been reported in children with autism as compared to age and sex matched controls (Sogut et al. 2003). Ming et al. (2005) also describe increased nitrite concentrations, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and xanthine oxidase activity in red blood cells in children with autism compared to controls. Notably, decreased plasma levels of the antioxidant vitamins A, C and E were reported in the same autistic cohort (Ming et al. 2005).
4.1.2.3. Mitochondrial disease
Mitochondria serve a primary role in energy production during normal physiological function and generate high levels of ROS which are normally neutralised by free radical scavengers. In the event there is excess ROS relative to the antioxidant defence, mitochondrial dysfunction occurs exacerbating oxidative stress. Mitochondrial disease is associated with impaired neurodevelopment. Two recent studies have reported mitochondrial dysfunction in autism. Post-mortem samples showed increased mitochondrial metabolism and oxidised mitochondrial proteins in the brains of six people with autism compared with controls (Palmieri et al. 2010). Another study showed that 11/21 patients with ASD had definite mitochondrial disease while the rest had probable mitochondrial disease (Weissman et al. 2008).
4.1.2.4. Abnormalities in the trans-methylation and trans-sulphuration pathways
There is emerging evidence that a deficient trans-methylation (i.e. folate/methionine) pathway has a role in the aetiology of autism (Boris et al. 2004; James et al. 2004; James et al. 2006). The folate/methionine pathway (Figure 1) is responsible for the synthesis of the deoxynucleotide triphosphate (dNTP) pools required for DNA synthesis and repair, the establishment and maintenance of stable DNA methylation patterns for tissue-specific gene expression and chromatin conformation and maintenance of the redox balance within each cell.
As shown in Figure 1, the methionine cycle involves the re-methylation of homocysteine to methionine either by methionine synthase (MS) which is folate and vitamin B12 dependent or by the betaine homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT) reaction. The methyl group is donated by 5-methyl tetrahydrofolate synthesised by methylene tetrahydrofolate (MTHFR) from 5,10 methyl tetrahydrofolate.
Methionine is activated by methionine adenosyl transferase (MAT) to S-adenosyl-methinine (SAM), the major methyl donor for cellular methyltransferase reactions (MTases). Following methyl transfer, SAM is converted to S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH). This is further metabolised in a reversible reaction to homocysteine and adenosine. Adenosine is either phosphorylated to adenosine nucleotides by adenosine kinase (AK) or catabolised to inosine by adenosine deaminase (ADA). Homocysteine may be permanently removed from the methionine cycle by irreversible conversion to cystathionine by cystathione-β-synthase (CßS). Cystathionine is converted to cysteine which is the rate-limiting amino acid for the synthesis of glutathione.
A decrease in turnover of the folate/methionine pathway will lead to decreased synthesis of SAM which is vital for normal methylation activity and decreased synthesis of cysteine and glutathione required for normal antioxidant activity.
Figure 1.
Folate cycle and the trans-methylation and trans-sulphuration pathwaysSource: Ms P.A.E. Main, 2011. Used with permissionMetabolites THF: tetrahydrofolate; SAM: S-adenosyl-methionine; SAH: S-adenosyl-homocysteine; GSH: reduced active glutathione; GSSG: oxidised disulfide form of glutathioneEnzymes MS: methionine synthase; BHMT : Betaine homocysteine methyltransferase; MAT: methionine adenosyl transferase; SAHH: SAH hydroxylase; CßS: Cystathione-β-synthase; CL: Cystathione lyase; MTHFR: methylene-tetra-hydrofolate reductase; MTRR: methionine synthase reductase
A systematic literature review identifying studies reporting metabolites, co-factors or genes of the folate/methionine pathway in autism found there are significant differences in the levels of various metabolites of the methionine/folate cycle in individuals with autism compared with controls although there are some inconsistencies between studies which may be due to different methodologies (Main et al. 2010).
Elevated levels of oxidised GSH and subsequent reduction in GSH:GSSG ratio together with a decrease in cysteine (a rate limiting amino acid for glutathione synthesis) and increased lipid peroxidation suggests that oxidative stress may play a significant role in the aetiology of autism (James et al. 2004; Wu et al. 2004). The conclusion of a review of oxidative pathways as potential drug targets in autism by Villagonzalo et al. (2010) was that although there is significant evidence demonstrating that oxidative pathways are disturbed in autism, there is insufficient evidence to decide whether oxidative stress is the cause of autism, or contributes to the illness, or is simply a consequence of the illness. They stated that further research is required to determine if children will benefit from antioxidant treatment and that longitudinal studies exploring oxidative biomarkers and autism symptomatology over time may be a methodology for investigation.
Thus as outlined in Table 2, oxidative stress in autism provides a rationale for the use of CAM products that are antioxidants in their own right, metabolites or co-factors of the trans-methylation or trans-sulphuration pathways, co-factors of plasma antioxidant enzymes and include: vitamins A, C & E, vitamin B12, DMG, magnesium, selenium, zinc, melatonin and glutathione.
4.1.3. Heavy metal toxicity
Heavy metals, such as arsenic, lead, and mercury have been associated with a variety of neurologic deficits and disorders, including lower IQ, Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease (Zecavati&Spence 2009). It has been suggested that some children with autism have an increased body-burden of mercury which may result from biochemical and genomic susceptibilities within detoxification pathways (Mutter et al. 2005).
As mentioned above James et al. (2004) found a significantly reduced GSH: GSSG ratio in children with autism compared with controls. An impaired glutathione redox ratio is thought to play a role in the aetiology of autism by delaying the clearance of heavy metals from the body (Deth et al. 2008). The association between heavy metal exposure and autism, in particular mercury, has attracted considerable interest (Counter et al. 2002; Holmes et al. 2003; Palmer et al. 2006; Geier&Geier 2007). Mercury has been implicated in immune, sensory, neurological, motor, and behavioural dysfunction resulting in clinical manifestations similar to those defining or associated with autism. Some studies have suggested that mercury can disrupt neurotransmitter levels and biochemistry (Faustman et al. 2000; Redwood et al. 2001; Bernard et al. 2002) and impact on normal child development. A suspected source of mercury is thiomersal, a preservative used in vaccines. Notably, although thiomersal has not been included in US vaccines since 2000, autism prevalence rates have continued to rise (Fombonne 2008).
As shown in Table 2, CAM products that are implemented based on the rationale that autism is associated with heavy metal toxicity include probiotics, allithiamine/TTFD, DMSA, metallothionein promoter, glutathione and glutamine.
4.1.4. Immune dysregulation in autism
There is evidence to suggest the immune system plays a role in the aetiology of autism (Kidd 2002a). It is hypothesised that some cases of autism are associated with immune factors and that autism related symptoms may be associated with immune deficiencies or autoimmunity (Levy&Hyman 2005). Immunological anomalies involving cytokines, immunoglobulins, inflammation, and cellular activation have been reported in individuals with autism (Goines&Van de Water 2010).
4.1.4.1. Immune deficiencies and autism
Immune deficiencies in children with ASD have been reported due to frequently encountered medical problems including recurrent ear infection/rhinosinusitis/upper respiratory tract infection, adverse reactions to multiple medications, allergies, GI problems and prolonged courses of illness as compared to typically developing siblings (Jyonouchi et al. 2005; Levy&Hyman 2005). Various immune system deficits including abnormalities in cell-mediated immunity have been reported in autism. Abnormalities of macrophages, B cells, T cells and natural killer cells have been reported in individuals with ASD which may compromise defence against infection (Gupta 2000).
4.1.4.2. Autoimmune disease and autism
A survey administered to families of 61 children with autism and 46 control families with typically developing children discovered that the mean number of autoimmune disorders was greater in families who had children with autism (Comi et al. 1999). In this study, Comi et al. (1999) found that 46% of the families of children with autism had two or more family members with autoimmune disorders (e.g. type 1 diabetes, adult rheumatoid arthritis and hypothyroidism). In addition, this finding may further suggest that genetic predisposition plays an important role in autism. However, Micali, Chakrabarti & Fombonne (2004) did not have the same findings following administration of a semi-structured questionnaire to 79 parents of children with pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs) and 61 controls (parents with typically developing children). They found the rates for any autoimmune disorder for both mothers and fathers combined was 22.4% for parents of controls and 30.9% for parents of children with PDDs which was not significantly different.
It is hypothesised that autoimmune disease in autism may lead to neurodevelopmental damage. Autoantibodies against proteins associated with the central nervous system (CNS) has been reported in some children with autism (Singh et al. 1988; Plioplys et al. 1994; Vojdani et al. 2004). In recent studies, antibodies against the fetal brain have been detected in some mothers of children with autism; these antibodies have the ability to alter behavioural outcomes in the offspring of animal models (Enstrom et al. 2009).
A review by Theoharides et al (2008) proposes a relationship between GI factors, oxidative stress and immune dysregulation and proposes potential drug targets in autism.
4.1.4.3. Vaccination and autism
Although an array of epidemiological studies do not support causality (De Stefano 2007; Baker 2008), the alleged link between autism and vaccination has been debated extensively and many parents and parent advocacy groups continue to suspect that vaccines cause autism. Putative mechanisms for vaccine associated autism include: “1) immune response directed towards a vaccine that cross reacts with host antigens, 2) host response to a vaccine that would result in the production of cytokines and a subsequent autoimmune reaction and 3) toxic components of a vaccine that directly impact on the immune or nervous system” (Levy&Hyman 2005, p.134).
Therefore as outlined in Table 2, immune dysfunction in autism provides a rationale for the use of CAM products that are claimed to be immunomodulators/immunoadjuvants and include: vitamin A, DMG, vitamin C, zinc, colostrum and glutamine.
4.1.5. Normalise neurotransmitters and neurotransmitter metabolites
5-HT is a monoamine neurotransmitter that plays an important role in the developing brain by directing both neuronal proliferation and maturation (McDougle et al. 2005). CNS 5-HT activity has been involved in a range of physiological functions, such as sleep, sensory perception and appetite, which are often disrupted in autism (Young et al. 1982). High levels of 5-HT during early development may cause a loss of 5-HT receptors and therefore impact on subsequent neuronal development (Whitaker-Azmitia 2001). Neuroimaging studies suggest altered developmental regulation of 5-HT synthesis may be associated with the pathogenesis of autism (Chugani et al. 1999). Hyperserotonemia has been consistently reported in people with autism in more than 25 published studies (Lam et al. 2006).
4.1.5.2. Dopamine and metabolites
Dopamine (DA) is a catecholamine which acts as a major neurotransmitter in the brain. Generally, the dopaminergic system is thought to affect a wide range of functions, including cognition and attention (Nieoullon 2002), motor function (Niimi et al. 2009), predictive reward signal mechanisms (Schultz 1998) and immunity (Basu&Dasgupta 2000). Some animal research has shown that stereotypies and hyperactivity can be induced by increasing dopaminergic functioning suggesting dopaminergic neurons may be overactive in autism (Miller et al. 2010).
4.1.5.3. Noradrenaline
Noradrenaline (NA) is synthesized from DA by dopamine β-hydroxylase and released from noradrenergic neurons as well as from the adrenal medulla into the bloodstream. NA plays a critical role in attention, the stress response (i.e. the ‘‘fight or flight’’ response), anxiety, and memory (Amaral&Sinnamon 1977; Fitzgerald 2009), which are frequently observed to be impaired in individuals with autism. Previous studies have shown that measurements of NA (i.e. in plasma and urine) are generally well correlated with measurements in the CNS (Roy et al. 1988). A range of neurochemical studies have attempted to examine excretion of urinary NA and / or adrenaline (A) in individuals with autism compared with controls and have yielded inconsistent findings. Three studies found higher levels of NA and/or A in autism compared to controls (Barthelemy et al. 1988; Herault et al. 1993; Martineau et al. 1994), while four studies found no differences (Launay et al. 1987; Martineau et al. 1992; Minderaa et al. 1994; Croonenberghs et al. 2000).
Therefore as outlined in Table 2, the range of neurotransmitter abnormalities that have been shown to occur in autism provide a rationale for the use of CAM products that are claim to normalise neurotransmitter levels and function such as: high dose pyridoxine and magnesium, metabolites and co-factors of the transmethylation and trans-sulphuration cycles (see Figure 1), vitamin C, zinc and secretin.
4.1.6. Sleep
Sleep problems in children with ASD are common with a prevalence of 44-83% in comparison to 10-20% of typically developing young children (Wright et al. 2011). Sleep difficulties contribute to significant morbidity in children and to family stress. Melatonin is a hormone that is synthesised in the pineal gland from the precursor tryptophan. Its production is light-sensitive, beginning in the early evening and reaching peak levels at approximately 3am. Daytime secretion of melatonin is generally insignificant (Jan et al. 1999). The main functions of melatonin within the body are the synchronisation of circadian rhythm and control of sleep patterns and endocrine secretions (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database 2011). The suprachiasmatic nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus is responsible for the generation of circadian rhythm. Transmission of light through the retina activates this tissue, causing either inhibition or stimulation of melatonin synthesis in the pineal gland. Sleep induction is thought to occur as a result of direct inhibition of the ‘wakefulness generating system’ by melatonin (Jan et al. 1999).
Two studies have suggested a tendency for autistic children to be deficient in the essential amino acid tryptophan, a precursor in the biosynthesis of melatonin (D\'Eufemia et al. 1995; Arnold et al. 2003). Additionally, Tordjman et al. (2005) found a significantly lower excretion rate of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin, the prominent metabolite of melatonin, in children with autistic disorder compared to sex and age-matched controls. These results support the above hypothesis that children with autism may have impaired synthesis of melatonin. Therefore, in theory, supplementation with melatonin could potentially improve their quality of sleep and hence also their daytime behaviour.
4.1.7. Nutritional deficiencies
Factors that contribute to nutritional concerns and deficiencies in children with autism are summarised by Geraghty et al. (2010) and include sensory processing difficulties, rituals and routines and non-compliance behaviours at meal times. Significantly lower levels of nutrients in blood, hair, and other tissues have been seen in autistic children including low levels of magnesium (Strambi et al. 2006), iron (Latif et al. 2002), zinc (Yorbik et al. 2004), vitamins A, C and E, (Ming et al. 2005) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (Vancassel et al. 2001; Bell et al. 2004; Meguid et al. 2008). Further, medications prescribed for children with autism may have nutrition related adverse effects and restrictive diets that are frequently implemented in autism may compromise nutritional intake. As a result, caregivers may elect to implement CAM interventions to treat or prevent nutritional deficiencies.
CAM product used in autism
Abnormality theorised/reported to occur in autism
Rationale for use
Specific symptom/behaviour targeted
Vitamin A
Hippocampal retinoid receptor dysfunction
Immune system dysfunction (Goines&Van de Water 2010)
Oxidative stress (Villagonzalo et al. 2010)
Deficiency (Clark et al. 1993; Steinemann &Christiansen 1998; Ming et al. 2005)
Magnesium is synergistic with pyridoxine (Abraham et al. 1981)
Magnesium protects against oxidative damage via activation of CNS copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD) (Johnson 2001)
Magnesium is necessary for many cellular metabolic processes and transmission of nerve and muscle potentials (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database 2011)
Repetitive behaviour
General autistic behaviours
Cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12)
Gut dysbiosis and inflammation results in decreased GI synthesis of B12 and/or absorption (Kidd 2002b; Erickson et al. 2005)
Trans-methylation and trans-sulphation pathway abnormalities (James et al. 2004; Bertoglio et al. 2010) causing oxidative stress (Villagonzalo et al. 2010)
Normalise B12 levels (Bertoglio et al. 2010)
Correct folate/methionine metabolite profile and other indexes of oxidative stress (James et al. 2004; James et al. 2009; Bertoglio et al. 2010)
Folate/folinic acid (vitamin B9)
Trans-methylation pathway abnormalities (James et al. 2004; Bertoglio et al. 2010) causing oxidative stress (Villagonzalo et al. 2010)
Neurotransmitter level abnormalities (Lam et al. 2006)
Correct folate/methionine metabolite profile and other indexes of oxidative stress (James et al. 2004; James et al. 2009)
Modulate neurotransmitters (Fernstrom 2000)
Dimethylglycine (DMG)
Immune system dysfunction (Goines&Van de Water 2010)
Neurotransmitter level abnormalities (Lam et al. 2006)
Folate/methionine pathway abnormalities (James et al. 2004; Bertoglio et al. 2010)
Oxidative stress (Villagonzalo, et al. 2010)
Immunoadjuvant (Graber et al. 1981)
Modulate neurotransmitters (Kern et al. 2001)
Methyl donor (Kern et al. 2001)
Antioxidant(Kern et al. 2001)
General autistic behaviours
Vitamin C
Neurotransmitter level abnormalities (Lam et al. 2006)
Oxidative stress (Villagonzalo et al. 2010)
Immune system dysfunction (Goines&Van de Water 2010)
Deficiency (Ming et al. 2005)
Cofactor for neurotransmitter synthesis (Kidd 2003)
Reduced excretion of cyanide i.e. lower urinary thiocyanate (Waring&Klovrza 2000)
Chelate and reduce heavy metal levels (Lonsdale 2004)
Enhance sulphation capacity by acting as a sulphate donor (Waring&Klovrza 2000)
Enhance excretion of neurotoxic cyanide (Lonsdale 2004)
General autistic behaviours
Dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA)
Heavy metal toxicity (Al-Ayadhi 2005; Fido &Al-Saad 2005)
Chelate and reduce heavy metal levels (Lonsdale 2004; Adams et al. 2009)
General autistic behaviours
Metallothionein promotion
Elevated blood copper-to-zinc ratios (Faber et al. 2009)
Regulate levels of redox-active metals (Copper (Cu) and Zn) (Faber et al. 2009)
Defense against toxic heavy metals (Faber et al. 2009)
General autistic behaviours
Glutathione
Abnormal trans-sulphuration pathway leading to low GSH:GSSG (James et al. 2004; James et al. 2006), an index of oxidative stress (Villagonzalo et al. 2010)
Antioxidant (Thorne Research Inc. 2001)
Augments chelation therapy (Thorne Research Inc. 2001)
Regulates metallothionein expression (Thorne Research Inc. 2001)
CAM products used in autism, theoretical or proven abnormality in autism, rationale for use and symptom/behaviour targeted
5. Conclusion
Available evidence for the theoretical or proven rationale of a range of CAM products has been compiled to give researchers and health professionals insight into why such agents are recommended and implemented in autism. This information forms the basis for the second part of this 2-part review which follows examining the efficacy and safety of a range of CAM products used in autism.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/19197.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/19197.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19197",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19197",totalDownloads:1994,totalViews:232,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 20th 2010",dateReviewed:"April 18th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 6th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/19197",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/19197",book:{slug:"autism-spectrum-disorders-from-genes-to-environment"},signatures:"Susan Semple, Cassie Hewton, Fiona Paterson and Manya Angley",authors:[{id:"28101",title:"Dr",name:"Manya",middleName:null,surname:"Angley",fullName:"Manya Angley",slug:"manya-angley",email:"manya.angley@unisa.edu.au",position:null,institution:null},{id:"44842",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan",middleName:null,surname:"Semple",fullName:"Susan Semple",slug:"susan-semple",email:"susan.semple@unisa.edu.au",position:null,institution:null},{id:"44846",title:"Ms.",name:"Cassie",middleName:null,surname:"Hewton",fullName:"Cassie Hewton",slug:"cassie-hewton",email:"cassie.hewton@health.sa.gov.au",position:null,institution:null},{id:"45844",title:"Ms",name:"Fiona",middleName:null,surname:"Paterson",fullName:"Fiona Paterson",slug:"fiona-paterson",email:"fionap@ozemail.com.au",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Aim",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Method",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Rationale",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"4.1.1. Promotion of gastrointestinal health",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"4.1.1.1. Intestinal hyper-permeability in autism",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"4.1.1.2. Altered gut fermentation products in autism",level:"4"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"4.1.1.3. Altered GI microbiota profiles in autism",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"4.1.1.4. Altered digestive enzyme capacity in autism",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.2. Oxidative stress",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"4.1.2.1. Lipid peroxidation",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_4",title:"4.1.2.2. Antioxidants",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"4.1.2.3. Mitochondrial disease",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"4.1.2.4. Abnormalities in the trans-methylation and trans-sulphuration pathways",level:"4"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.1.3. Heavy metal toxicity ",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.1.4. Immune dysregulation in autism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"4.1.4.1. Immune deficiencies and autism",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_4",title:"4.1.4.2. Autoimmune disease and autism",level:"4"},{id:"sec_17_4",title:"4.1.4.3. Vaccination and autism",level:"4"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"4.1.5. Normalise neurotransmitters and neurotransmitter metabolites",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_4",title:"4.1.5.1. Serotonin and metabolites",level:"4"},{id:"sec_20_4",title:"4.1.5.2. Dopamine and metabolites",level:"4"},{id:"sec_21_4",title:"4.1.5.3. Noradrenaline ",level:"4"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"4.1.6. Sleep",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AbrahamG.SchwartzU. .LubranM.1981Effect of vitamin B-6 on plasma and red blood cell magnesium levels in premenopausal women. 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A.DoddS.DeanO.GrayK.TongeB. .BerkM.2010Oxidative pathways as a drug target for the treatment of autism. Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets\n\t\t\t\t\t141213011310Electronic) 1472-8222 (Linking)'},{id:"B147",body:'VojdaniA.O’BryanT.GreenJ. A.Mc CandlessJ.WoellerK. N.VojdaniE.et al.2004Immune response to dietary proteins, gliadin and cerebellar peptides in children with autism. Nutritional Neuroscience\n\t\t\t\t\t73151161\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B148",body:'WaringR. H. .KlovrzaL. V.2000Sulphur Metabolism in Autism. Journal of Nutritional and Environmental Medicine\n\t\t\t\t\t1012532\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B149",body:'WeberW. .NewmarkS.2007Complementary and alternative medical therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism. Pediatric Clinics of North America\n\t\t\t\t\t5469831006xii.0031-3955 (Print) 0031-3955 (Linking)'},{id:"B150",body:'WeissmanJ. R.KelleyR. I.BaumanM. L.CohenB. H.MurrayK. F.MitchellR. 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Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders\n\t\t\t\t\t412175184Electronic) 0162-3257 (Linking)'},{id:"B155",body:'WuG.FangY. Z.YangS.LuptonJ. R. .TurnerN. D.2004Glutathione metabolism and its implications for health. Journal of Nutrition\n\t\t\t\t\t1343489492\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B156",body:'YapI. K.AngleyM.VeselkovK. A.HolmesE.LindonJ. C. .NicholsonJ. K.2010Urinary metabolic phenotyping differentiates children with autism from their unaffected siblings and age-matched controls. Journal of Proteome Research\n\t\t\t\t\t9629963004Electronic) 1535-3893 (Linking)'},{id:"B157",body:'YorbikO.AkayC.SayalA.CanseverA.SohmenT. .CavdarA. O.2004Zinc Status in Autistic Children. The Journal of Trace Elements in Experimental Medicine\n\t\t\t\t\t172101107\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B158",body:'YorbikO.SayalA.AkayC.AkbiyikD. I. .SohmenT.2002Investigation of antioxidant enzymes in children with autistic disorder. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids\n\t\t\t\t\t675341343'},{id:"B159",body:'YoungJ. G.CohenD. J. .RothJ. A.1978Association between platelet monoamine oxidase activity and hematocrit in childhood autism. Life Sciences\n\t\t\t\t\t238797806Print) 0024-3205 (Linking)'},{id:"B160",body:'YoungJ. G.KavanaghM. E.AndersonG. M.ShaywitzB. A. .CohenD. J.1982Clinical neurochemistry of autism and associated disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders\n\t\t\t\t\t122147165Print) 0162-3257 (Linking)'},{id:"B161",body:'ZecavatiN. .SpenceS. J.2009Neurometabolic disorders and dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports\n\t\t\t\t\t92129136Electronic) 1528-4042 (Linking)'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Susan Semple",address:"",affiliation:'
Quality Use of Medicines and Pharmacy Research Centre,Sansom Institute for Health Research,School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences,University of South Australia, Australia
Quality Use of Medicines and Pharmacy Research Centre,Sansom Institute for Health Research,School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences,University of South Australia, Australia
Quality Use of Medicines and Pharmacy Research Centre,Sansom Institute for Health Research,School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences,University of South Australia, Australia
Quality Use of Medicines and Pharmacy Research Centre,Sansom Institute for Health Research,School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences,University of South Australia, Australia
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Landeira-Fernandez",authors:[{id:"52728",title:"Dr.",name:"J.",middleName:null,surname:"Landeira-Fernandez",fullName:"J. Landeira-Fernandez",slug:"j.-landeira-fernandez"},{id:"52733",title:"Dr.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-Gomes",fullName:"Vitor Castro-Gomes",slug:"vitor-castro-gomes"},{id:"99781",title:"BSc.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Silva",slug:"carlos-eduardo-silva"}]},{id:"17574",title:"The Loss of Glutamate-GABA Harmony in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-loss-of-glutamate-gaba-harmony-in-anxiety-disorders",signatures:"Joanna M Wierońska, K. Stachowicz, G. Nowak and A. Pilc",authors:[{id:"36779",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej",middleName:null,surname:"Pilc",fullName:"Andrzej Pilc",slug:"andrzej-pilc"},{id:"36785",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Wieronska",fullName:"Joanna Wieronska",slug:"joanna-wieronska"},{id:"36786",title:"Mr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Stachowicz",fullName:"Katarzyna Stachowicz",slug:"katarzyna-stachowicz"}]},{id:"17575",title:"Role of the Endocannabinoid System in Anxiety and Stress-Related Disorders",slug:"role-of-the-endocannabinoid-system-in-anxiety-and-stress-related-disorders1",signatures:"Irit Akirav",authors:[{id:"31398",title:"Dr.",name:"Irit",middleName:null,surname:"Akirav",fullName:"Irit Akirav",slug:"irit-akirav"}]},{id:"17576",title:"New Anxiolytic Phytopharmaceutical Elaborated with the Standardized Extract of Galphimia glauca",slug:"new-anxiolytic-phytopharmaceutical-elaborated-with-the-standardized-extract-of-galphimia-glauca1",signatures:"Jaime Tortoriello, Armando Herrera-Arellano, Maribel Lucila Herrera-Ruiz, Alejandro Zamilpa, Manases González-Cortazar and Jesús Enrique Jiménez-Ferrer",authors:[{id:"56540",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Tortoriello",fullName:"Jaime Tortoriello",slug:"jaime-tortoriello"},{id:"57576",title:"Dr.",name:"Armando",middleName:null,surname:"Herrera-Arellano",fullName:"Armando Herrera-Arellano",slug:"armando-herrera-arellano"},{id:"57577",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel L.",middleName:null,surname:"Herrera-Ruiz",fullName:"Maribel L. Herrera-Ruiz",slug:"maribel-l.-herrera-ruiz"},{id:"57578",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Zamilpa",fullName:"Alejandro Zamilpa",slug:"alejandro-zamilpa"},{id:"57579",title:"Dr.",name:"Manases",middleName:null,surname:"González-Cortazar",fullName:"Manases González-Cortazar",slug:"manases-gonzalez-cortazar"},{id:"57580",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Jiménez-Ferrer",fullName:"Jesús Enrique Jiménez-Ferrer",slug:"jesus-enrique-jimenez-ferrer"}]},{id:"17577",title:"Psychophysiological Markers of Anxiety Disorders and Anxiety Symptoms",slug:"psychophysiological-markers-of-anxiety-disorders-and-anxiety-symptoms",signatures:"Seung-Hwan Lee and Gewn-Hi Park",authors:[{id:"37658",title:"Prof.",name:"Seung-Hwan",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Seung-Hwan Lee",slug:"seung-hwan-lee"},{id:"37669",title:"Dr.",name:"Gewn Hi",middleName:null,surname:"Park",fullName:"Gewn Hi Park",slug:"gewn-hi-park"}]},{id:"17578",title:"Comorbidity of Anxiety and Affective Disorders as Neuropsychiatric and Evolutionary Problem (A New Concept)",slug:"comorbidity-of-anxiety-and-affective-disorders-as-neuropsychiatric-and-evolutionary-problem-a-new-co",signatures:"Vladimir V. 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1. Introduction
Most of the Earth’s water resources comprise of saline water (97.5%) covering 70% of the Earth’s surface. Only 1.2% of the remaining 2.5%, which is called freshwater, is surface water and other freshwater, and it is this water which can be used for all living organisms. Therefore, renewable freshwater resources are finite and unequally distributed geographically [1]. On the other hand, the world population is growing at a rate of ~73 million per year [2], while the freshwater withdrawal, which has already tripled since 1965, is increasing at a rate of 64 km3 year−1 [3]. Moreover, aridity is a major economic, social, and environmental concern to the international community. It is seriously constraining the global food security, ecosecurity, socioeconomic stability, as well as sustainable development.
These will be undoubtedly the major challenges for humanity in the twenty-first century and beyond. While aridity is a natural phenomenon, humans also impact indirectly water through land use change and alterations in climate through fossil fuel combustion [4]. The desiccation of the Aral Sea which started back to the period of the Soviet Union is one of the documented examples. Severe and widespread ecological, economic, and social consequences that are progressively worsening have resulted from the Aral’s recession [5].
To our understanding, a production model prioritizing only economic indicators such as market shares and huge benefits is one human action that exacerbates aridity, which has to be thoroughly considered. Such models could be profitable at short and medium terms but turn to the opposite at the long term since resources are undermined. In agriculture, they imply an intensive use of input resources: water, land, and plant material. This process causes water pollution, aquifer depletion, land salinization, forest clearance, etc. which leads ultimately to the habitat degradation of the Earth.
Instead, we propose the following framework as basis for any human activity (Figure 1). Only businesses following this pyramidal network will comply with societal values, environmental sustainability, and market growth.
Figure 1.
A sustainable framework for industrial and agricultural activities.
In the following, promising strategies will be discussed which aim to a better resource management and hence sustainable development with the objective to reduce the negative impact of aridity on humanity future.
2. Irrigation management
Globally, water withdrawal for agriculture is estimated to 70%, 11% for domestic, and 19% for industrial uses [3]. Although there is a slight variation among North and South Mediterranean countries (Figure 2), depending on whether a country is heavily industrialized or not, the agricultural sector remains the largest water user for the majority. Globally, the production of irrigated crops is a predominant water “consumer” given that ~70% (~3 trillion m3) of totally abstracted fresh hydro-resources is exploited by the agricultural sector [7]. It is obvious that any economy on agricultural water will benefit largely to other sectors.
Figure 2.
Water sector allocation for North Mediterranean (A) and South Mediterranean countries (B) [6].
At a global scale, agricultural water losses are enormous (Figure 3) reaching 55% of available irrigation water. They are caused by irrigation system, farm distribution, and field water application mismanagement. Only 45% of irrigation water is effectively used by crops. There is an urgent need to address these deficiencies and to improve water use efficiency at crop field level.
Figure 3.
Water usage by crop and losses in irrigation system [6].
Studies showed that localized irrigation of crops is better than continuous irrigation [8, 9]. A comparison between frequent and moderate irrigation regimes for maize crop was carried by [9]. Figure 4 shows a summary of the typical patterns of energy balances over maize field, soil surface, and maize canopy by the double layer Bowen ratio energy balance (DOLBOREB) system during both water regimes. Globally, no major differences were observed for energy balance patterns between the two water regimes since evapotranspiration at maize field level remained high during both regimes. In fact, maize field energy balance measurements alone provide virtually no information on how soil surface and canopy energy balances are partitioned. This shows clearly the limitations of considering crop field evapotranspiration as a whole, especially when addressing such important issues as would be water use efficiency improvement in arid areas. A number of factors have contributed to this situation. The high cost of the equipment involved in such experiments and the inherent errors associated with the use of different measurement devices and measurement scales tremendously hinted the large-scale adoption of such techniques either by research scientists and/or by irrigation practitioners [9]. The DOLBOREB system indicated that soil had a major impact on maize canopy energy balance. It also showed that a frequent irrigation regime is not necessarily a synonym of maximum plant transpiration (Figure 4). Ham et al. [8] also concluded that a wet soil appears to reduce crop transpiration (λEc) by acting as a sink for advective energy while reducing the radiation load on the canopy.
Figure 4.
A summary of the typical patterns of energy balances over maize field, soil surface, and maize canopy by the DOLBOREB system during frequent and moderate irrigation regimes.
Future studies for other crops and under different climatic conditions are needed to improve our knowledge of water relations at crop field level. Examining the effect of factors such canopy size, crop type, plant water stress, etc. on soil surface and canopy energy balances is of considerable importance. Energy flux data generated by the DOLBOREB system would be useful for building evapotranspiration and crop growth models. This irrigation management system would save about 30–35% of the water used at crop field level [10].
With (Rn) net radiation; (λE) latent heat flux, (H) sensible heat flux, and (G) soil heat flux at maize field level. (Rns) net radiation reaching the soil surface; (λEs) soil surface latent heat flux, and (Hs) sensible heat flux from the soil surface. (Rnc) net radiation absorbed by the canopy; (λEc) latent heat flux, and (Hc) sensible heat flux from the maize canopy.
3. Water conservation
Dryland regions occupy about 41% of the Earth’s terrestrial surface and are home to more than a third of the world’s population (e.g., [11]). Water is a primary limiting factor to agricultural development in these regions where the local population is suffering from food shortage. Runoff generated as a result of rainfall occurrence infiltrates to the shallow soil depth and is mostly being lost to after-rain evaporation, and the rest of the runoff is lost by strong flows to seas. Intensive agricultural practices and civil project development result in large impermeable areas, soil compaction, and crust generation that cause more runoff to be lost. Increasing runoff velocities lead to intensive erosion processes and land degradation and eventually make the region more arid. Over 17.5% of the global land area is exposed to wind and/or water erosion processes [12].
More efficient management of runoff known as runoff harvesting or runoff farming may be used for food and energy production, flood and erosion control, and landscape development [13, 14, 15]. In terms of combating desertification and land degradation, water harvesting appears to be a viable solution [13]. Runoff farming allows agricultural activity in areas that normally do not receive enough rainfall [16, 17]. This is achieved by concentrating rainfall from a collecting area (catchment) into a smaller and lower lying receiving area, where the water is stored in the soil profile, allowing its cultivation.
Hydrological aspects of these systems, especially with respect to runoff generation, have been reviewed [14, 18].
However, the use of the collected water for agricultural purposes and preventing land degradation has received little attention. The salient feature of this technique is that large amounts of water are collected a few times during the short rainy season. The collected water is ponded in walled fields and percolates to considerable depths. During the dry season, no water is added. These conditions affect plant production. To use stored water as efficiently as possible, soil evaporation and deep percolation should be minimized, and transpiration regulated to allow plants to produce biomass throughout the dry season [19].
Evaporation can be controlled by increasing tree density or mulching the soil, thus reducing the radiation that reaches the soil surface [20]. Alternatively, a similar effect may be achieved by introducing an annual intercrop. Such a crop is likely to consume water from the upper layers, part of which would otherwise evaporate directly from the soil surface. Deep-percolating water can be exploited by plant species with deep-root systems, without necessarily competing with the annual crop. The combined cultivation of shallow rooting annuals and deep-rooting perennials is proposed as a system that uses the stored water efficiently.
There are macro-catchment systems (Figure 5) designed to collect runoff from relatively large catchment areas used for water storage in the root zone for a group of trees or plants and micro-catchment systems designed to collect runoff from relatively small catchment areas, used for enhancing soil moisture storage in the crop rooting zone for individual crop planted in a shallow pit or micro-basin [21].
Figure 5.
Flooded macro-catchment.
Micro-catchments for water harvesting have been tested in the Negev Desert, Israel, for decades [14]. The idea was to use runoff water for growing trees in such a way that each tree had its own small catchment area, typically less than 100 m, and store it in the root zone of an adjacent infiltration basin where a tree or bush or an annual crop is grown [14, 22, 23, 24]. The system can be built on almost any slope, enabling the farmer to use large flat areas [13] that might be a significant advantage for application in the areas where collecting large amounts of runoff is not possible.
The infiltration basin is usually a shallow depression located at the low end in the immediate vicinity of the runoff generating area (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Traditionally designed micro-catchment system: (a) schematic of the system and (b) flooded micro-catchment.
Runoff generation at micro-catchments is affected both by the total rain amounts and average rainfall intensity [18], while the relatively absolute amount of water collected at micro-catchments is low anyway. In such circumstances, the central idea behind any micro-catchment design should be enhancing infiltration and reducing evaporation of already collected water and thus improving soil moisture storage in the crop rooting zone through the dry season. The second component of the system is the water conservation efficiency at the collection plots, i.e., in the soil profile and its further availability to trees/shrubs. The deeper the harvested water moves in the soil profile, the less part of it is exposed to evaporation [15].
The size of the runoff production area directly determines the total amount of runoff water that can be stored in the pit together with soil and rainfall characteristics, topography, etc. [25]. Reported sizes of a single plot are 100–250 m2 in Israel, 250–400 m2 in India, and 1000 m2 in Mali [16].
Runoff generation at micro-catchments is also affected by the rainfall characteristics. It was shown that there is a clear relationship between runoff yields and average rainfall intensity and the degree of correlation between them improves with a decrease in the length of the gap between the rainstorms [18].
The rate of water losses by evaporation is mainly affected by radiation, climate, soil texture, soil structure, soil hydraulic properties, etc. [15]. Because of relatively low absolute amount of water collected at micro-catchments, special attention should be paid to the prevention of the stored soil water from evaporation.
Long-term micro-catchment experiments carried out at Mashash runoff harvesting experimental farm of Ben Gurion University of the Negev showed that the change of collection plot design from a flat surface to a deeper and narrower pit makes the system much more effective. Being collected in the pits, water may infiltrate deeper due to repetitive concentration of relative large water amounts at the limited area and the increased waterhead. Most trees planted inside the pits showed the much higher surviving ability comparing with trees planted at the flat plots.
Infiltration and evaporation have a different pattern in the case of water collection in the pits. Soil water infiltrates through the pit bottom and the walls, where also the surface evaporation occurs through. Additionally water is lost to evaporation through the soil surface around the pit.
Deeper pits enable water to be stored in deeper soil layers around the pit, increase the distance between the stored water and soil surface, and therefore conserve more water in soil for further use by plants.
4. Seawater agriculture
The increasing deficiency of freshwater combined with the ever expanding world population will exacerbate water use pressure between the different water user sectors (urban, industrial, and agricultural). Solving this problem will undoubtedly be the twenty-first century challenge and is necessitating that marginal quality waters including saltwater and/or seawater are strategically used to meet the water shortage without any detriment to the environment and natural resources for increasing crop production worldwide.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations [26] and World Resources Institute (WRI) in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and World Bank (WB) [27], most of the West Asia and North Africa countries are expected to fall below the water scarcity level (1.000 m3 capita−1 year−1) by the year 2030. The most affected countries are Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Libya where renewable water resources (RWR) per capita will fall well below 100 m3 capita−1 year−1 [26, 27, 28]. Of course, reverse osmosis factories are blooming in the Middle East and North Africa, producing almost half of the 95 million m3 day−1 of desalinated water for human use worldwide [29], but will not be able to meet not in the present nor in the future the growing agricultural water demand. Undoubtedly, nonconventional water use will contribute to partially alleviate water scarcity in regions where renewable water resources are extremely scarce [28].
Halophytes have demonstrated their capability to thrive under extremely saline conditions and thus are considered as one of the best germplasms for saline agriculture [30]. Few researchers have examined halophytes under special topics as sustainable cultivation, saline agriculture, and integrative anatomy [31, 32, 33, 34]. Much practical work remains to be done, as well as developing the basic science of halophytology [35]. Apart from the cultural and sometimes the political constraints related to it, we think that there is still a big deal of scientific and technical knowledge to be studied and discovered for a better development of seawater agriculture in desert areas.
Novel approaches to mangrove planting in desert countries have been published [36, 37]. They prove establishing mangrove trees in salty coastal lands is possible providing an appropriate mineral nutrition, i.e., nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron. Based on this finding, they devised a planting method (Figure 7) and used mangrove nurseries. This discovery has permitted plantation of about 1 million mangrove trees, chiefly Avicennia marina, in the intertidal zone of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea [36]. However, this assumption has not made the unanimity among the scientific community and is contested by some other scientists [38]. Nevertheless, such forests can provide feedstuffs and serve as nurseries for fish reproduction. These important findings deserve to be considered for future mangrove plantings and/or mangrove restoration projects in Africa’s desert countries.
Figure 7.
Forestation of desert area by mangrove transplants.
Also, other projects confirmed that even with low fertilization amounts, some plant species like Avicennia germinans, Nitraria retusa, and Sesuvium portulacastrum can grow in extremely salty areas as well [39]. As a result, tens of thousands of mangrove trees were planted in the Mauritanian side of the Senegal River Delta and Nouakchott seaport [39]. Two years after planting, the mangrove trees reached a height of about 2 m and constitute already a source of forage foodstuff (Figure 8).
Thus, certain parts of the Earth’s great deserts and other water-stressed areas might be converted to mangrove forests with seawater irrigation, which might be one of the possible and relatively cost-effective approaches to mitigate desertification under global warming.
5. Conclusion
Water is the most limiting factor for crop production in arid and semiarid areas. Appropriate water resource management will undoubtedly enhance crop production and accomplish sustainable development. These objectives could be achieved by adopting the following water management strategies:
Enhancing agricultural water use efficiency by avoiding water losses at all scales, adopting efficient irrigation scheduling, and using environment adapted crops and varieties, etc.
Water conservation for better crop production
The use of nonconventional water resources, i.e., wastewater, brackish water, and seawater along with the corresponding resistant or tolerant species to produce forage and food
Certainly, no single strategy is currently able to thrive by itself in arid environments. Each one is adapted to a physical and social environment, as well as aridity intensity. Sometimes combined water management strategies could improve crop production in water-scarce areas. Nevertheless, in these environments, the search for better water management strategies and water use habits should be a priority for both research institutions and society.
As the world population grows and climate change consequences worsen, water scarcity will intensively affect some regions more than others. North Africa and West Asia countries, among others, will be dramatically affected, as seen above. It is the responsibility of these countries to make the bulk of research in the field for no one undergoes their level of water scarcity. In this review, we showed a set of strategies, in which combination and application greatly improve plantation and water management in arid and/or desert areas. Some strategies are still not widely implemented, and others are under investigation. However, for a particular water management strategy to be successful, it should be economically viable, respectful of social values, and environmentally sustainable. The search of innovative solutions aiming for better integrated water resource management is a big challenge for National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), the private sector, and the society as a whole.
\n',keywords:"aridity, water management, irrigation water management, water conservation, nonconventional water use, crop production, sustainability, environment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72574.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72574.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72574",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72574",totalDownloads:101,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 28th 2019",datePrePublished:"June 22nd 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 22nd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Water is the most limiting factor for crop production in arid and semiarid areas. The search of promising water management strategies is foremost for achieving highly productive and sustainable agriculture. Irrigation water management, water conservation, and nonconventional water use for agriculture are key issues to be considered by the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) in these areas. According to climate change scenarios and population growth predictions, these countries will undergo even severe water scarcity levels. Failure of resolving food production challenge will exacerbate tensions between countries, wars, and illegal immigration and compromise human, social, economic, and sustainable development in these areas. However, the search for innovative solutions to water scarcity must comply with societal values, environmental sustainability, and market growth.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72574",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72574",signatures:"Adel Zeggaf Tahiri, G. Carmi and M. Ünlü",book:{id:"9845",title:"Landscape Architecture - Processes and Practices Towards Sustainable Development",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Landscape Architecture - Processes and Practices Towards Sustainable Development",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Luis Loures and Dr.Ing. Mustafa Ergen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9845.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83968-377-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-376-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-378-7",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Irrigation management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Water conservation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Seawater agriculture",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Rattan L. World water resources and achieving water security. Agronomy Journal. 2015;107(4):1526-1532'},{id:"B2",body:'UNU. “Water Security”: Experts Propose a UN Definition on Which Much Depends. Dresden, Germany: United Nations Univ; 2013'},{id:"B3",body:'FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). AQUASTAT. Rome, Italy: FAO; 2015'},{id:"B4",body:'Rost S, Gerten D, Bondeau A, Lucht W, Rohwer J, Schaphoff S. Agricultural green and blue water consumption and its influence on the global water system. Water Resources Research. 2008;44:17. DOI: 10.1029/2007WR006331'},{id:"B5",body:'Micklin PP. Desiccation of the Aral Sea: A water management disaster in the Soviet Union. Science. 1988;241:1170-1176'},{id:"B6",body:'Hamdy A, Lacirignola C. Mediterranean Water Resources: Major Challenges Towards the 21st Century. Bari, Italy: IAM Editions; 1999. p. 570'},{id:"B7",body:'Ondrasek G. Water scarcity and water stress in agriculture. In: Ahmad P, Wani MR, editors. Physiological Mechanism and Adaptation Strategies in Plants Under Changing Environments I. New York, Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London: Springer; 2014. pp. 75-96'},{id:"B8",body:'Ham JM, Heilman JL, Lascano RJ. Soil and canopy energy balances of a row crop at partial cover. Agronomy Journal. 1991;83:744-753'},{id:"B9",body:'Zeggaf TA, Takeuchi S, Dehghanisanij H, Anyoji H, Yano T. A Bowen ratio technique for partitioning energy fluxes between maize transpiration and soil surface evaporation. Agronomy Journal. 2008;100:988-996'},{id:"B10",body:'Zeggaf TA, Anyoji H, Takeuchi S, Yano T. Partitioning energy fluxes between canopy and soil surface under sparse maize during wet and dry periods. In: Water Saving in Mediterranean Agriculture and Future Research Needs; 14-17 February; Valenzano, Italy: Options Méditerranéennes Série B; 56. Volume I, 2007. pp. 201-211'},{id:"B11",body:'Mortimore M. Dryland Opportunities. Gland, Switzerland, HED, London, UK and UNDP, New York, USA: IUCN; 2009'},{id:"B12",body:'Pimentel D, Harvey C, Resosudarmo P, Sinclair K, Kurz D, McNair M, et al. Environmental and economic costs of soil erosion and conservation benefits. Science. 1995;267:1117-1123'},{id:"B13",body:'Ben-Asher J, Berliner PR. Runoff irrigation. Management of Water Use in Agricultural Sciences. 1994;22:126-154'},{id:"B14",body:'Boers TM, Ben-Asher J. A review of rainwater harvesting. Agricultural Water Management. 1982;5:145-158'},{id:"B15",body:'Zhang S, Carmi G, Berliner P. Efficiency of rainwater harvesting of micro-catchments and the role of their design. Journal of Arid Environments. 2013;95:22-29'},{id:"B16",body:'Evenari M, Shanan L, Tadmor NH. Runoff farming in desert. I. Experimental layout. Agronomy Journal. 1986;1:29-38'},{id:"B17",body:'Hilary FR, Frasier G. Micro catchment water harvesting for agricultural production. Rangelands. 1995;17(3):72-78'},{id:"B18",body:'Carmi G, Berliner P. The effect of soil crust on the generation of runoff on small plots in an arid environment. Catena. 2008;74(1):37-42'},{id:"B19",body:'Rono J, Koech E, Kireger E, Mburu F. Effect of micro-catchments rain water harvesting on survival and growth of multipurpose trees and shrubs in Nyando District, western Kenya. International Journal of Agronomy and Agricultural Research. 2013;3:17-25'},{id:"B20",body:'Dahiya R, Ingwersen J, Streck T. The effect of mulching and tillage on water and temperature regimes of a loess soil: Experimental findings and modeling. Soil and Tillage Research. 2007;96:52-63'},{id:"B21",body:'Finkel HJ, Finkel ML. Engineering measures: Water harvesting. In: Finkel HJ, Finkel M, et al., editors. Semi-Arid Soil and Water Conservation. Florida, USA: CRC Press; 1987. pp. 93-101'},{id:"B22",body:'Mzirai OB, Tumbo SD. Micro-catchment rainwater harvesting systems: Challenges and opportunities to access runoff. Journal of Plant Science. 2010;7(2):789-800'},{id:"B23",body:'Prinz D. Water harvesting for afforestation in dry areas. In: Proceedings, 10th International Conference on Rainwater Catchment Systems; 10-14 September; Mannheim: 2001. pp: 195-198'},{id:"B24",body:'Senkondo E, Msanngi MM, Xavery ASK, Lazaro P, Hatibu N. Profitability of rain water harvesting for agricultural production in selected semi-arid areas of Tanzania. Journal of Applied Irrigation Science. 2004;39(1):65-81'},{id:"B25",body:'Yazar A, Kuzucu M, Celik I, Sezen SM, Jacobsen SE. Water harvesting for improved water productivity in dry environment of the Mediterranean region case study: Pistachio in Turkey. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science. 2014;200(5):361-370'},{id:"B26",body:'FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). Aquastat Information System on Water and Agriculture. Rome, Italy: FAO; 2005'},{id:"B27",body:'WRI (World Resources Institute) in Collaboration with United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and World Bank (WB). The Wealth of the Poor—Managing Ecosystems to Fight Poverty. Washington, DC: WRI; 2005. p. 254'},{id:"B28",body:'Qadir M, Sharma BR, Bruggeman A, Choukr-Allah R, Karajeh F. Non-conventional water resources and opportunities for water augmentation to achieve food security in water scarce countries. Agricultural Water Management. 2007;87:2-22'},{id:"B29",body:'Jones E, Qadir M, Van Vliet MTH, Smakhtin V, Kang S. The state of desalination and brine production: A global outlook. Science of the Total Environment. 2019;657:1343-1356'},{id:"B30",body:'Mishra A, Tanna B. Halophytes: Potential resources for salt stress tolerance genes and promoters. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2017;8:829'},{id:"B31",body:'Flowers TJ, Munns R, Colmer TD. Sodium chloride toxicity and the cellular basis of salt tolerance in halophytes. Annals of Botany. 2015;115:419-431'},{id:"B32",body:'Grigore MN, Ivanescu L, Toma C. Halophytes: An Integrative Anatomical Study. New York, NY: Springer; 2014'},{id:"B33",body:'Rozema J, Muscolo A, Flowers T. Sustainable cultivation and exploitation of halophyte crops in a salinizing world. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 2013;92:1-3'},{id:"B34",body:'Xu C, Tang X, Shao H, Wang H. Salinity tolerance mechanism of economic halophytes from physiological to molecular hierarchy for improving food quality. Current Genomics. 2016;17:207-214'},{id:"B35",body:'Yensen NP. Halophyte uses for the twenty first century. In: Weber DJ, editor. Ecophysiology of High Salinity Tolerant Plants. Switzerland: Springer; 2006'},{id:"B36",body:'Sato G, Fisseha A, Gebrekiros S, Abdulkarim H, Negassi S, Fischer M, et al. A novel approach to growing mangroves on the coastal mud flats of Eritrea with the potential for relieving regional poverty and hunger. Wetlands. 2005;25(3):776-779'},{id:"B37",body:'Sato G, Negassi S, Zeggaf TA. The only elements required by plants that are deficient in seawater are nitrogen, phosphorus and iron. Cytotechnology. 2011;63(2):201-204'},{id:"B38",body:'Lewis RR III, Erftemeijer PLA, Hodgson AB. A novel approach to growing mangroves on the coastal mud flats of Eritrea with the potential for relieving regional poverty and hunger: Comment. Wetlands. 2006;26(2):637-638'},{id:"B39",body:'Auriol M, Filali MY, Zeggaf TA. Mangroves implantation in coastal arid country. In: l’Etat des Ressources en Eau au Maghreb en 2009. Rabat, Morocco: UNESCO Publication; 2010. pp. 145-162. ISBN-978-9954-8068-3-0'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Adel Zeggaf Tahiri",address:"zeggaf.adel@yahoo.co.uk",affiliation:'
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Physical Sciences, Technology and Engineering Board
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Chemistry
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Ayben Kilislioglu - Department of Chemical Engineering Istanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey
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Goran Nikolic - Faculty of Technology, University of Nis, Leskovac, Serbia
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Mark T. Stauffer - Associate Professor of Chemistry, The University of Pittsburgh, USA
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Margarita Stoytcheva - Autonomous University of Baja California Engineering Institute Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
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Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
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Earth and Planetary Science
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Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
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İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
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Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
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Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
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Engineering
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Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
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Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
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Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
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Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
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Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
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Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
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Materials Science
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Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
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Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
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Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
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Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
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Mathematics
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Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
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Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
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Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
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Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
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Physics
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Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
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Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
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Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
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Robotics
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Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
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Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
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Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
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Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
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Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
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Environmental Sciences
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Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
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Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
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Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
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Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
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Immunology and Microbiology
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Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
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Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
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Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
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Medicine
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Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
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Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
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Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
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Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
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Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
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Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
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Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
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Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
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Ophthalmology
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Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
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Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
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Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
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Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
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Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
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Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
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Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
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Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
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Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
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Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
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Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
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Gastroenterology
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Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
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Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\\n\\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\\n\\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n
\\n\\n
Hematology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\\n\\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\\n\\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\\n\\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\\n\\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\\n
\\n\\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\\n\\n
Business, Management and Economics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
\n\t
Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Earth and Planetary Science
\n\n
\n\t
Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
\n\t
İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
\n\t
Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
\n\t
Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
\n
\n\n
Engineering
\n\n
\n\t
Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
\n\t
Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
\n\t
Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
\n\t
Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
\n\t
Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
\n\t
Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
\n
\n\n
Materials Science
\n\n
\n\t
Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
\n\t
Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
\n\t
Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
\n\t
Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
\n
\n\n
Mathematics
\n\n
\n\t
Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
\n
\n\n
Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
\n\n
\n\t
Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
\n\t
Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
\n
\n\n
Physics
\n\n
\n\t
Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
\n\t
Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
\n\t
Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
\n
\n\n
Robotics
\n\n
\n\t
Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
\n\t
Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
\n\t
Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
\n\n
\n\t
Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
\n\t
Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
\n\t
Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
\n
\n\n
Environmental Sciences
\n\n
\n\t
Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
\n\t
Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
\n\t
Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
\n\t
Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
\n
\n\n
Immunology and Microbiology
\n\n
\n\t
Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
\n\t
Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
\n\t
Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
\n
\n\n
Medicine
\n\n
\n\t
Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
\n\t
Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
\n\t
Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
\n\t
Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\n
\n\n
Ophthalmology
\n\n
\n\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\n\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
\n\t
Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
\n\t
Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\n\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
\n\t
Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\n\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\n\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\n
\n\n
Gastroenterology
\n\n
\n\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\n\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\n\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\n\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n
\n\n
Hematology
\n\n
\n\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\n\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\n\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\n\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\n\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\n\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\n
\n\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\n\n
Business, Management and Economics
\n\n
\n\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Denis Erasga - De La Salle University, Phillippines
\n\t
Rosario Laratta - Associate Professor of Social Policy and Development Graduate School of Governance Studies, Meiji University, Japan
\n
\n\n
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