The reality of myocardial revascularization strategies in patients with isolated coronary artery disease [18].
\r\n\tIn sum, the book presents a reflective analysis of the pedagogical hubs for a changing world, considering the most fundamental areas of the current contingencies in education.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-793-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-792-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-794-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b01f9136149277b7e4cbc1e52bce78ec",bookSignature:"Dr. María Jose Hernandez-Serrano",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10229.jpg",keywords:"Teacher Digital Competences, Flipped Learning, Online Resources Design, Neuroscientific Literacy (Myths), Emotions and Learning, Multisensory Stimulation, Citizen Skills, Violence Prevention, Moral Development, Universal Design for Learning, Sensitizing on Diversity, Supportive Strategies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 14th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 12th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 1st 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 30th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Phil. Maria Jose Hernandez Serrano is a tenured lecturer in the Department of Theory and History of Education at the University of Salamanca, where she currently teaches on Teacher Education. She graduated in Social Education (2000) and Psycho-Pedagogy (2003) at the University of Salamanca. Then, she obtained her European Ph.D. in Education and Training in Virtual Environments by research with the University of Manchester, UK (2009).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"187893",title:"Dr.",name:"María Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez-Serrano",slug:"maria-jose-hernandez-serrano",fullName:"María Jose Hernandez-Serrano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/187893/images/system/187893.jpg",biography:"DPhil Maria Jose Hernandez Serrano is a tenured Lecturer in the Department of Theory and History of Education at the University of Salamanca (Spain), where she currently teaches on Teacher Education. She graduated in Social Education (2000) and Psycho-Pedagogy (2003) at the University of Salamanca. Then, she obtained her European Ph.D. on Education and Training in Virtual Environments by research with the University of Manchester, UK (2009). She obtained a Visiting Scholar Postdoctoral Grant (of the British Academy, UK) at the Oxford Internet Institute of the University of Oxford (2011) and was granted with a postdoctoral research (in 2021) at London Birbeck University.\n \nShe is author of more than 20 research papers, and more than 35 book chapters (H Index 10). She is interested in the study of the educational process and the analysis of cognitive and affective processes in the context of neuroeducation and neurotechnologies, along with the study of social contingencies affecting the educational institutions and requiring new skills for educators.\n\nHer publications are mainly of the educational process mediated by technologies and digital competences. Currently, her new research interests are: the transdisciplinary application of the brain-based research to the educational context and virtual environments, and the neuropedagogical implications of the technologies on the development of the brain in younger students. Also, she is interested in the promotion of creative and critical uses of digital technologies, the emerging uses of social media and transmedia, and the informal learning through technologies.\n\nShe is a member of several research Networks and Scientific Committees in international journals on Educational Technologies and Educommunication, and collaborates as a reviewer in several prestigious journals (see public profile in Publons).\n\nUntil March 2010 she was in charge of the Adult University of Salamanca, by coordinating teaching activities of more than a thousand adult students. She currently is, since 2014, the Secretary of the Department of Theory and History of Education. Since 2015 she collaborates with the Council Educational Program by training teachers and families in the translation of advances from educational neuroscience.",institutionString:"University of Salamanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Salamanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"301331",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Vulovic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/301331/images/8498_n.jpg",email:"mia.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Global Social Work",subtitle:"Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:"global-social-work-cutting-edge-issues-and-critical-reflections",bookSignature:"Bala Raju Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61578",title:"Focus on Coronary Atherosclerosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77301",slug:"focus-on-coronary-atherosclerosis",body:'\nAtherosclerosis locution originates from the Greek-Latin word “atera” meaning “oat or milky mush.” It describes a vascular disorder consisting of thickening of arteries and lack of elasticity. The general pathology refers to three situations:
\nThe predominant type is often seen with intimal fatty plaque formation including central lipid-rich core. We want to mention about this type of atherosclerosis.
\nThe second morphologic type of atherosclerosis, Mönckeberg’s medial calcific sclerosis, is seen in the muscular arteries with a medial calcification. This form is not prominent as classic atherosclerosis and mostly seen after the age of 50. This can be seen radiologically and can be felt with palpation.
\nThe third type is the disorders of the small arteries and arterioles, named arteriosclerosis. This is seen mostly with hypertensive and diabetic patients. This refers to stiffening or hardening of the artery walls.
\nThe final result of atherosclerosis is that arteries become narrowed and hardened due to an excessive buildup of plaque around the artery wall. The disease disrupts the flow of blood around the body, posing serious cardiovascular complications.
\nAtherosclerosis can be seen in all arteries in the body. But we will instruct about the coronary atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is the most common cause of death in the western countries [1].
\nArteries contain what is called an endothelium, a thin layer of cells that keeps the artery smooth and allows blood to flow easily. Endothelial damage starts the first step of atherosclerosis. After this LDL cholesterol accumulates in the artery wall. Inflammatory process starts after this accumulation, and macrophages reach the endothelium to clean up cholesterol. But some macrophages stuck in the affected part of the artery wall in this process. Over time this results in plaque being built up, consisting of cholesterol and macrophage white blood cells.
\nThe plaque clogs up the artery, disrupting the flow of blood. This potentially causes blood clots that can result in life-threatening conditions such as heart attack and other cardiovascular diseases.
\nSome risk factors are follows: age, sex, familial predisposition, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking, obesity, insufficient physical activity, etc. Whatever the main reason or the risk factor is, once atherosclerosis is formed, several life-threatening cardiovascular disorders can be seen. So, it has to be revealed.
\nThe role of the circulation is to service the needs of the tissues. It includes transporting nutrients to thecells of the body and waste products away from the cells of the body. And finally transporting hormones from one part of the body to another. Naturally, circulation maintains an appropriate environment in all the tissue fluids of the body for optimal survival and function of the cells.
\nSystemic circulation, pulmonary circulation, peripheral circulation, etc. have some details to maintain the blood flow. The arteries are the large conductive vessels that transport blood under high pressure to the tissues. The arterioles are the last small branches of the arterial system. And, the capillaries are where the exchange of fluid, electrolytes, nutrients, hormones, and other substances occurs. And, of course veins, venules, collect blood from the capillaries. Our main subject is atherosclerosis of arterial vessels.
\nWe have to learn the normal state before discussing the pathological status. The normal artery wall is consisting of intima, media, and adventitia. Lumen is lined by a monolayer of endothelial cells that overlies smooth muscle cells. The inner layer of smooth muscle cells, known as the intima, is circumscribed by the internal elastic lamina. The media layer is between the internal elastic lamina and external elastic lamina. The media is another layer of smooth muscle cells. Outside the external elastic lamina is an adventitia part that is rarely populated by cells and microvessels of the vasa vasorum.
\nAtherosclerosis is a progressive disease of medium- and large-sized arteries characterized by focal intimal lesions called atheromas or atherosclerotic plaques that protrude into vessel lumen and eventually leading to various complications [2]. There are several diseases led by atherosclerosis: coronary artery disease, peripheral artery disease, and carotid artery disease. These are real threats for mortality and morbidity in the developed countries.
\nAtherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory, fibroproliferative disease of medium- and large-sized arteries [3]. There are different stages to form the atherosclerotic plaque. The initiation phase is the beginning and the progression of the plaque and the final complication stage.
\nChronic or recurrent endothelial damage is the cornerstone of the “response to damage” hypothesis. Hyperlipidemia, hypertension, smoking, immunoreactions, hemodynamic factors, toxins, and viruses can cause this chronic endothelial damage. Hemodynamic deformities such as endothelial shear stress, turbulent flow, or unfavorable effects of hypercholesterolemia have a role in the initiation phase. Due to endothelial damage and turbulent flow, endothelial permeability, cell regeneration, and receptor-mediated LDL endocytosis and leukocyte adhesion to endothelium increase.
\nHyperlipidemia has an important role in the atherogenesis [4]. Chronic hyperlipidemia especially hypercholesterolemia can start the endothelial damage. After all, lipoproteins accumulate in these damaged endothelial sites. The cellular response after endothelial damage continues with increased permeability, leukocyte adhesion, monocyte migration, and increased adhesion. This is no longer the initiation phase after this stage; progression has started.
\nSome cellular events take an important part in this phase. Smooth muscles migrate from the media layer to intima and macrophages activated. Monocytes turn to macrophages. Activated macrophages, and smooth muscle cells absorb lipids. Modified lipid molecules due to the oxidative mechanisms of modified LDL arise. Oxide LDL makes some additive affects, in order; (a) with the help of altered receptors LDL absorbed easily by macrophages (b) they are chemotactic to circulating monocytes (c) they enhance adhesion of monocytes (d) they prevent the mobility of macrophages because of this macrophages remain their position and hold on to there (e) they are cytotoxic to endothelium and smooth muscle cells (f) they are immunogenic.
\nThe endothelial damage is like as peeling of the endothelium, because of this damage platelets hold on to the endothelium. Smooth muscle cells derived from media layer migrate to here and starts to duplicate and some of them absorb lipids inside and turns to the foam like cells. And this is shown as fatty streaks.
\nAfter this stage macrophages take a leading role in atherosclerosis. Macrophages secrete interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and they are increasing leukocyte adhesion. Again, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) produced by macrophages collects leukocytes in the plaque. They have a role to oxidate the LDL. And finally, they secrete stimulators to affecting the smooth muscle cell growth [5].
\nFatty streaks are seen in the childhood phase. This lesion starts as a small 1-mm-diameter intimal color change. With the organization of atherosclerosis, this lesion varies 1–3 mm in diameter and 1–2 cm long. Some of them are raised and some of them not.
\nAtheromatous plaque is the definitive lesion, and it is rich in lipids, but more often it is a lipid and fibrotic lesion. Sometimes, this solid and fibrotic characterized plaque can be rich with cells. Plaques’ diameter can reach to a few cm. Its color changes according to the amount of the lipid. It is changed to a round shape and has an irregular shape.
\nAtheromatous plaques can be seen in the different parts of the body. The prevelence of involvement is in order; Abdominal aorta, coronary arteries, popliteal arteries, descending thoracic aorta, internal carotid arteries and the circle of Willis.
\nFinally, microscopically atherosclerotic plaque has got the main components. These are lipids, vascular smooth cells, monocytes/macrophages, rarely lymphocytes, connective tissue matrix, and fibrils (Figure 1).
\nThe stages of the progression of atherosclerosis.
But more importantly, atherosclerotic plaque changes to four different types. These are complicated plaques:
Calcification of the arteries. They can be seen as a consecutive island, and some of them can be in the whole artery.
Ulceration of the surface of the atherosclerotic plaque. This can cause embolization.
Platelet aggregation can occur on the ulcerated plaque. This can lead to total occlusion of the artery. The most devastating effect of atherosclerosis such as heart attack and stroke is caused by the superimposed thrombosis.
Atherosclerotic aneurysm can occur due to atherosclerosis.
This ulceration can break endothelial integrity, and this can causes rupture of the plaque and can cause bleeding.
Due to the asymptomatic phase of atherosclerosis, it is impossible to say the frequency of atherosclerosis, because the process of atherosclerosis starts with fatty streak in the first decade of lifetime. More advanced lesions begin to develop when individuals are in their second and third decade. Complicated coronary atherosclerosis causes coronary artery disease (CAD) after all. CAD remains the most common pathology with which cardiologists and cardiac surgeons are facing. It is the most common cause of death in Turkey in 2013 [6]; 38.8% of the deaths were due to the ischemic cardiovascular disease. Ischemic heart disease is the most common cause of death in the world as reported by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2012 [7].
\nInactivation of genes coding for monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), its receptor on monocyte/macrophages (CCR2), and macrophage colony-stimulating factor has a profound impact on the development of atherosclerosis in otherwise identical mice that have been shown in the experimental studies [8]. The etiology of atherosclerosis is unknown, but in the development process of atherosclerosis, the pathophysiology is important to explain the nature. There are some important risk factors in this process. We have to classify risk factors in two. These are modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors.
\n\n
Increased age.
Male gender: lack of atheroprotective properties of estrogen which raises HDL and lowers LDL.
Hereditary factors: history of coronary artery disease (CAD) among first-degree relatives at a young age (before 55 for males and before 65 for females). New markers of the cardiovascular risk factors:
Increased lipoprotein(a) level.
Increased homocysteine level: high levels may promote oxidative stress, vascular inflammation, and platelet adhesiveness. And, this process leads to atherosclerosis. A meta-analysis that collected a large number of prospective studies showed a significant association between the serum level of homocysteine and the incidence of cardiovascular disease [9]. Not just with it, increased blood homocysteine levels are shown in patients with acute myocardial infarction [10].
C-reactive protein (CRP), high-sensitivity CRP (hs-CRP), and other markers of inflammation: activate complement and contribute to a sustained inflammatory state. CRP is a biomarker of tissue damage and inflammation. It is an acute-phase reactant and increases in the inflammatory process. But nowadays, it has been used in the diagnosis of the cardiovascular diseases such as CAD. Sara et al. have showed that hs-CRP is associated with coronary endothelial dysfunction in the asymptomatic coronary artery disease [11].
\n
Dyslipidemia: increased LDL and decreased high-density lipoprotein (HDL).
Tobacco smoking: enhances oxidative modification of LDL, contributes to endothelial dysfunction via oxidant stress, and increases expression of leukocyte adhesion molecules.
Hypertension: increases permeability of the vessel wall to lipoproteins and promotes retention of LDL in the vessel intima by accentuating production of LDL-binding proteoglycans by smooth muscle cells.
Diabetes mellitus: enhances glycation of LDL and is associated with endothelial dysfunction.
Obesity and lack of physical activity: can cause dyslipidemia, hypertension, and insulin resistance.
Stressful lifestyle: better known as Type A personality.
\n
Exercise
High-density lipoprotein (HDL) and its major apolipoprotein (ApoA1)
Coronary atherosclerosis is an important site of atherosclerosis. There are various types of results due to coronary atherosclerosis. Especially, the size of the plaque and the type of the complicated plaque are important for this. Whatever the beginning of the atheromatous plaque, the result can be a fatal heart attack. In developed countries atherosclerosis causes more than half of total mortality. Coronary artery disease (CAD) is responsible for a major proportion of these deaths [12].
\nOnset of the atherosclerotic plaque and speed of the growth and complications, there are several signs and symptoms. Atherosclerosis can be seen in every artery, but for the coronary atherosclerosis, the result of the disease is coronary artery disease, and the symptoms and the signs are due to this. Because of the impaired blood flow, there is a sort of symptoms. Some of them are in the side of the chest, and some of them are systemic because of the impaired circulation.
Chest pain
Shortness of breath
Weakness, tiredness, reduced exertional capacity
Dizziness, palpitations
Leg swelling
Weight gain
Diaphoresis
Tachycardia: common in persons with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) and acute myocardial infarction (AMI)
High or low blood pressure
S4 gallop: a common early finding
S3 gallop: an indication of reduced left ventricular function
Heart murmurs
Tachypnea
Xanthelasmas
Livedo reticularis
Syncope
Leg edema
Rales
Coronary atherosclerosis causes coronary artery disease. Complicated atherosclerotic plaque disrupts the blood flow in the coronary circulation. Impaired blood flow causes a corrupted supply and demand of the oxygen and the metabolites in the heart. This results in a decrease in coronary arterial blood flow and a decrease in oxygen supply. There are several symptoms such as chest pain (angina pectoris), dyspnea, syncope, and sometimes pulmonary edema. Increased demand of blood supply and oxygen starts the angina pectoris. Because of the decreased blood flow in coronary artery, sufficient blood cannot be supplied in the increased effort capacity. The spectrum of presentation includes symptoms and signs consistent with the following conditions:
Asymptomatic state (subclinical phase)
Stable angina pectoris
Unstable angina (i.e., acute coronary syndrome)
Acute myocardial infarction (AMI)
Chronic ischemic cardiomyopathy
Congestive heart failure
Sudden cardiac arrest
Atherosclerosis can be seen in all the arterial sites in the whole body as mentioned before. So, the physical examination can give us very important findings. A well-taken medical history and physical examination can be helpful for the diagnosis. Suspicious findings can lead us to make a decision for the advanced examination.
\nMedical history is the cornerstone of diagnosis. A positive history of typical chest pain, shortness of breath, impaired physical capacity, and the other signs and symptoms are very useful to diagnosis.
\nAtherosclerosis can cause both coronary artery and peripheral artery diseases. Concomitant coronary and peripheral artery disease prevalence is varied 28–94% in published reports [13]. So, on the calcified peripheral artery, palpation or lack of pulse in the peripheral arteries or signs of the peripheral artery disease are important parts of the physical examination.
\nWhat are the parts of the advanced examination?
\nElectrocardiography (ECG): impaired blood flow in acute events such as acute myocardial infarction and acute coronary syndromes are the changes we can see in the ECG.
\nEchocardiography (ECO): atherosclerotic calcification or plaque and thickness of aortic wall can be seen in ECO. Ventricular low ejection fraction and impaired contraction of ventricular segments can suspect us for coronary atherosclerosis.
\nStress echocardiography: this echocardiography can be performed either by exercise method or pharmacological drugs that increase cardiac contractility and rate.
\nExercise echocardiography: images are taken before and after the treadmill or stationary bike effort test. If exercise echocardiography cannot be performed due to peripheral artery disease, musculoskeletal disorders, etc., drug-stimulated (dobutamine, adenosine, dipyridamole) stress echocardiography can be performed. These drugs increase the cardiac contractility and rhythm. Doses of the drugs increases step by step, and images are taken gradually.
\nThe purpose is to assess the exercise tolerance of the heart. If there is a myocardial perfusion defect due to coronary artery disease, stress echocardiography can give information about this. The severity of the coronary artery disease can be assessed with this test. Before and after revascularization either PCI or CABG cardiac risk can be evaluated. It can be performed for cardiac risk analyses for noncardiac surgeries. Exercise echocardiography can be used for risk stratification in asymptomatic patients with severe aortic stenosis too [14]. Yao et al. have showed in their clinical study; as the result of the exercise tests, monophasic/normal wall motion was associated with a benign prognosis, but abnormal wall motion responses were associated with a worse prognosis [15].
\nMyocardial perfusion scintigraphy: can show us the ischemic parts of the heart due to the occlusive effect of coronary atherosclerosis leading to coronary artery disease.
\nComputed tomography (CT): conventional thoracoabdominal CT scan can show atherosclerotic calcification and plaques in the aortic or arterial wall. But coronary CT scan can show us the presence of coronary atherosclerosis, the degree of the coronary artery disease, and the occlusive lesions.
\nIntravenous ultrasound (IVUS): can be useful for the controversial lesions. This is an invasive technique that localizes plaques and quantifies plaque seriousness. Virtual histology-intravascular ultrasound (VH-IVUS) can identify plaque components. Optical coherence tomography (OCT), also known as optical frequency domain imaging (OFDI), identifies intimal hyperplasia and also detects and quantifies the key features of vulnerable plaque [16].
\nCoronary angiography: is the gold standard for diagnosis of coronary atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease. Moving image of each coronary artery and the atherosclerotic lesions can be seen. It is the most specific and sensitive test for the diagnosis of coronary artery disease.
\nCoronary angiography can come out to such results. This can be a follow-up with medical therapy, a percutaneous coronary intervention can be necessary, or a coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is essential to be performed to the patient. All of the interventions are selected due to the percentage of the affected coronary artery lesion, the lesion type, lesion location, the number of the affected coronary artery, and of course the general condition of the patient.
\nTreatment: There are several treatment modalities. These include lifestyle changes, risk factor modification, and medical therapies. But we want to mention about the clinically important occlusive coronary artery diseases’ invasive treatment.
\nPercutaneous coronary intervention (PCI): it is also known as coronary angioplasty, and this is a nonsurgical technique to treat obstructive coronary artery disease. It can be a choice in stable angina pectoris, in acute myocardial infarction, or in multivessel coronary artery disease. The procedure is performed in angiography catheter laboratory. An x-ray fluoroscopy and opaque fluid are necessary for the procedure. Entry ways for the procedure are femoral arteries and radial arteries for the individual cases.
\nSome urgent cases such as acute myocardial infarction PCI can be performed emergent. Primary PCI is called in this situation. But also PCI is used for elective coronary artery disease usually. The procedure starts with a local anesthesia from the arterial puncture side; this can be even femoral or radial artery. Hydrophilic and micro-catheters and guidewires are used to reach coronary arteries. These radiopaque wires are seen easily on fluoroscopy. A balloon angioplasty can be performed to the occlusive lesion. Coronary stents can be implanted to the occluded lesion. Coronary stents vary from bare metal stents to drug eluding stent. These drug eluding stents vary to the first, second, and third generation. Nowadays, fourth-generation bioresorbable stents are mentioned in some clinical trials [17]. Whatever the kind of the stents, the main purpose is to improve blood flow of the myocardium tissue.
\nCoronary artery bypass grafting (CABG): so, is this the only technique that we can improve blood supply of the myocardium? Is there any other way of myocardial revascularization? The answer is yes. It is coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). This is an open cardiac surgical procedure. This means that it is more invasive than PCI. But in some cases, PCI cannot be the concluding treatment for the coronary artery disease. Lesion type, region of the lesion, collateral and main side branches extending from the lesion, severity of the lesion, and the number of the lesions is important for the physician to make the choice.
\nBefore explaining CABG, we have to mention the indications and guidelines (Table 1 and 2).
\nRevascularization | \nCABG | \nDES | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | No risk | \nDM | \nLVD | \nNo risk | \nDM | \nLVD | \n
One-vessel disease Proximal LAD | \nN | \nN | \nN | \nY | \nY | \nY | \n
Y | \nY | \nY | \nN | \nN | \nN | \n|
Two-vessel disease without LAD Two-vessel disease with LAD | \nN | \nN | \nN | \nY | \nY | \nY | \n
Y | \nY | \nY | \nY | \nY | \nY | \n|
Two-vessel disease + proximal LAD Three-vessel disease | \nY | \nY | \nY | \nN | \nN | \nN | \n
Y | \nY | \nY | \nC | \nC | \nC | \n|
Three-vessel + proximal LAD LMC ± other lesions | \nY | \nY | \nY | \nN | \nN | \nN | \n
Y | \nY | \nY | \nN | \nN | \nN | \n
The reality of myocardial revascularization strategies in patients with isolated coronary artery disease [18].
CABG, coronary artery bypass grafting; DES, drug-eluting stent; DM, diabetes mellitus; LAD, left anterior descending artery; LMC, left main coronary artery disease; LVD, left ventricular dysfunction. *Y, yes; N, no; C, controversial.
Recommendation | \nCABG | \nPCI | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Class | \nLevel | \nClass | \nLevel | \n
One or two-vessel disease without LAD | \nIIb | \nC | \nI | \nC | \n
One-vessel disease with proximal LAD | \nI | \nA | \nI | \nA | \n
Two-vessel disease with proximal LAD | \nI | \nB | \nI | \nC | \n
LMC with SYNTAX score < 22 | \nI | \nB | \nI | \nB | \n
LMC with SYNTAX score 23–32 | \nI | \nB | \nIIb | \nB | \n
LMC with SYNTAX score > 32 | \nI | \nB | \nIII | \nB | \n
Three-vessel disease SYNTAX score > 22 | \nI | \nA | \nI | \nB | \n
Three-vessel disease SYNTAX score 23–32 | \nI | \nA | \nIII | \nB | \n
Three-vessel disease SYNTAX score > 32 | \nI | \nA | \nIII | \nB | \n
2014 ESC/EACTS Guidelines on myocardial revascularization guidelines.
Recommendation for the type of revascularization (CABG or PCI) in patients with stable CAD with suitable coronary anatomy for both procedures [19].
(1) Proximal LAD (one- or two-vessel disease)
\n(1) One- or two-vessel disease not involving proximal LAD (if a large territory at risk on noninvasive studies or LVEF <50%, class IIa and IIb become class I indications)
\n1. LMC stenosis.
\n2. LMCE disease.
\n3. Three-vessel disease.
\n4. Two-vessel disease with proximal LAD stenosis and LVEF <50% or demonstrable ischemia.
\n5. One- or two-vessel disease without proximal LAD stenosis but with a large territory at risk and high-risk criteria on noninvasive testing.
\n6. Disabling angina refractory to medical therapy.
\n1. Proximal LAD stenosis with one-vessel disease.
\n2. One- or two-vessel disease without proximal LAD stenosis, but with a moderate territory at risk and demonstrable ischemia.
\n1. LMC stenosis.
\n2. LMCE disease.
\n3. Ongoing ischemia not responsive to maximal nonsurgical therapy.
\nProximal LAD stenosis with one- or two-vessel disease.
\nOne- or two-vessel disease without proximal LAD stenosis when PCI not possible (becomes class I if high-risk criteria on noninvasive testing).
\n1. Failed PCI with persistent pain or shock and anatomically feasible.
\n2. Persistent or recurrent ischemia refractory to medical treatment with acceptable anatomy, which has a significant territory at risk and not a candidate for PCI.
\n3. Requires surgical repair of post-infarct VSD or MR.
\n4. Cardiogenic shock in patients <75 years of age who have ST elevation, LBBB, or a posterior MI within 18 hours onset.
\n5. Life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias in the presence of ≥50% LMC stenosis or three-vessel disease.
\n1. Primary reperfusion in patients who have failed fibrinolytics or PCI and are in the early stages (6–12 h) of an evolving STEMI.
\n2. Mortality with CABG is elevated in the first 3–7 days after STEMI/NSTEMI. After 7 days, criteria for CABG in previous section are applied.
\n1. LMC.
\n2. LMCE.
\n3. Proximal LAD stenosis and two- to three-vessel disease.
\nSignificant viable territory and noncontractile myocardium.
\n1. LMC.
\n2. Three-vessel disease.
\n1. Bypassable one- or two-vessel disease.
\n2. Proximal LAD disease and one- or two-vessel disease. These become class I indications if arrhythmia is resuscitated cardiac death or sustained ventricular tachycardia.
\n1. Ongoing ischemia with significant territory at risk.
\n2. Shock.
\n1. Foreign body in critical position.
\n2. Shock with coagulopathy and no previous sternotomy.
\nShock with coagulopathy and previous sternotomy.
\n1. Disabling angina refractory to medical therapy.
\n2. Nonpatent previous bypass grafts, but with class I indications for native CAD.
\n1. Large territory at risk.
\n2. Vein grafts supplying LAD or large territory are “/> 50% stenosed.
\nClass I: Conditions for which there is evidence and/or general agreement that a given procedure or treatment is useful and effective.
\nClass II: Conditions for which there is conflicting evidence and/or a divergence of opinion about the usefulness or efficacy of a procedure.
\nClass IIa: Weight of evidence/opinion is in favor of usefulness/efficacy.
\nClass IIb: Usefulness/efficacy is less well established by evidence/opinion.
\nClass III: Conditions for which there is evidence and/or general agreement that the procedure/treatment is not useful/effective and in some cases may be harmful.
\nACC, American College of Cardiology; AHA, American Heart Association; CABG, coronary artery bypass grafting; CAD, coronary artery disease; LAD, left anterior descending artery; LBBB, left bundle branch block, LMC, left main coronary artery; LMCE, left main coronary equivalent; LVEF, left ventricular ejection fraction; MI, myocardial infarction; MR, mitral regurgitation; NSTEMI, non-ST elevation myocardial infarction; PCI, percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty; STEMI, ST elevation myocardial infarction; VSD, ventricular septal defect [20].
\nThere are several grafts that are used in CABG. Arterial grafts such as left internal and right internal mammary artery (LIMA and RIMA), especially LIMA has got the longest patency rate (10-year patency is 95%). Radial artery can be used, but it is a muscular artery and has got a predisposition to vasospasm. Vena saphena magna is the most used venous graft.
\nThis procedure can be performed with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) machine (on-pump), without CPB (off-pump CABG-OPCAB), or beating heart procedures. In the last decade, minimally invasive techniques are rising to individual cases. MIDCAB (minimally invasive direct coronary artery bypass) can be performed without full median sternotomy. This can serve minimal surgical trauma and avoid wound complication.
\nTECAB: this is a robotically assisted total endoscopic coronary artery bypass procedure. This is a complex procedure; surgeon has to steep a learning curve. This procedure can perform both on-pump and off-pump CABG.
\nAwake coronary artery bypass (ACAB) procedure: This avoids side effects of general anesthesia. This includes a minimal invasive procedure without intubation and mechanical ventilatory support. A somatosensory and motor block is made via the T1–T8 level of vertebra. This preserves diaphragmatic ventilation.
\nEarly outcomes after CABG continue to improve, and the early cumulative mortality rate is below 2% and lower than 1% in lower-risk patients. The most common reasons for death are heart failure (65%), neurologic events (7.5%), hemorrhage (7%), respiratory failure (5.5%), and dysrhythmia (5.5%).
\nThe survival rate after isolated CABG is higher than 98% for the first month and 97% for first year, 92% for 5 years, 80% for 10 years, 65% for 15 years, and 51% for 20 years. Usage of LIMA is a predictive parameter for late survival.
\nPrevention of the coronary atherosclerosis has to be lifelong. Individuals need to be careful for risk factors. Adopting a healthy lifestyle. What is inside of this healthy lifestyle?
\nHealthy eating habit for the heart: eating habits are very important in the process of developing atherosclerosis. Healthy diet consists of low amounts of white bread, unsaturated fat products, fast foods, salt, and sugar. It also includes eating dairy products, fruits, vegetables, whole grain, seafood, poultry without skin, lean meats, low-fat milk, or fat-free milk.
\nAfter the start of healthy diet for the heart, weight control can be achieved, because overweight and obese people have high risk for coronary atherosclerosis.
\nPhysical activity: stressful and sedentary lifestyles are the risk factors for coronary atherosclerosis. So, a programmed physical activity can improve the fitness level and the health of the individuals.
\nWe have to mention about risk scores and charts. Risk scores can give us several information about the cardiac risk of our body. This can lead the person to change avoidable habits.
\nFramingham Risk Score: age, sex, cigarette smoking, cholesterol level, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol level, systolic blood pressure, and usage of antihypertensive drugs. Some clinics include diabetes mellitus (DM), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and diastolic blood pressure to modify this risk score.
\nAnother risk score system is SCORE risk charts. This includes SCORE—European High Risk Chart and SCORE—European Low Risk Chart. This score system is based on gender, age, total cholesterol, systolic blood pressure, and cigarette smoking (Figures 2 and 3).
\nTen year risk of fatal CVD in high risk regions of Europe by gender, age, systolic blood pressure, total cholesterol and smoking status.
Ten year risk of fatal CVD in low risk regions of Europe by gender, age, systolic blood pressure, total cholesterol and smoking status.
Coronary atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease (CAD) are the most frequent causes of hospitalization in western countries. It is an important mortality and morbidity cause. The onset of the first lesions begins in the first decade of the life period and proceeds with the lifetime. Risk factors are important and decisive for the progression of the atheromatous plague. A healthy and modified life is the key to prevent from the disease.
\nMonitoring of water pollution is very important for the preservation of the environment and prevention of negative impacts that it can have on human health. Therefore, great attention is paid to simplifying procedures for detection and monitoring of pollutants. Heavy metals are particularly dangerous due to their ability to accumulate over time in both plants and animals, as well as in water. For these reasons, there are already developed different methods that determine their concentrations generally in the environment.
Biosensors represent a simple, reliable, and fast solution for monitoring water pollution caused by various heavy metals. The small size of biosensor devices has enabled their in situ application, thus avoiding long-term and sometimes expensive measurements in laboratories.
According to IUPAC, biosensor represents a “self-contained integrated device, which is capable of providing specific quantitative or semi-quantitative analytical information using a biological recognition element (biochemical receptor) which is retained in a direct spatial contact with an electrochemical transduction element” [1, 2]. Biosensors allow not only determining the presence and overall biologically available concentrations of heavy metals in water but also assessing their biological effects, such as toxicity or cytotoxicity, which are sometimes more important than chemical composition information.
The term “heavy metals” refers to all metals except Al, Na, Ca, Mg, and K, i.e., to all metals that have a density higher than 5 g/cm3. It includes a number of physiologically important elements such as Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn, then highly toxic Pb, As, Hg, Cd, Sb, Cr(VI) and less toxic Au, Ag, Mo, Cr(III) and Co [3]. The physiological and toxicological effects of these elements represent a collection of very different mechanisms.
Even at very low concentrations, they pose a threat to the environment and human health, because they are not biodegradable, so heavy metals are the cause of one of the most serious pollution problems. The most important nonessential heavy metals which affect the surface water systems are cadmium, chromium, mercury, lead, arsenic, and antimony [4].
Heavy metals present in pesticides and therapeutic agents are additional pollution sources. Burning of fossil fuels containing heavy metals and increasing industrial applications of metals such as metal galvanizing, paint and varnish industry, and mining and chemical industries are the main source of pollution of water systems by heavy metals.
Heavy metals are transported with waste water at the place of discharge and contaminate water sources downstream from an industrial site. In water, heavy metals have the ability to bind to the surface of microorganisms, from where they are transported inside the cell where they can be involved in chemical reactions and change chemically.
The majority of known techniques can determine the total amount of heavy metal ions. In addition, laboratory techniques that are routinely used for the analysis of metal ions, such as atomic absorption spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, anodic stripping voltammetry, and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, require sophisticated equipment, pretreatment of samples, or qualified operators.
However, today it is known that only certain oxidation states of biologically available metal ions pose the greatest risk to human health and the environment. For example, “Cr(III) is an essential nutrient required in insulin action and sugar and fat metabolism, while Cr(VI) is believed to be highly toxic and carcinogenic” [5].
Metals and metalloid ions can be divided into three groups according to their toxicity. The first group includes metals (metalloids) that are toxic at extremely low concentration, such as lead, cadmium, and mercury. “Metals of the second group (arsenic, bismuth, indium, antimony and thallium) are less toxic, i.e., they are toxic only in higher concentrations. The third group includes metals (metalloids) of essential importance, such as copper, zinc, cobalt, selenium and iron, which are necessary for different chemical and biochemical processes in the body, and are toxic only above a certain concentration.” Concentration window “of these heavy metals is somewhere between toxic and maximum permissible limits” [6].
Table 1 gives critical concentrations of some heavy metals in natural waters according to EPA [7].
Metal | Max. allowable concentration (μg/ml) |
---|---|
Mercury | 0.002 |
Arsenic | 0.5 |
Lead | 0.5 |
Copper | 0.6 |
Cadmium | 0.04 |
Zinc | 5 |
Critical concentrations of some heavy metals in natural waters according to EPA
The toxic effects of heavy metals can be the result of changes in numerous physiological processes at the cellular or molecular level caused by the inactivation of the enzyme. It can also occur as a result of the blocking of functional groups of metabolically important molecules or by replacing the essential elements and disturbing the integrity of the membrane. A rather frequent consequence of heavy metal poisoning is the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) due to interference with the transport activities of electrons, especially the chloroplast membrane [8]. This increase in ROS exposes cells to oxidative stress that leads to peroxidation of lipids, biological damage of macromolecules, membrane decay, and DNA splitting [9].
They can penetrate into the organism in elemental form, in salt form, or as organometallic compounds, wherein the process of absorption, distribution, deposition, and elimination depends on the form in which the metal is present. Metals are very toxic because they are either in ionic form or within the compound, soluble in water, and easily absorbed by living organisms [3].
The mobility of heavy metals in water is particularly affected by the pH of water, the presence of hydrated forms of Mn and Fe, the concentration of carbonates and phosphates, as well as the content of organic matter. In addition, if the medium is very acidic and increased redox potential, the mobilization of Cu and Pb occurs, and under the reduction conditions, the hydroxides Mn and Fe are mobilized.
Heavy metals which are mostly the subject of research and monitoring in water and also generally in the environment due to their pronounced toxicity are arsenic, chromium, lead, mercury, and cadmium, while zinc, cobalt, copper, iron, and manganese are also interesting because they belong to the group of essential elements. The level of toxicity for some of these heavy metals is at or slightly above the concentration in which they are naturally found in nature [10]. Heavy metals occur in the environment naturally or as a result of human activities. Natural sources include volcanic eruptions, weathering (acid rock drainage), and discharge into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Anthropogenic sources of heavy metals have emerged with the development of society. For example, the release of metal from the dishes causes contamination of food and water with metals.
Iron belongs to a group of essential metals and is crucial for a number of synthetic and enzyme processes in the human body. Most of the iron in our body exists as part of the hemoglobin molecule or myoglobin molecule. In addition to the vital importance it has for most living organisms, iron is potentially toxic at high concentrations. The effect of iron on aquatic organisms and their habitats is mostly indirect. Combined direct and indirect effects of contamination of the aquatic environment cause a decrease in biodiversity and number of fish. In aqueous solutions, the Fe3+ ion is in the form of the aqua complex, Fe(H2O)63+, which is quite hydrolyzed (hydrolysis starts at pH 1). Hydrolysis of Fe(III) ions depends on the type of ionic environment, temperature, and the presence of other substances. The results of the researches show that the most important chemical types are found in hydrolyzed solution.
Copper is a microelement of outstanding biological importance and is part of essential metabolic pathways. Copper ions play a key role in active centers of oxidoreductases, such as superoxide dismutase (Cu, Zn-SOD), [5], an enzyme important for maintaining a low level of free radicals in the cell, thus protecting biomolecules such as proteins and lipids from the pathological conditions.
Copper deficiency can cause anemia, because insufficient amount of copper causes poor absorption of iron, reducing the number of red blood cells. The lack of copper also reduces the amount of white blood cells and therefore the resistance of the organism to diseases. In general, copper is not considered to be a major ecotoxicological problem, but its widespread distribution and exposure to exhaust gases are certainly the reasons why copper is involved in the structuring of ecosystems. Copper is found in three oxidation states, Cu+, Cu2+, and Cu3+, with the Cu2+ form being the most common. The most mobile forms of copper are Cu2+ and CuOH+. In the aqueous environment, copper is found in three basic forms, as suspended, colloidal, and dissolved. The accumulation of copper in the aquatic environment results in the primary exposure of aquatic organisms. Aquatic organisms can accumulate dissolved copper by direct absorption through the body surface, while colloidal forms of this metal are introduced into the body by ingesting contaminated food.
Zinc participates in the structure of many enzymes and is an essential element. It is attached to insulin and plays a significant role in the metabolism of nucleic acids and amino acids, DNA replication, and gene expression. However, like all other essential metals, zinc in higher concentrations is toxic to living organisms. Zinc can bioaccumulate in fish, and the degree of bioaccumulation usually depends on the exposure mode, as well as the conditions prevailing in the observed aquatic environment. Conditions that may affect the toxicity of zinc (but also other heavy metals) in the aquatic environment are the content of Ca and Mg, the pH of water, the content of the hydroxide (alkalinity), and the content of dissolved natural organic matter, i.e., humic substances.
The required amount of cobalt in the body is about 5 mg for vitamin B12 to avoid anemia. In general, cobalt has low toxicity. Gastrointestinal (digestive tract) absorption of soluble cobalt compounds is estimated to be 25%. However, cobalt is toxic to humans. When cobalt has been used as an additive in beer (for foam stabilization), severe biventricular heart failure and a high mortality rate were observed in heavy beer drinkers [11].
Long-term inhalation of cobalt dust irritates the respiratory tract and can cause chronic bronchitis, and cobalt salts can cause benign dermatosis. Cobalt occurs in oxidation states 0, +1, +2, +3, and +4, and most of its compounds have an oxidation number +2 and +3, of which the cobalt(II) compounds are more stable. Most cobalt(II) compounds have an ionic character (halides and numerous Co(III) complexes). Cobalt is relatively a nonreactive metal. It does not oxidize under dry and humid conditions at normal temperatures. It binds to halogen elements by heating. Cobalt is used in the production of artificial fertilizers and so can be found in higher concentrations in soil and water. It is also used in medicine, in the treatment of anemia that cannot be treated with iron.
Lead in the environment mainly comes from anthropogenic sources such as combustion of fossil fuels, landfills and fires at landfills, waste industrial sludges, phosphate-based fertilizers, pesticides, and exhaust gases from vehicles.
It is found in the form of sulphates, sulphides, and carbonates. It is considered the leading environmental pollutant and is increasingly endangering the living world, especially the surrounding areas of large industrial plants, frequent roads, and large cities.
The intensity of the adoption of lead depends on its concentrations in soil, soil pH, organic matter content, ratio of cations and anions, and other environmental factors. Human is exposed to toxic effects of lead by consuming food and water that are contaminated with this heavy metal but also by inhaling particulate matter with lead content. Absorption over the skin is only possible for tetraethyl and tetramethyl lead. Lead is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and binds to red blood cells in the form of Pb2+, and via blood about 90% is deposited in the bones in the form of Pb3(PO4)2. In the case of acidosis (increased acidity), the mobility of lead from the bones in the form of Pb2+ which has a toxic effect on the central nervous, circulatory, and immunological systems and kidneys can occur. [10]
Mercury vapors and organic compounds of mercury are very strong poisons. Harmful substances are released by combustion of fossil fuels, and the risk of pollution threatens also due to increased use of mercury in industry and agriculture [12].
In its compounds, chromium exists in several oxidation states: from bivalent to hexavalent. In solutions, chromium can occur in trivalent and hexavalent forms. Hexavalent chromium is usually present in the compounds as chromate (CrO4)2− or dichromate (Cr2O7)2− ion. Cr(VI) is toxic due to its high degree of oxidation and easily enters the biological membranes. Therefore, this form of chromium is considered carcinogenic. Because chromium(VI) is toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic to living organisms, damages the liver, and causes lung congestion, skin irritation, and the formation of ulcer, it needs to be removed from the wastewater before their release into natural recipients. On the other hand, trivalent chromium, Cr(III), is 300 times less toxic than chromium(VI). Chromium is a vital nutrient for many animal and plant species, but it can also cause allergic reactions on the skin and can be carcinogenic [13].
A biosensor is an analytical device consisting of immobilized biological material in direct contact with a compatible transducer that will convert the biochemical signal into a measurable electrical signal. Biomolecules are responsible for specific recognition of the analyte, while the physicochemical converter provides electrical output signal that is amplified by electronic component [14]. Biosensors find application in various areas, from agriculture, food quality control, medicine, army, and control of various processes in the environment. Biosensors can provide quick information about the site of pollution, which is necessary for environmental control and monitoring. In addition, the advantage of biosensors over other analytical methods is their mobility that allows researchers to measure the in situ pollutant concentration and the ability to measure the concentration of pollutants in situ without additional sample preparation. Also, in addition to the determination of specific compounds, they can provide information on their biological effect (e.g., toxicity of a compound).
Due to exceptional performances, including high specificity and sensitivity, rapid response, low cost, relatively small size, and simple operation, biosensors have become an important tool for detecting chemical and biological components and their monitoring for clinical, nutritional, and ecological needs [15].
Biosensors are analytical sensory devices that combine physical and chemical sensing techniques [16, 17]. Their performance is based on direct contact of two elements: biological and physicochemical, whose tight bond is achieved by physical or chemical methods of immobilization. Biological element serves as a receptor (bioreceptor), i.e., for the recognition of particular analyte from the medium of interest, based on the interaction of analyte and bioreceptor. Physicochemical transducer converts the response that occurs as a result of analyte-bioreceptor interaction on their interface into a measurable signal which can be processed and displayed in the form of readable values. For proper biosensor operation, the biological compound has to be immobilized in the vicinity of the transducer, and immobilization can be done either by physical entrapment or chemical attachment. Only small amounts of bioreceptor molecules are required, and they will be repeatedly used for measurements [18].
The displayed values are in correlation with the detected analyte-bioreceptor interactions, i.e., the concentration of a specific analyte or group of analytes in the analyzed sample [4, 16, 17]. General working principle of biosensors is illustrated in Figure 1.
Schematic illustration of a biosensor general working principle.
Although widely used, conventional analytical techniques require sophisticated instruments and highly trained personnel to conduct operational procedures and sample preparation, which makes them expensive and time-consuming [19, 20], thus not enabling determination of a large number of samples in a short time [21].
The main advantages of biosensors in relation to conventional analytical techniques are possibility of miniaturization and portability of device, reduced requirements for laboratory skills, reduced sample volume and pretreatment [1, 22], assessment of all possible types of analytes, inorganic or organic [23, 24], and possibility of performing single measurements or continuous real-time monitoring of analytes [1, 25]. Biosensors allow estimation of biological effects, e.g., toxicity of specific chemicals, because they can be used to detect their bioavailable concentrations [26].
Biosensors can be divided into classes according to different approaches, among which the two are commonly used—type of biorecognition element (biocomponent, bioreceptor) and type of transduction system in biosensor. Each class of biosensors can be further classified into subclasses (Figure 2).
Schematic illustration of the common classification of biosensors.
Based on the principle used in transduction systems, electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, and thermal biosensors may be distinguished.
The first proposed and commercialized biosensors were electrochemical biosensors, which is why they are most commonly reported. The basic principle of this class of biosensors is that the interaction between the biomolecule (bioreceptor) and the target analyte results in a chemical reaction that produces or consumes ions or electrons and in turn changes the electrical properties of the analyte solution, such as electrical current or potential. Transducer detects these changes by producing an electrochemical signal which is correlated with the amount of analyte present in the sample solution.
Advantages of electrochemical biosensors include minimal requirements for sample preparation and sensitivity at small sample volumes. It is also possible to perform sample analysis directly, which enables automation. Drawbacks of detections are poor reproducibility and stability [27].
Electrochemical biosensors are classified according to the type of measured signal into subclasses: potentiometric, amperometric, conductometric, and biosensors based on ion-selective field-effect transistors (ISFETs). Different measurement principles always require a specific design of an electrochemical cell [21].
Potentiometric biosensors are based on the use of ion-selective electrode (ISEs) at the top of which an ion-selective membrane is placed which is responsible for selectivity to target ions in the presence of interfering ions in the sample. These devices measure the difference between the potential of the working and reference electrodes at essentially zero current, and this difference corresponds to the concentration of the analyte.
Amperometric biosensors are the most widespread class of electrochemical biosensors. Amperometric biosensors are more sensitive and faster than potentiometric but have poor selectivity and are susceptible to the interference of electroactive species that are not of interest [22, 28].
Conductometric biosensors are based on measurement of electrical conductivity in sample solution between two electrodes, as a consequence of the biochemical reaction. Conductometric biosensors operate at sufficiently low driving voltage, are not sensitive to light, do not require the use of a reference electrode, and can be produced using inexpensive technology [23, 24].
Biosensors based on the ion-selective field-effect transistors (ISFET) are the fourth class of electrochemical biosensors, suitable for the direct detection of ions. Change of activity of ions of a sample causes a change in the potential of the gate electrode that is brought into contact with the analyte solution. The change of the electric potential is then measured.
Optical biosensors are a biosensor class in which the transducer detects optical changes in the input light resulting from the interaction of the bioreceptor and the target analyte, and the amplitude of these changes is in correlation with the concentration of the present analyte in the analyzed sample. Among the significant advantages of these optical devices are insensitivity to electromagnetic interference, small instrumentation, simplicity, and noninvasiveness of measurement, as well as the possibility of application in vivo, since they are non-electrical biosensors. According to the optical configuration, biosensors can be intrinsic or extrinsic. In intrinsic biosensors, the incident light wave is closed in a wave guide or an optical fiber, along which it propagates, but the design of the structure in which the wave is closed is such that it allows the interaction of the wave with the analyte. In extrinsic biosensors, the light wave passes directly through the sample phase and reacts with it, and the optical fiber serves as a means of transmitting the signal.
Absorption-based biosensors are simple and inexpensive devices that allow the determination of concentrations of different analytes, based on the fact that each type of analyte absorbs a certain wavelength of light emitted into the sample. Guiding the light from the light source to the sample and from the sample to the detector can be performed using the same optical fiber or different fibers [29].
Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors use an optical detection technique where on the interface of metal and dielectrics, the amplified incident light hits the metal surface and excites the electrons, thereby generating electromagnetic waves (plasmons). Plasmon propagation is very sensitive to the changes in the refractive index of the material near the metal surface, which are caused by biomolecular interaction, such as, for example, specific binding of the analyte [30, 31].
Fluorescence-based optical biosensors can directly detect target atoms or molecules by measuring the change in the frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted by them. The frequency change is stimulated by the absorption of radiation and the consequent appearance of the excited state of the target species. Detection can also be carried out indirectly, using fluorescence labels or fluorescence energy transfer (FRET).
Luminescence-based biosensors can be classified into chemiluminescent and bioluminescent optical biosensors. Unlike biosensors based on fluorescence, in these sensor devices, the triggered state of the target atoms or molecules is obtained as a result of their exothermic chemical reaction, and while returning to the ground state, the excited species emit light without or with minimal heat. When such a chemical reaction occurs within a biological organism, then it is a bioluminescence.
Piezoelectric biosensors are devices in which the biorecognition element is integrated with a piezoelectric material used as a transducer. Among many types of natural and synthetic materials that exhibit a piezoelectric effect, quartz crystals are most commonly used [28, 32] because of their availability, as well as high temperature resistance and chemical stability in aqueous solution. The basic principle of measurement for this type of biosensor is based on the ability of a piezoelectric material to generate electrical potential when deformed under the applied mechanical stress, and vice versa, to elastically deform when exposed to an electric field.
Thermal biosensors, also called calorimetric or thermometric, are a biosensor class in which the transducer detects interactions between bioreceptors and analyte resulting in a change of temperature, which is in correlation with the concentration of the analyte. As thermal transducers in these devices, thermistors or thermopiles are used [21, 33]. Some of the advantages of thermal biosensors are detection without the need for labeling of reactants, not requiring frequent recalibration, and no disturbances by electrochemical and optical properties of the sample [21, 34]. In most research papers published about this type of sensor, described experiments were carried out using enzyme-based thermal biosensors, due to the exothermic nature of the reactions catalyzed by enzymes.
Biocomponent/bioreceptor is responsible for the detection and interaction with the analyte and therefore is a very important part of any type of biosensor. The receptor is responsible for the selective and sensitive recognitions of the analyte, and the energy liberated during the interaction of the analyte and the receptor is converted into an electrical signal that is suitable for measurement. The most commonly used biological elements are enzymes and antibodies. Biosensors can be divided into two main categories: biocatalytic and affinity sensors based on the interaction between biological material and analyte.
Biocatalytic biosensors, also known as metabolism sensors, comprise a biological component that catalyzes the chemical conversion of the analyte with which it interacts and detect the magnitude of the resulting changes such as product formation, reactant disappearance, or inhibition of the reaction, which are correlated with the concentration of the analyte [35]. Affinity biosensors are based on selective interaction between the analyte and the biological component through their irreversible binding, resulting in a physicochemical change detected by the converter.
Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to a foreign substance in the body. Also known as immunoglobulins (Ig), they are Y-shaped proteins generated by a type of white blood cells called B lymphocytes (B cells). Their ability to recognize specific molecules makes them suitable for use as biorecognition component in biosensors. During the process of biological recognition, the antibodies bind tightly to antigens forming complexes. There are five classes of antibodies, based on their structure and function: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Among them, IgG is the class most frequently used for heavy metal detection, because of their higher affinity and specificity compared to other classes. Antibodies such as monoclonal, polyclonal, or recombinant can be utilized in biosensors. Monoclonal antibodies are homogeneous antibodies, derived from single B cell; thus they all have the same specificity, i.e., to bind to one unique epitope (binding site) on a specific antigen. Unlike monoclonal antibodies, polyclonal antibodies are produced from different B cells against the same antigen and therefore have affinity for various binding sites of that antigen. This feature of polyclonal antibodies results in their stronger binding to the target species, but due to the recognition of multiple epitopes, they have higher potential for cross-reactivity, i.e., specificity for nontargeted antigens with similar structural regions as the targeted one. The production of recombinant antibodies is enabled by genetic engineering. Important properties of antibodies for providing accurate results for detection and measurement using biosensors are high sensitivity and specificity, with minimal cross-reactivity [36].
Different types of approaches have been developed and used for immobilization of Abs onto a sensor surface, such as covalent binding, non-covalent immobilization, and coupling by affinity interactions, because the immobilization is the crucial step which can affect the optimal performance of an antibody-based biosensor [37]. Reaction conditions, such as temperature, pH, and ionic strength, can also affect the activity of the antibodies [38].
Enzymes are biocatalysts that catalyze chemical reactions. Their task is to translate the characteristic substance (substrate) into a product. Enzymes are highly selective for the particular substrate which makes them suitable sensor material. Detection mechanism of enzyme-based biosensors is based on activation or inhibition of their activities as a response caused by heavy metals. Usually the metal ion reacts with the thiol groups present in enzymatic structures that result in conformational changes and thus affect the catalytic activity. Different enzymes have been used for the structure of biosensors based on inhibition. Enzymes such as glucose oxidase, urease, glutathione S-transferase, alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase, acid phosphatase, and invertase have been utilized to detect metals such as cadmium, lead, copper, mercury, zinc, etc. However, inhibition-based biosensors have an important disadvantage, which is insufficient selectivity because some of the enzymes simultaneously inhibit several metals.
Biosensors based on immobilized enzymes are also used, and they show several advantages compared to free enzymes:
A thousand times lower consumption of immobilized enzymes.
Reduced interferences in differential mode.
No preincubation is required.
Faster analysis, less than 5 min.
In the case of reversible inhibition, sometimes reactivation of the enzyme activity is not necessary.
The problem with biosensors based on enzymatic inhibition is that only a few enzymes are sensitive to heavy metals.
Proteins, such as phytochelatins or metallothioneins, can be used as biological components in biosensors when immobilized on the surface of the transducer [39]. The interaction of proteins and metals in the biosensor is realized through the formation of complexes, and the detection technique does not require labeling. The resulting changes in the protein layer are detected by measuring the electrical capacity or impedance by the relevant transducer. Using the protein biosensor enabled the assessment of bioavailable concentrations of heavy metals. In addition, using capacitive sensors, which belong to the class of electrochemical biosensors, it is possible to achieve much higher sensitivity to low concentrations of heavy metals, compared to cell-based devices.
Whole cell-based biosensors are based on using biosensing cells, such as microorganisms, plant cells, algae, fungi, protozoa, etc., which can be natural or recombinant [40]. The use of whole cells as biological elements of recognition has many advantages. Whole cell-based biosensors are usually cheaper than biosensors based on enzymes, because the whole cells can be easily cultivated and are easier to isolate and purify compared with enzymes. Whole cells are more tolerant to a significant change in pH, temperature, or ionic strength. A multistep reaction is possible because one cell can contain all the enzymes and cofactors needed to detect the analyte. Biosensors of this type can easily be regenerated or maintained by allowing cells to regrow while working in situ. Preparation of samples is usually not necessary. Compared to enzyme-based biosensors, the disadvantages of these devices are that they are susceptible to interference of contaminants that are not targeted analytes. They also have a relatively slow response, compared to other types of biosensors.
The unique biosensor features make them widely applicable in the field of water quality control, from the point of view of detecting and determining the concentration of heavy metals. The use of biosensors for individual or continuous measurements is dependent on the type of biologically active element. Since biological compounds such as cholesterol, glucose, urea, etc. are generally not electroactive, the combination of reactions is needed for obtaining an electroactive element, which leads to a change of current intensity [41]. Table 2 shows the classification of biosensors based on the recognition component that was utilized for the detection of heavy metals.
Type of bioreceptor | Analyzed heavy metal | Reference |
---|---|---|
2A81G5 Antibody ISB4 12F6 | Cd Cd U | [42] [43] [44] |
Alkaline Phosphatase Pyruvate enzymes Oxidase Urease | Zn Hg Cd Hg Hg, Ag | [45] [46] [47] [48] |
Glutathione S-transferase Mer R proteins Metallothionein | Cd, Zn Hg, Cu, Cd, Zn, Pb Cd, Zn, Ni | [49, 50] [51, 52] [53] |
Whole cells and cardiac cells | Hg, Pb, Cd, Fe, Cu, Zn | [54] |
Classification of biosensors based on the recognition component that was utilized for the detection of heavy metals
A proper immobilization of the biosensing element onto the transducer surface maintains biomaterial functionality while ensuring accessibility of the receptor cells toward analytes and proximity of the bioreceptor and transducer. The factors which determine the choice of a suitable physical or chemical immobilization method are physicochemical properties of the analyte, nature of the chosen biosensing element, the type of used transducer, and the operating conditions of biosensor. Antibody-based biosensors can be used as an alternative approach for the detection of metal ions, due to antibody features such as high specificity and binding affinity for antigens harmful for the organism. Detection mechanism of these devices is based on antibody-metal ion complex formation. The resulted response of their immunochemical interaction is converted by a transducer to measurable values and processed to readable values. Antibodies are capable for antigen detection in very low concentrations [38], but if their cross-reactivity is high, they can yield false-positive results of an assay of heavy metals in water [55].
A monoclonal antibody that recognizes 16 different metal-EDTA complexes has been produced and evaluated in terms of its binding affinity. The obtained results showed that the antibody has a maximum binding affinity for cadmium and mercury-EDTA complexes. [56]. In the inhibition immunoassay where the measurement of Cd2+ in water samples was carried out using monoclonal antibodies firmly bound to the cadmium-EDTA complex, but not to EDTA without metal [42], the biosensor showed satisfactory insensitivity to cations Ca2+, Na2+, and K1+ it encountered and achieved a reliable measurement in the presence of 1 mM of excess Fe3+, Mg2+, and Pb2+.
Monoclonal antibodies were used to detect Pb2+ without labeling, in a localized surface plasmon resonance-based optical biosensor [57]. The results of the experiment showed that at optimal monoclonal antibody immobilizing conditions, absorbability increased to 12.2% for detecting 10–100 ppb Pb(II)-EDTA complex with a limit of detection of 0.27 ppb.
Kulkarni et al. were the first to develop acid phosphatase-based fluorescence biosensor for the analysis of heavy metal ions Hg2+, Cr2+, and Cu2+. Increased concentration of metal ions resulted in increased enzyme inhibition and therefore decreased fluorescence. The enzyme was stable for more than 2 months at 4°C [58]. They also observed that mixture of heavy metal ions exhibit positive effect on the performance of biosensor.
The urease enzyme has been widely investigated as a possible biocomponent in heavy metal detection biosensors. Urease has been tested single and in combination with other enzymes. Electrochemical biosensor based on urease and glutamic dehydrogenase (GLDH) was developed for detecting heavy metals in water samples [59]. Also, a disposable potentiometric biosensor based on pure urease was developed, with the ability to detect copper and silver at sub-ppm level. For the detection of Pb and Cd in liquid samples, biosensors based on the combination of urease and acetylcholinesterase (Ache) were developed as a biocomponent with a detection limit of 1 ppb in water samples. It is known that ions of heavy metals inhibit alkaline phosphatase which was used for forming the biosensor with alkaline phosphatase as a biocomponent. It was found that the sensitivity of the developed biosensor to Cd2+ and Zn2+ was 10 ppb, whereas, with regard to ion Pb2+, there was no significant inhibition.
Two protein-based biosensors were developed on the basis of GST-SmtA and MerR [60] proteins, and their sensitivity and selectivity for heavy metal ions (Cd2+, Cu2+, Hg2+, and Zn2+) were measured using a capacitance transducer. Both types of biosensors have shown high sensitivity, enabling detection of metal ions up to femtomolar concentration.
Capacitance protein-based biosensor using synthetic phytochelatins (ECs) was developed for the detection of heavy metal ions (Cd2+, Cu2+, Hg2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+), and the results of the experiments showed a lower sensitivity for all metal ions except for Zn2+ compared to systems based on SmtA and MerR, which can be explained by conformational changes in the protein, taking into account that the change in capacitance is function of the resulting change in protein conformation [51].
In cell-based biosensors, bioelement is fused with reporter gene. The detection mechanism is based on the activation of the reporter gene upon the contact between bioreceptor and target analyte, yielding an output measurable signal that is a correlation with bioavailable concentration of heavy metal.
Various cell-based biosensors have been used for the detection of heavy metals in water due to their ease of production and field testing, the ability to perform fast single measurement, as well as continuous measurements, and the ease of identifying bioavailable concentrations of toxicants that allows estimation of effects that heavy metals have on living organisms.
The advantage of bacterial cells is resistance to environmental conditions that could destroy the sensory element if exposed to them, supplying it with a relatively stable environment. Due to specific metabolic pathways used in microorganisms, compared to isolated enzymes, microbial sensors have the potential for more selective analysis of heavy metals which cannot be measured by simple enzyme reactions [61].
In order to be available for any sensing mechanism that is based inside the cell, there is a need for analytes to be able to enter the cell via diffusion, nonspecific uptake, or active transport. Alternative approaches are implemented in the cases when membrane permeability for an analyte is not sufficient. These approaches include allocation of the recognition element to the outside of the cell or the introduction of an appropriate transport mechanism for importing the analyte [61].
A large number of studies in which performances of whole cell-based biosensors were tested have utilized electrochemical and optical transducers. For detection of heavy metal ions (Cd2+, Cu2+, Fe3+, Hg2+, Pb2+,and Zn2+) at concentrations of 10μM, a mammalian heart cells-based biosensor was developed [54], with excellent performance in terms of frequency selection, amplitude and duration of detection within 15 min.
Biosensor, based on immobilized engineered bacteria Alcaligenes eutrophus (AE1239) and optical transducer, was utilized for monitoring the bioavailable copper ions in synthetic water samples, wherein the lowest limit of detection was 1 μM [62].
Biosensors have a very wide range of applications, from environmental monitoring, food safety, detection of various diseases, use in artificial implantable devices such as pacemakers to the detection of drugs.
Application for pollution monitoring requires the biosensor to work from several hours to several days. Such biosensors are a tool for “long-term monitoring.” Whether it is a long-term follow-up or analysis of individual shots, biosensors are used as technologically advanced devices both in settings with limited resources and in sophisticated medical settings.
Considering the complex and critical situation in the field of environmental protection, and the state of natural waters from the aspect of pollution with heavy metals, and taking into account the toxicity of heavy metal ions, it is necessary to continuously work on finding new efficient techniques for their detection. Conventional analytical techniques can no longer satisfy the needs of constant monitoring and frequent field analysis of water because they are expensive, often with bulky equipment and a long analysis time, and require well-trained analysts. Biosensors can be used to overcome the limitations of conventional methods. In the future, designing a biosensor with the appropriate material will surely help in the selective identification of metal ions not only from water but also from any other matrix.
Unsubscribe unsuccessful, no matching records found in our database.
",metaTitle:"Unsubscribe Unsuccessful",metaDescription:"Unsubscribe unsuccessful, no matching records found in our database.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/unsubscribe-unsuccessful",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":""}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:""}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5698},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5172},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1689},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10244},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:888},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15650}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117315},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"20"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10206",title:"Terahertz Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2cdb79bf6297623f1d6202ef11f099c4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Borwen You and Dr. Ja-Yu Lu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10206.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"191131",title:"Dr.",name:"Borwen",surname:"You",slug:"borwen-you",fullName:"Borwen You"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10575",title:"Magnetic Skyrmions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d93d7485e8a6a30d9e069aed78fdb355",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Dipti Ranjan Sahu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10575.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"251855",title:"Prof.",name:"Dipti Ranjan",surname:"Sahu",slug:"dipti-ranjan-sahu",fullName:"Dipti Ranjan Sahu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10675",title:"Hydrostatics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c86c2fa9f835d4ad5e7efd8b01921866",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10675.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b8dac1788dc54d12f8fc3d94a7e3e338",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:56},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5143},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"106",title:"Natural Disaster",slug:"natural-disaster",parent:{title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"},numberOfBooks:10,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:190,numberOfWosCitations:212,numberOfCrossrefCitations:188,numberOfDimensionsCitations:419,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"natural-disaster",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8979",title:"Tsunami",subtitle:"Damage Assessment and Medical Triage",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c1406cbfe8404151d13f3d7236d38fa",slug:"tsunami-damage-assessment-and-medical-triage",bookSignature:"Mohammad Mokhtari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8979.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9983",title:"Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ce1f62165377d01892a7c7f1b17e43c9",slug:"flood-impact-mitigation-and-resilience-enhancement",bookSignature:"Guangwei Huang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9983.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"262657",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangwei",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"guangwei-huang",fullName:"Guangwei Huang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8011",title:"Natural Hazards",subtitle:"Risk, Exposure, Response, and Resilience",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43ca8c43ab0963f6c43350764f696b63",slug:"natural-hazards-risk-exposure-response-and-resilience",bookSignature:"John P. Tiefenbacher",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8011.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",middleName:null,surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6821",title:"Natural Hazards",subtitle:"Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Reduction",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"855e55f0cd51410f7013bb47181d3321",slug:"natural-hazards-risk-assessment-and-vulnerability-reduction",bookSignature:"José Simão Antunes do Carmo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6821.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67904",title:"Prof.",name:"José Simão",middleName:null,surname:"Antunes Do Carmo",slug:"jose-simao-antunes-do-carmo",fullName:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6018",title:"Flood Risk Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1c40b989aeffdd119ee3876621fa35d",slug:"flood-risk-management",bookSignature:"Theodore Hromadka and Prasada Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181008",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodore",middleName:null,surname:"Hromadka",slug:"theodore-hromadka",fullName:"Theodore Hromadka"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5499",title:"Earthquakes",subtitle:"Tectonics, Hazard and Risk Mitigation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a02b8c4079277fc2301b3fac46856ca4",slug:"earthquakes-tectonics-hazard-and-risk-mitigation",bookSignature:"Taher Zouaghi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5499.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"39860",title:"Dr.",name:"Taher",middleName:null,surname:"Zouaghi",slug:"taher-zouaghi",fullName:"Taher Zouaghi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3507",title:"Natural Disasters",subtitle:"Multifaceted Aspects in Management and Impact Assessment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3608e266119f43880a9067fc25deaa4c",slug:"natural-disasters-multifaceted-aspects-in-management-and-impact-assessment",bookSignature:"Olga Petrucci",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3507.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76678",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Petrucci",slug:"olga-petrucci",fullName:"Olga Petrucci"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3088",title:"Updates in Volcanology",subtitle:"New Advances in Understanding Volcanic Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"16d9b1a78c646969f6405d7e17039df5",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-new-advances-in-understanding-volcanic-systems",bookSignature:"Karoly Nemeth",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3088.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Karoly",middleName:null,surname:"Nemeth",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Karoly Nemeth"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"600",title:"Approaches to Managing Disaster",subtitle:"Assessing Hazards, Emergencies and Disaster Impacts",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e97caba8487382025a1e70eb85e4e390",slug:"approaches-to-managing-disaster-assessing-hazards-emergencies-and-disaster-impacts",bookSignature:"John Tiefenbacher",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/600.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",middleName:null,surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"863",title:"Natural Disasters",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d03632c95c81e3de1eba473b9975204",slug:"natural-disasters",bookSignature:"Sorin Cheval",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/863.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"123456",title:"Dr.",name:"Sorin",middleName:null,surname:"Cheval",slug:"sorin-cheval",fullName:"Sorin Cheval"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:10,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"31818",doi:"10.5772/28441",title:"Comprehensive Monitoring of Wildfires in Europe: The European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS)",slug:"comprehensive-monitoring-of-wildfires-in-europe-the-european-forest-fire-information-system-effis-",totalDownloads:3826,totalCrossrefCites:52,totalDimensionsCites:115,book:{slug:"approaches-to-managing-disaster-assessing-hazards-emergencies-and-disaster-impacts",title:"Approaches to Managing Disaster",fullTitle:"Approaches to Managing Disaster - Assessing Hazards, Emergencies and Disaster Impacts"},signatures:"Jesús San-Miguel-Ayanz, Ernst Schulte, Guido Schmuck, Andrea Camia, Peter Strobl, Giorgio Liberta, Cristiano Giovando, Roberto Boca, Fernando Sedano, Pieter Kempeneers, Daniel McInerney, Ceri Withmore, Sandra Santos de Oliveira, Marcos Rodrigues, Tracy Durrant, Paolo Corti, Friderike Oehler, Lara Vilar and Giuseppe Amatulli",authors:[{id:"73894",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"San-Miguel-Ayanz",slug:"jesus-san-miguel-ayanz",fullName:"Jesús San-Miguel-Ayanz"},{id:"126055",title:"MSc.",name:"Ernst",middleName:null,surname:"Schulte",slug:"ernst-schulte",fullName:"Ernst Schulte"},{id:"126056",title:"Dr.",name:"Guido",middleName:null,surname:"Schmuck",slug:"guido-schmuck",fullName:"Guido Schmuck"},{id:"126057",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Camia",slug:"andrea-camia",fullName:"Andrea Camia"},{id:"126058",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Strobl",slug:"peter-strobl",fullName:"Peter Strobl"},{id:"126059",title:"Mr.",name:"Giorgio",middleName:null,surname:"Liberta",slug:"giorgio-liberta",fullName:"Giorgio Liberta"},{id:"126060",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristiano",middleName:null,surname:"Giovando",slug:"cristiano-giovando",fullName:"Cristiano Giovando"},{id:"126061",title:"BSc.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Boca",slug:"roberto-boca",fullName:"Roberto Boca"},{id:"126062",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Sedano",slug:"fernando-sedano",fullName:"Fernando Sedano"},{id:"126063",title:"Dr.",name:"Pieter",middleName:null,surname:"Kempeners",slug:"pieter-kempeners",fullName:"Pieter Kempeners"},{id:"126064",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"McInerney",slug:"daniel-mcinerney",fullName:"Daniel McInerney"},{id:"126066",title:"BSc.",name:"Ceri",middleName:null,surname:"Whitmore",slug:"ceri-whitmore",fullName:"Ceri Whitmore"},{id:"126068",title:"MSc.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Santos De Oliveira",slug:"sandra-santos-de-oliveira",fullName:"Sandra Santos De Oliveira"},{id:"126070",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigues",slug:"marcos-rodrigues",fullName:"Marcos Rodrigues"},{id:"126072",title:"MSc.",name:"Tracy",middleName:null,surname:"Durrant",slug:"tracy-durrant",fullName:"Tracy Durrant"},{id:"126073",title:"MSc.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Corti",slug:"paolo-corti",fullName:"Paolo Corti"},{id:"126074",title:"MSc.",name:"Friderike",middleName:null,surname:"Oehler",slug:"friderike-oehler",fullName:"Friderike Oehler"},{id:"126075",title:"Dr.",name:"Lara",middleName:null,surname:"Vilar",slug:"lara-vilar",fullName:"Lara Vilar"},{id:"126076",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Amatulli",slug:"giuseppe-amatulli",fullName:"Giuseppe Amatulli"}]},{id:"41478",doi:"10.5772/51387",title:"Monogenetic Basaltic Volcanoes: Genetic Classification, Growth, Geomorphology and Degradation",slug:"monogenetic-basaltic-volcanoes-genetic-classification-growth-geomorphology-and-degradation",totalDownloads:5266,totalCrossrefCites:53,totalDimensionsCites:107,book:{slug:"updates-in-volcanology-new-advances-in-understanding-volcanic-systems",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - New Advances in Understanding Volcanic Systems"},signatures:"Gábor Kereszturi and Károly Németh",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Karoly",middleName:null,surname:"Nemeth",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Karoly Nemeth"},{id:"62029",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",middleName:null,surname:"Kereszturi",slug:"gabor-kereszturi",fullName:"Gabor Kereszturi"}]},{id:"31820",doi:"10.5772/28402",title:"A Diagnostic Method for the Study of Disaster Management: A Review of Fundamentals and Practices",slug:"diagnosis-method-for-the-study-of-disaster-management-a-review-of-fundamentals-and-practices",totalDownloads:2799,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:18,book:{slug:"approaches-to-managing-disaster-assessing-hazards-emergencies-and-disaster-impacts",title:"Approaches to Managing Disaster",fullTitle:"Approaches to Managing Disaster - Assessing Hazards, Emergencies and Disaster Impacts"},signatures:"Carole Lalonde",authors:[{id:"73765",title:"Prof.",name:"Carole",middleName:null,surname:"Lalonde",slug:"carole-lalonde",fullName:"Carole Lalonde"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"74250",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Lessons Learned from Past Tsunamis and Todays Practice",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-lessons-learned-from-past-tsunamis-and-todays-practice",totalDownloads:116,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"tsunami-damage-assessment-and-medical-triage",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - Damage Assessment and Medical Triage"},signatures:"Mohammad Mokhtari",authors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}]},{id:"41478",title:"Monogenetic Basaltic Volcanoes: Genetic Classification, Growth, Geomorphology and Degradation",slug:"monogenetic-basaltic-volcanoes-genetic-classification-growth-geomorphology-and-degradation",totalDownloads:5266,totalCrossrefCites:53,totalDimensionsCites:107,book:{slug:"updates-in-volcanology-new-advances-in-understanding-volcanic-systems",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - New Advances in Understanding Volcanic Systems"},signatures:"Gábor Kereszturi and Károly Németh",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Karoly",middleName:null,surname:"Nemeth",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Karoly Nemeth"},{id:"62029",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",middleName:null,surname:"Kereszturi",slug:"gabor-kereszturi",fullName:"Gabor Kereszturi"}]},{id:"55369",title:"One- and Two-Dimensional Hydrological Modelling and Their Uncertainties",slug:"one-and-two-dimensional-hydrological-modelling-and-their-uncertainties",totalDownloads:1899,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"flood-risk-management",title:"Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Mohd Talha Anees, Khiruddin Abdullah, Mohd Nawawi Mohd\nNordin, Nik Norulaini Nik Ab Rahman, Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir\nand Mohd. Omar Abdul Kadir",authors:[{id:"11196",title:"Dr.",name:"Khiruddin",middleName:null,surname:"Abdullah",slug:"khiruddin-abdullah",fullName:"Khiruddin Abdullah"},{id:"151303",title:"Prof.",name:"Nik Norulaini",middleName:null,surname:"Ab Rahman",slug:"nik-norulaini-ab-rahman",fullName:"Nik Norulaini Ab Rahman"},{id:"151344",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Ab Kadir",slug:"mohd-omar-ab-kadir",fullName:"Mohd Omar Ab Kadir"},{id:"201647",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohd Talha",middleName:null,surname:"Anees",slug:"mohd-talha-anees",fullName:"Mohd Talha Anees"},{id:"203217",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Nawawi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Nordin",slug:"mohd-nawawi-mohd-nordin",fullName:"Mohd Nawawi Mohd Nordin"},{id:"203218",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Izzuddin",middleName:null,surname:"Syakir Ishak",slug:"muhammad-izzuddin-syakir-ishak",fullName:"Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir Ishak"}]},{id:"55645",title:"Strategies for Testing the Impact of Natural Flood Risk Management Measures",slug:"strategies-for-testing-the-impact-of-natural-flood-risk-management-measures",totalDownloads:1278,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"flood-risk-management",title:"Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Barry Hankin, Peter Metcalfe, David Johnson, Nick A. Chappell,\nTrevor Page, Iain Craigen, Rob Lamb and Keith Beven",authors:[{id:"203276",title:"Dr.",name:"Barry",middleName:null,surname:"Hankin",slug:"barry-hankin",fullName:"Barry Hankin"}]},{id:"31814",title:"Landslide Inventory and Susceptibility Assessment for the Ntchenachena Area, Northern Malawi (East Africa)",slug:"landslide-inventory-and-susceptibility-assessment-for-the-ntchenachena-area-northern-malawi-east-afr",totalDownloads:3594,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"approaches-to-managing-disaster-assessing-hazards-emergencies-and-disaster-impacts",title:"Approaches to Managing Disaster",fullTitle:"Approaches to Managing Disaster - Assessing Hazards, Emergencies and Disaster Impacts"},signatures:"Golden Msilimba",authors:[{id:"72722",title:"Prof.",name:"Golden",middleName:null,surname:"Msilimba",slug:"golden-msilimba",fullName:"Golden Msilimba"}]},{id:"55139",title:"Estimating Flood Quantiles on the Basis of Multi-Event Rainfall Simulation",slug:"estimating-flood-quantiles-on-the-basis-of-multi-event-rainfall-simulation",totalDownloads:764,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"flood-risk-management",title:"Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Elżbieta Jarosińska and Katarzyna Pierzga",authors:[{id:"202772",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Elżbieta",middleName:null,surname:"Jarosińska",slug:"elzbieta-jarosinska",fullName:"Elżbieta Jarosińska"},{id:"202833",title:"MSc.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Pierzga",slug:"katarzyna-pierzga",fullName:"Katarzyna Pierzga"}]},{id:"71247",title:"Dealing with Local Tsunami on Pakistan Coast",slug:"dealing-with-local-tsunami-on-pakistan-coast",totalDownloads:121,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"tsunami-damage-assessment-and-medical-triage",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - Damage Assessment and Medical Triage"},signatures:"Ghazala Naeem",authors:[{id:"193736",title:"Ms.",name:"Ghazala",middleName:null,surname:"Naeem",slug:"ghazala-naeem",fullName:"Ghazala Naeem"}]},{id:"56346",title:"An Additive Statistical Modeling Approach to the Analysis of Transport Infrastructure Flood Risk-Based Resilience",slug:"an-additive-statistical-modeling-approach-to-the-analysis-of-transport-infrastructure-flood-risk-bas",totalDownloads:856,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"flood-risk-management",title:"Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Mohammad Mojtahedi, Sidney Newton and Faham Tahmasebinia",authors:[{id:"193947",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mojtahedi",slug:"mohammad-mojtahedi",fullName:"Mohammad Mojtahedi"},{id:"200222",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidney",middleName:null,surname:"Newton",slug:"sidney-newton",fullName:"Sidney Newton"},{id:"200223",title:"Dr.",name:"Faham",middleName:null,surname:"Tahmasebinia",slug:"faham-tahmasebinia",fullName:"Faham Tahmasebinia"}]},{id:"56590",title:"Geodesign a Tool for Redefining Flood Risk Disaster in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Southern Catchment of Ankobra Basin, Ghana",slug:"geodesign-a-tool-for-redefining-flood-risk-disaster-in-developing-countries-a-case-study-of-southern",totalDownloads:728,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"flood-risk-management",title:"Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Adams Osman and Benjamin Nyarko",authors:[{id:"179927",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamin Kofi",middleName:"Kofi",surname:"Nyarko",slug:"benjamin-kofi-nyarko",fullName:"Benjamin Kofi Nyarko"},{id:"206149",title:"Mr.",name:"Adams",middleName:null,surname:"Osman",slug:"adams-osman",fullName:"Adams Osman"}]},{id:"52524",title:"Earthquakes and Structural Damages",slug:"earthquakes-and-structural-damages",totalDownloads:2164,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"earthquakes-tectonics-hazard-and-risk-mitigation",title:"Earthquakes",fullTitle:"Earthquakes - Tectonics, Hazard and Risk Mitigation"},signatures:"Burak Yön, Erkut Sayın and Onur Onat",authors:[{id:"192483",title:"Dr.",name:"Burak",middleName:null,surname:"Yön",slug:"burak-yon",fullName:"Burak Yön"},{id:"192486",title:"Dr.",name:"Erkut",middleName:null,surname:"Sayın",slug:"erkut-sayin",fullName:"Erkut Sayın"},{id:"192487",title:"Dr.",name:"Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Onat",slug:"onur-onat",fullName:"Onur Onat"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"natural-disaster",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/atherosclerosis-yesterday-today-and-tomorrow/focus-on-coronary-atherosclerosis",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"atherosclerosis-yesterday-today-and-tomorrow",chapter:"focus-on-coronary-atherosclerosis"},fullPath:"/books/atherosclerosis-yesterday-today-and-tomorrow/focus-on-coronary-atherosclerosis",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()