IBD patient/study and control groups, Olive tail moment (OTM) and % tail DNA after
1. Introduction
The generation of DNA damage by environmental, medical or life style factors is considered to be an important initial event in carcinogenesis. At the cellular level, a balance between the production of oxidative radicals and the compensational action of antioxidants, which might become pro-oxidant at high concentrations (Anderson et al., 1994) is crucial for our health. Imbalance on either side, especially towards an increase in oxidative stress, might result in various detrimental effects including cell death and cancer. Despite various cellular mechanisms to counteract these adverse events the sheer number of potentially carcinogenic compounds leading to oxidative stress can negatively affect the DNA integrity of cells.
Dietary flavonoids acting as antioxidants (Rice-Evans, 2001) have been identified to be capable of counteracting these adverse oxidative effects (Ross and Kasum, 2002). They are classified as low-molecular-weight polyphenolic compounds that are ubiquitously present in fruit and vegetables and categorised according to their chemical structure into flavonols, flavones, flavanones, isoflavones, catechins, anthocyanidins and chalcones. Flavonoids such as quercetin and rutin present in soybean products have potent antioxidant properties and mimic oestrogens, hence are being used to ease menopausal symptoms. Soy flavonoids are also believed to lower the blood level of triglicerydes and cholesterol preventing coronary heart disease as well as osteoporosis (Valachovicova et al., 2004). They have a wide variety of biological effects acting either as anti- or pro-oxidants depending on their concentration (Anderson et al., 1997; Duthie et al., 1997) and/or in combination with food mutagens (Anderson et al., 1997). Anderson et al
Lifestyle factors like alcohol intake, physical inactivity, stress, food additives, high animal fat and/or red meat intake and also cooking-derived carcinogens such as heterocyclic amines (HCA), have been identified as having a strong impact on human health and being involved in the aetiology of cancer in general (Adamson et al., 1996; Bogen, 1994). Evidence for a positive association of colorectal cancer and adenomatous polyps with HCA exposure has been provided by several studies (Butler et al., 2003; Felton et al., 2007; Gunter et al., 2005; Knize and Felton, 2005; Murtaugh et al., 2004; Navarro et al., 2004; Nowell et al., 2002; Shin et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2006). HCA are formed by cooking proteinaceous food, mainly seen as heat-induced non-enzymatic browning that involves creatinine, free amino acids and monosaccharides (Schut and Snyderwine, 1999). More than 20 carcinogenic/mutagenic HCA have been isolated so far (Nagao et al., 1997; Wakabayashi et al., 1992). Major subclasses of HCA found in the human diet comprise of aminoimidazoazaarenes (AIA), 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-
More than 600 individual compounds and complex dietary mixtures have been studied for protective effects towards HCA (Schwab et al., 2000) and numerous articles have been published regarding mammalian enzymes involved in the bioactivation and detoxification of these compounds (Eisenbrand and Tang, 1993). The genotoxicity of HCA originates from their activation by a series of reactions involving cytochrome P450 when the parent compound is converted to an electrophilic derivative such as a nitrenium ion that covalently binds to DNA resulting in DNA adducts and subsequently in nucleotide alterations and chromosomal aberrations (Goldman and Shields, 2003; Hatch et al., 2001). IQ induces unscheduled DNA synthesis in liver cells and shows strong mutagenic properties in the
Colorectal tissue is constantly exposed to different chemicals and free oxygen radicals formed during metabolic activation. High intracolonic levels of free radicals may form active carcinogens or mitogenic tumour promoters through the oxidation of procarcinogens, either by hydroxyl radicals in faecal water or by secondary peroxyl radicals (Babbs, 1990). Within an inflamed bowel, disproportionate amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can be additionally produced (Loguercio et al., 1996; Simmonds and Rampton, 1993). Ulcerative Colitis and Crohn's disease are inflammatory disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, associated with increased risk for colorectal cancer (Soderlund et al., 2010), which are unevenly distributed within the populations throughout the world. Although the exact cause of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) remains unknown, the epidemiology of IBD has provided an insight into the pathogenesis of the disease by examining geographic, ethnic and other IBD risk factors (genetic, environmental, etc.) as well as their natural history (Danese and Fiocchi, 2006). Interestingly, reactive oxygen species (Seegert et al., 2001) are produced in abnormally high levels in cells from IBD patients (Rezaie et al., 2007) leading to oxidative stress and thus to DNA damage due to an imbalance between innate and exogenous antioxidants and ROS (Hemnani and Parihar, 1998; Soffler, 2007). Oxidative stress has been linked to cancer, aging, atherosclerosis, ischemic injury, inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases (Davies, 1995). Oxidative stress arising from the pathophysiology of cancer, may even serve as a biomarker (Hopkins et al., 2010), when there is an imbalance between production of ROS and their removal by intrinsic antioxidants (catalase) and antioxidant micronutrients.
In the present study, we used the Comet assay, which evaluates direct DNA breaks and is a fast and reliable method to assess DNA integrity in virtually any cell type without the requirement for cell culture (Moller, 2006). Three groups of individuals served as blood donors: healthy volunteers, IBD patients as well as patients with histopathologically confirmed, untreated colon cancer. It is known that lymphocytes from colon cancer patients exhibit higher levels of DNA damage caused by the intrinsic oxidative stress arising from colorectal cancer (Hopkins et al., 2010) and that these lymphocytes may also serve as an early predictive marker of cancer risk (Vodicka et al., 2010). Separated lymphocytes from IBD patients and healthy individuals were treated with H2O2 co-treated with quercetin and IQ with epicatechin. Also lymphocytes from colon cancer patients and healthy individuals were treated with IQ and PhIP with and without the supplementation of the antioxidant flavonoids, quercetin and rutin to show that these three flavonoids are able to reliably protect cells against the damaging effects of reactive oxygen species, even in the context of diseases like IBD or colorectal cancer where levels of ROS are already highly increased. Non-physiological doses were used
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Chemicals
The chemicals for the Comet assay were purchased from the following suppliers: RPMI-1640 medium, agarose and low melting point agarose from Invitrogen, Ltd. (Paisley, U.K.); DMSO (dimethyl sulfoxide), ethidium bromide, Trypan blue, EDTA, Trizma base, Triton X-100, quercetin, epicatechin, rutin and hydrogen peroxide H2O2, from Sigma Chemical Company (Dorset, U.K.); sodium chloride and sodium hydroxide from BDH Laboratory Supplies (Poole, England); Lymphoprep cell separation gel from Nycomed Pharma Axis Shield (Oslo, Norway); FCS (foetal calf serum) from Nalgene, Rochester (New York, USA). The food mutagens, IQ (2-amino-3-methyl-3h-imidazo[4,5-f]quinoline) and PhIP (2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine), were obtained from Toronto Research Chemicals, Inc. (Downsview, Ontario, Canada).
2.2. Collection of samples
After informed consent, approximately 10 ml heparinised blood were taken by venepuncture from the IBD and colon cancer patients at the Department of Gastroenterology, Bradford Royal Infirmary (BRI) and St. Luke’s Hospital, Bradford, UK. Healthy volunteers were recruited within the Division of Biomedical Sciences at the University of Bradford (West Yorkshire, UK). Ethical permission was obtained from both the BRI Local Ethics Committee (Reference no.: 04/Q1202/15) and the University of Bradford’s Sub-Committee for Ethics in Research involving Human Subjects (Reference no.: 0405/8). Over a period of three years, a set of samples from healthy controls, IBD patients and colon cancer patients was obtained.
2.3. Questionnaire for patients and controls
A questionnaire was administered to each donor immediately after taking the blood sample. The completed questionnaire for the patient and control groups provided essential information about lifestyle, endogenous (gender, age) and exogenous factors (intake of medicines and alcohol, smoking habits and diet). There were two different studies performed: study I involving IBD patients and study II – colorectal cancer patients. Both studies had separate treatment regimes.
2.4. Lymphocyte separation for the Comet assay
The heparinised blood was diluted with 0.9% saline in a 50:50 proportion and 6 ml of this dilution was carefully layered on top of 3 ml of Lymphoprep in 15 ml conical tubes followed by centrifugation (20 minutes at 800 g) at room temperature. The buffy coat layer of lymphocytes (above the Lymphoprep layer) was then transferred to another tube pre-filled with 10 ml of saline and centrifuged (15 minutes at 500 g). The supernatant was removed without disturbing the pellet which was then resuspended in PBS or RPMI-1640 medium and used for the
2.5. Cell viability
Cell viability at the concentrations chosen for each experiment was checked after treatment and before performing the Comet assay. Viability was determined by Trypan blue dye exclusion indicating intact cell membranes (Phillips, 1973). 10 µl of 0.05% Trypan blue was added to 10 µl of cell suspension and the percentage of cells excluding the dye was estimated using a Neubauer Improved haemocytometer (Pool-Zobel et al., 1992). Only concentrations with viability over 80% were accepted for use in the studies to avoid artefactual results from cytotoxicity (Henderson et al., 1998).
2.6. Treatment of lymphocytes
2.6.1. Treatment for IBD group of experiments
Isolated lymphocytes (approx. 106 cells per ml) from IBD patients (n=10) and healthy controls (n=10) were treated without metabolic activation for 30 minutes in RPMI at 37 ºC either with different concentrations of quercetin (0, 100, 200, 250 µM) in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (50 µM) or with different concentrations of epicatechin (0, 25, 50, 100 µM) in the presence of IQ (50 µM). Lymphocytes from healthy individuals served as the control groups. After the treatment, the cells were pelleted (5 minutes at 900 g). For DNA damage studies, the cell suspension was mixed with the same volume of 1% low melting point agarose for the Comet assay.
2.6.2. Treatment for colorectal cancer group of experiments
Lymphocyte suspensions (100 µl, 106 cells per ml) from colon cancer patients (n=20) and healthy controls (n=20) were exposed to defined concentrations of food mutagens and/or flavonoids in the presence of RPMI in a total volume of 1 ml. The treatment was for 30 min at 37 °C. As lymphocytes showed little or no difference in response with metabolic activation, the Comet assay was performed in the absence of metabolic activation to avoid any confounding factors (Anderson, 1997, 1998). To investigate DNA damage, the following concentrations were used 10, 25, 50 and 75 µM for PhIP and 25, 75, 100 and 150 µM for IQ based on preliminary studies (data not shown). To investigate the modulatory effect of flavonoids, the highest concentrations of IQ and PhIP were used for simultaneous combination treatment with the flavonoids, quercetin and rutin, supplemented at concentrations of 100 (50 for rutin), 250 and 500 µM.
2.7. Alkaline comet assay
The slide preparation for the Comet assay and the assay itself was carried out as previously described (Tice et al., 2000). An aliquot of 100 µl of lymphocyte suspension was mixed with 100 µl of 1% low melting point agarose (in PBS, <40 °C warm) and 100 µl of this suspension were spread onto each of the two microscope glass slides pre-coated with 1% normal melting point agarose (in water, dried overnight). After cover-slips were applied, the slides were placed on an ice-cold tray. Once the agarose set, the cover-slips were removed and a final third layer of 0.5% low melting point agarose (in PBS) was added and allowed to solidify as well on ice for 5 min. For each concentration, two replicate slides were produced. For cell lysis, the slides were immersed laterally in a container with cold lysing solution (2.5 M NaCl, 100 mM EDTA, 10 mM Tris, 10% DMSO, 1% Triton X-100, pH 10) and incubated at 4 ºC overnight. Then, the slides were placed on the tray of an electrophoresis tank, filled with cold alkaline electrophoresis buffer (300 mM NaOH, 1 mM EDTA, pH <13) and incubated for 30 minutes at 4 ºC in the dark to allow the unwinding of DNA and expression of alkali labile sites. Electrophoresis was conducted at the same temperature for 30 minutes at 0.75 V/cm. The current was adjusted to 300 mA by raising or lowering the buffer level. After electrophoresis, the slides were removed from the tank and soaked three times for 5 minutes each with neutralizing Tris buffer (400 mM, pH 7.4). Cellular DNA was stained with 60 µl of 20 µg/ml ethidium bromide and cover-slips applied. Slides were examined using a fluorescence microscope equipped with a charge couple device (CCD) monochrome camera and a computerised image analysis system, Komet 4.0 (Kinetic Imaging, Liverpool, UK) to measure the comet parameters. All slides were coded by an independent person ensuring that scoring took place completely randomized and in a “blind” manner (Faust et al., 2004). For each replicate slide, 25 cells were scored (50 cells in total) for each individual in each group making 500-1000 observations per experimental point, allowing a more than adequate statistical power to detect effects (Hartmann et al., 2003).
2.8. Statistical analysis
Data were tested for normality prior to statistical analysis. Normal distributions were checked through the Kolmogorov-Smirnoff and Shapiro-Wilk’s Test to assess whether parametric statistics could be used. Study I: Gaussian normality was violated for many of the scale variables as endorsed by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Therefore, non-parametric test procedures were adopted wherever necessary, such as the Kruskal-Wallis (K-W) and the Mann-Whitney (M-W) tests for independent samples. When testing intra-subject differences in DNA damage, the Wilcoxon Signed Rank (WSR) test was applied. For the binary response variables, Fisher's Exact (FE) test was applied. Throughout the analyses, a significance level of 5% was used and unilateral alternative hypotheses preferred to bidirectional tests (wherever appropriate). Study II: differences in measured parameters between healthy and colon cancer subjects were assessed by the parametric One Way ANOVA Test, since data were normally distributed. The relationship between DNA damage and various parameters characterising colon cancer status and unexposed control was analyzed using Post-hoc analysis (Dunnett test). The mean of each set of data was used in the statistical analysis. A probability level at p<0.05 was regarded as statistically significant. Differences between two experimental groups were tested by the unpaired Student
Statistical analyses were performed on mean values for each cluster group (healthy individuals, IBD and colon cancer patients) for each possible combination of chemicals. The experimental unit was the individual. The Comet data parameters used to measure DNA damage were Olive tail moment (OTM; arbitrary unit, the fraction of DNA in the tail multiplied by the tail length) and % tail DNA (the percentage of DNA in the tail) recommended to be the most reliable comet measurements with OTM being the most statistically significant (Kumaravel and Jha, 2006). Of these two parameters, OTM is one of the most commonly reported measures of DNA damage but is recommended to be provided together with % tail DNA (Tice et al., 2000). Together they clearly define the comets indicating a linear relationship to the DNA break frequency over a wide range of levels of damage and both can be applied for scientific purposes (Hartmann et al., 2003; Kumaravel et al., 2009).
3. Results
Mutagenic effects of food mutagens and H2O2 in lymphocytes of all groups, healthy individuals and IBD/cancer patients, were examined
3.1. Study I: IBD patients
3.1.1. Patient versus control groups
As shown in Table 1 and Figure 1, there was a significant difference in baseline DNA damage before
Flavonoid supplementation at the highest concentration (250 μM quercetin or 100 μM epicatechin) caused an overall significant reduction of the induced DNA damage within the patient group and the control groups. This resulted in a 48.6% (p < 0.001) reduction of H2O2 induced DNA damage and a 43% (p < 0.001) reduction of IQ induced DNA damage within the patient groups. For both control groups, reductions in DNA damage of 35.2% and 57.1%, respectively, were observed (both, p < 0.001) (Table 1 and Figure 1). As expected, the two different control groups showed similar baseline DNA damage (M-W, p = 0.174).
3.1.2. Differences in IBD sub-groups
As shown in Table 2 and Figure 2 in both series of experiments there was less DNA damage in the UC patient group (n = 4) than in the CD group (n = 4) each being significantly different (Kruskal-Wallis (K-W) test, p < 0.001) when compared with the combined patient groups, which also included the indeterminate group where it was difficult to differentiate into UC or CD (n = 2). Also there was less induced DNA damage in the study group treated with H2O2 and quercetin compared with the study group treated with IQ and epicatechin although the patients were selected randomly.
3.1.3. Confounding factors
3.1.3.1. Ethnicity, age, gender, smoking and drinking habits
There were small differences of median levels of DNA damage in Caucasians (n = 13) and Asians (n = 7) after treatment with H2O2 and quercetin as well as in males and females. A similar effect was observed within groups treated with IQ and epicatechin. However, these differences were not found to be statistically significant. There were also no statistically significant differences in DNA damage in the age distributions between patients as well as between control individuals (H2O2 with quercetin experiment: patients’ mean age = 42.4 years ± 11.6, control individuals’ mean age = 28.9 years ± 9.0; IQ with epicatechin experiment: patients’ mean age = 39.2 years ± 10.3, control individuals’ mean age = 22.6 years ± 9.2). No major differences were seen due to smoking and/or drinking habits (Table 2).
3.1.3.2. Previous medication in the IBD group as a confounding factor
Patients had been treated with a range of drugs for IBD, namely, azathioprine, mesalazine and pentasa, asacol, prednisolone, mercaptopurine alone or in combination prior to taking part in the study. Azathioprine & pentasa, azathioprine & mesalazine, mercaptopurine & balsalazide (n = 6); asacol (n = 1); pentasa & prednisolone, prednisolone & mesalazine (n = 3). Within the treatment groups, there appeared to be differences but they were not significant.
3.2. Study II: colon cancer patients
3.2.1. Patient versus control groups
Treating lymphocytes from healthy individuals and cancer patients with food mutagens IQ and PhIP
Significantly different from the negative control: * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; *** p<0.001Significantly different from highest dose of food mutagen IQ: † p<0.05; †† p<0.01; ††† p<0.001Significantly different from healthy individuals: § p<0.05; §§ p<0.01; §§§ p<0.001
Different concentrations of the flavonoids quercetin (100, 250 and 500 µM) and rutin (50, 250 and 500 µM) showed modulating effects on human lymphocytes of both donor groups in the presence of high doses of food mutagens, 150 µM IQ or 75 µM PhIP (Table 3). In the majority of the experiments supplementation with flavonoids resulted in a significant dose-dependent reduction of the induced DNA damage ranging from 1.4 to 2.5 times. For lymphocytes from healthy individuals, only the lowest quercetin dose together with IQ and the lowest dose for rutin together with IQ and PhIP measured in OTM, as well as the lowest dose of rutin together with PhIP when evaluating % tail DNA did not reach significant levels. At the highest supplemented flavonoid dose, the DNA damage from a high dose of food mutagen was significantly reduced to levels of damage in lymphocytes (from both donor groups) which was comparable to a treatment with a six times lower dose of the food mutagen IQ and a 7.5 times lower dose of PhIP, respectively.
Intergroup comparisons showed lower basic DNA damage in lymphocytes from healthy individuals (negative control) when compared to those from colon cancer patients (Figure 3 and Table 3). This difference was highly significant (p < 0.001 for parameters, OTM and % tail DNA) for the negative control of the IQ experiment and significant for the PhIP experiment (p < 0.05 for % tail DNA; the OTM parameter did not reach significance: p = 0.085). Also, after treatment with food mutagens IQ and PhIP this higher baseline damage led to a significantly higher induction of DNA damage in lymphocytes from cancer patients for IQ concentrations of 25 µM (p < 0.01 for OTM; p < 0.001 for % tail DNA), 75 µM (p < 0.05 for % tail DNA) and 150 µM (p < 0.05 for OTM) as well as PhIP concentrations of 10 µM (p < 0.05 for % tail DNA) and 50 µM (p < 0.05 for OTM & % tail DNA).
When supplementing a single high-dose treatment of either IQ (150 µM) or PhIP (75 µM) with flavonoids (quercetin or rutin), the intergroup comparison showed only at the highest levels of flavonoid supplementation significant differences in the reduction of DNA damage caused by the food mutagen (Figure 3 and Table 3). Except for the supplementation of PhIP with 500 µM of quercetin (Figure 3C), lymphocytes from colon cancer patients showed significantly higher amounts of DNA damage at higher flavonoid concentrations in comparison to healthy volunteers (Figures 3A, 3B & 3D), i.e. less reduction of induced damage by the flavonoid (IQ + 500 µM quercetin, p < 0.01 for OTM and % tail DNA; IQ + 250 µM quercetin, p < 0.01 for % tail DNA; IQ + 500 µM rutin, p < 0.01 for % tail DNA; PhIP + 500 µM rutin, p < 0.05 for OTM and p < 0.01 for % tail DNA). The parameter % tail DNA for genetic damage was more sensitive compared to OTM.
3.2.2. Confounding factors
Confounding factors such as age, gender, diet, smoking habits and alcohol intake were also investigated (Table 4). A significant higher baseline DNA damage (p < 0.001) in lymphocytes from colon cancer patients was observed for parameters OTM and % tail DNA compared to those from healthy individuals. There was also a significant difference between subjects of >50 years of age when compared to those under 50 years of age (p < 0.01) showing a 1.80-fold and 1.54-fold increased baseline DNA damage for OTM and % tail DNA, respectively. No statistically significant differences were found when focusing on smoking habits, alcohol intake and diet, although, when comparing Western to Asian/vegetarian type diet the OTM parameter almost reached significance (p = 0.061). DNA damage in male lymphocytes was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than in lymphocytes from females for the Comet assay parameter % tail DNA but not for the OTM parameter (p = 0.450).
4. Discussion
Crohn’s disease (CD) and Ulcerative Colitis (UC), known as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), are fairly common chronic inflammatory conditions of the gastrointestinal tract. Although the exact aetiology of IBD remains uncertain, dysfunctional immunoregulation of the gut is believed to be the main cause. Amongst the immunoregulatory factors, reactive oxygen species (Seegert et al., 2001) are produced in abnormally high levels in IBD (Rezaie et al., 2007). An imbalance between antioxidants and ROS results in oxidative stress, leading to cellular damage (Rezaie et al., 2007) and subsequently cell death or cancer. Colorectal cancer is a heterogeneous neoplasm consisting of cancer cells with various proliferation rates and the potential to metastasise (Ozdemirler Erata et al., 2005). Genetic alterations caused by cellular overproduction of ROS are required for neoplastic progression (Soderlund et al., 2010). Such changes are based on DNA damage triggered by endogenous but also by environmental and lifestyle genotoxins (Bartsch et al., 2002; Ozdemirler Erata et al., 2005). As the onset of cancer is a prolonged multi-stage process where successive mutations are accumulated, continuous erosion of the genome and defects in repair contribute to this process (Hoeijmakers, 2001; Jiricny and Marra, 2003). Several factors, depending on the socio-economical status, such as large amounts of salted, cured and smoked foods, dietary mutagens, alcohol and obesity may play an important role in increasing mutagenicity leading to an inappropriate stimulation of the immune response or release of ROS subsequently generating further DNA damage (Hursting et al., 2003).
Cooking fish and beef inevitably generate HCA especially at high temperatures (Schut et al., 1999), which are carcinogenic in mice, rats and monkeys producing hepatic, intestinal and mammary tumours (Schoeffner and Thorgeirsson, 2000) and posing a potential risk to humans. HCA have been widely investigated and all of them have so far been described as mutagenic and carcinogenic (Gooderham et al., 2007). Food-derived heterocyclic amines (HCA) like IQ have been shown to be mutagenic in the Ames test inducing gene mutations and tumours
As mentioned before DNA damage seems to be also triggered by oxidative stress. When considering the human diet, it should be recognized that food contains both, mutagens and components that decrease cancer risk such as antioxidants (Goldman et al., 2003; Maeda et al., 1999). Flavonoids are known to have antioxidative properties
The present studies demonstrate that H2O2, PhIP and IQ are capable of inducing significant DNA damage as a result of oxidative stress (Figures 1, 2 and 3, Table 1 and 3). There was a significant increase of DNA damage after treating lymphocytes from healthy controls, IBD and colon cancer patients with H2O2, PhIP and IQ, while a significant protective effect was found in the presence of the flavonoids quercetin, rutin and epicatechin (Figures 1, 2 and 3, Table 1 and 3).
In the study I, the protective
Lymphocytes from CD patients in two series of study groups appeared to have a greater level of baseline DNA damage than those from UC patients when compared to the whole patient group (p < 0.001), suggesting that lymphocytes from CD patients are more exposed to oxidative stress than other IBD subgroups (Figure 2). It becomes obvious that an excessive production of ROS and radical nitrogen metabolites occur during the inflammation of the intestine in IBD patients (Kruidenier et al., 2003). It seems that a misbalanced production of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines is characteristic of IBD and severely affects the immune homeostasis in peripheral blood cells, even more in CD than in UC patients (Sventoraityte et al., 2008). However, all subgroups react in the same way towards exogenous oxidative stressors as well as towards the inhibition of oxidative stress by flavonoids.
The detrimental effects of two common food mutagens, IQ and PhIP, on the DNA were investigated in study II by treating
In our study the DNA damage induced in lymphocytes of both donor groups by food mutagens IQ and PhIP was effectively and dose-dependently reduced by supplementation with the flavonoids quercetin and rutin (Table 3). The level of DNA damage from the highest HCA dose reduced by the highest dose (500 µM) of flavonoids was comparable to that of a six times (for IQ) and 7.5 times (for PhIP) lower non-supplemented dose of food mutagen.
Strong antioxidative effects of flavonoids to protect against DNA damage have been known for some time (Anderson et al., 2003; Collins, 2005; Perez-Vizcaino et al., 2009; Rice-Evans, 2001) and
We found that the number of individuals in each group was sufficient to establish statistically significant responses (p< 0.001) shown in our study for the food mutagens. Our results indicate that the baseline DNA damage was higher for all experiments in lymphocytes from colon cancer patients when compared to healthy individuals (Table 3 and Figure 3). Disease states which involve an overproduction of ROS may therefore inflict significantly higher DNA damage in peripheral lymphocytes from patients when compared to the baseline level of damage in healthy individuals. This has been shown for diseases like Irritable Bowel Syndrome and diabetes (Collins et al., 1998b; Najafzadeh et al., 2009; Wyatt, 2006). It also confirms findings of Vodicka
An analysis of confounding factors such as age, gender, diet, smoking habits and alcohol intake (Table 4) on the baseline level of DNA damage in lymphocytes in Study II showed a significant higher damage for subjects of >50 years of age (p < 0.01) as previously reported (King et al., 1994; Mendoza-Nunez et al., 2001). When examining the confounding effect aspects the numbers of participants were reduced yet we still found statistically significant effects for age (>50. p < 0.01) for both OTM and % tail DNA and for gender (males, p < 0.05) for % tail DNA only. An increase in DNA damage in lymphocytes has been observed among elderly individuals but was not significant (Betti et al., 1994; Mendoza-Nunez et al., 2001). We are aware our groups are not best matched for age however these were the only individuals available at the time. Despite this fact we were able to detect an age effect in a >50 age group. Although smoking and alcohol consumption is associated with an increased risk for colorectal cancer (Bardou et al., 2002; Emmons et al., 2005) probably due to DNA damage via increased levels of oxidative stress (Lodovici and Bigagli, 2009; Obe and Anderson, 1987; Pool-Zobel et al., 2004), no statistically significant differences were found in our study when focussing on smoking habits, alcohol intake or diet. This was also the case in the IBD study (Study I). DNA damage in male lymphocytes, however, was significantly higher than in lymphocytes from females for the Comet assay parameter % tail DNA but not for OTM. According to the literature, male gender constituted a risk factor for DNA damage (Collins et al., 1998a), where elderly males had more than twice the probability of having DNA damage than females (Mendoza-Nunez et al., 2001). After
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, a significant protective effect of the flavonoids quercetin, epicatechin and rutin against oxidative DNA damage has been demonstrated after oxidative stress has been induced
The flavonoids significantly reduce DNA damage
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank the clinical staff of Bradford Royal Infirmary Hospital and St. Luke’s Hospital for their support in this study.
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