\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3477",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Herbicides - Current Research and Case Studies in Use",title:"Herbicides",subtitle:"Current Research and Case Studies in Use",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Herbicide use is a common component of many weed management strategies in both agricultural and non-crop settings. However, herbicide use practices and recommendations are continuously updated and revised to provide control of ever-changing weed compositions and to preserve efficacy of current weed control options. Herbicides - Current Research and Case Studies in Use provides information about current trends in herbicide use and weed control in different land and aquatic settings as well as case studies in particular weed control situations.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1112-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5378-8",doi:"10.5772/56743",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"herbicides-current-research-and-case-studies-in-use",numberOfPages:664,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"793817029a616fa096c3ffb2d68d04ff",bookSignature:"Andrew J. Price and Jessica A. 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Dr. Price is a native of East Tennessee, USA, and has received both B.S. and M.S. degrees from the University of Tennessee majoring in plant and soil sciences and a Ph.D. from North Carolina State University majoring in crop science. Dr. Price’s primary responsibilities in the Conservation Systems Research Group are to conduct research addressing the impact of integrated weed management strategies on weed populations/competitiveness in conservation systems as well as to develop cost-effective and environmentally friendly weed management systems integrating conservation tillage, crop rotations, cover crops, and weed management systems.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Agricultural Research Service",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"13748",title:"Prof.",name:"Jessica",middleName:null,surname:"Kelton",slug:"jessica-kelton",fullName:"Jessica Kelton",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13748/images/5418_n.jpg",biography:"Jessica Kelton is a Research Associate with Auburn University at the Wiregrass Research and Extension Center in Headland, Alabama, U.S.A. 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\r\n\tCardiac disease is one of the largest categories of diseases affecting industrialized nations. Furthermore, cardiac disease is becoming more prevelant in developing nations especially as the socio-economic status of these countries increases. It is an all encompasing term for conditions of the heart and blood vessels. Whilst there have been great advances in the diagnosis and treatment options available for symomatic cardiac disease there is a pressing need to undestand the pathophysiological mechanisms with a view to altering the risk of development of these conditions. Survivial following an acute cardiac event such as myocardial infarction is increasing however patients develop chronic heart failure which is becoming a growing health concern both medically and economically.
\r\n\r\n\tIt was once thought that the damaged heart was a dying heart. Recent advances in molecular techniques and stem cell therapy challenge this doctorine and research is focused on cellular repair mechanisms to regenerate cardiac tissue. This book will provide a comprehensive narrative of the state of the art with respect to epidemiology, diagnosis, intervention and research advances in cardiac disease.
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Gaze",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71983/images/system/71983.jpeg",biography:"Dr. David Gaze studied biochemistry at undergraduate and Masters level in West Yorkshire followed by a Ph.D. in Clinical Biochemistry in London, United Kingdom. He is currently Lecturer in Clinical Biochemistry at the University of Westminster and Honorary Cardiac Research Scientist within the Department of Chemical Pathology, Clinical Blood Sciences at St George’s Hospital and Medical School, London. \r\nHe has authored and co-authored in excess of 150 peer-reviewed papers and 200 abstracts, as well as presented at over 50 internationally invited conferences. He has contributed five book chapters to cardiovascular-related textbooks as well as writing a textbook on cardiac troponin. He is a peer reviewer for 25 medical journals. 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He is also a member of the American Association of Clinical Chemistry; Institute of Biomedical Sciences; Institute of Biology; European Society of Pathology; The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland and the associate member of the Royal Institution of London. \r\nGaze and colleagues have won a number of awards including two distinguished Abstract awards from the National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry as well as Diploma for Oral Presentation regarding D-dimer, natriuretic peptide and cardiac troponin in dialysis patients presented at the 17th IFCC-FESCC European Congress of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine and the 60th National Congress of the Netherlands Society of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine in Amsterdam in 2007.",institutionString:"University of Westminster",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Westminster",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"183303",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandar",middleName:null,surname:"Kibel",slug:"aleksandar-kibel",fullName:"Aleksandar Kibel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/183303/images/system/183303.jpeg",biography:"Aleksandar Kibel is assistant professor at the Department of\nPhysiology and Immunology at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Osijek, as well as an internal medicine specialist and\ncardiology subspecialist at the Department for Heart and Vascular Diseases, Osijek University Hospital Centre, Croatia. He\ngraduated from the Faculty of Medicine, University of Osijek,\nwith an MD degree in 2009 with a maximum possible grade\naverage, conducting experimental research activities during almost all study years\nand receiving awards that included the country’s top scholarship (“Top Scholarship for Top Students”). His research activities include laboratory practicums and\nresearch visits at a number of foreign institutions, including the University Clinic\nHamburg-Eppendorf (Germany), the Medical College of Wisconsin (USA), Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok (Thailand), etc. He obtained his PhD degree at\nthe Department of Physiology and Immunology with a focus on vascular physiology\nand pathophysiology and teaches at medical high school, university, and postgraduate doctoral levels. He was a mentor on several diploma works. Prior experience\nincludes work at the Emergency Medicine Department and an internship at the\nUniversity Hospital Zagreb, as well as volunteer work at the Red Cross. He has published a number of scientific papers and three book chapters, actively participated\nin many international scientific conferences and research projects at the preclinical\nand clinical levels, and contributed to pharmacological clinical trials as a subinvestigator. He is guest editor of several special issues and an editorial board member of\nseveral international scientific journals.",institutionString:"Osijek University Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"75813",title:"Internal Flow Choking in Cardiovascular System: A Radical Theory in the Risk Assessment of Asymptomatic Cardiovascular Diseases",slug:"internal-flow-choking-in-cardiovascular-system-a-radical-theory-in-the-risk-assessment-of-asymptomat",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"71778",title:"Epigenetics of Circadian Rhythm Disruption in Cardiovascular Diseases",slug:"epigenetics-of-circadian-rhythm-disruption-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:312,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"272772",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ivana",surname:"Škrlec",slug:"ivana-skrlec",fullName:"Ivana Škrlec"}]},{id:"71550",title:"Primary Angioplasty: From the Artery to the Myocardium",slug:"primary-angioplasty-from-the-artery-to-the-myocardium",totalDownloads:100,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"71846",title:"Correlations between Inflammation and Thrombosis in the Pathogeny of Myocardial Infarction",slug:"correlations-between-inflammation-and-thrombosis-in-the-pathogeny-of-myocardial-infarction",totalDownloads:61,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"71635",title:"Gender Differences in Clinical Outcomes of Patients with Coronary Artery Disease after Percutaneous Coronary Intervention",slug:"gender-differences-in-clinical-outcomes-of-patients-with-coronary-artery-disease-after-percutaneous-",totalDownloads:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"72494",title:"Acute Myocardial Infarction: Perspectives on Physiopathology of Myocardial Injury and Protective Interventions",slug:"acute-myocardial-infarction-perspectives-on-physiopathology-of-myocardial-injury-and-protective-inte",totalDownloads:138,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"244257",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Kingma",slug:"john-kingma",fullName:"John Kingma"}]},{id:"71698",title:"Management of Ascending Aorta Calcification in Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting",slug:"management-of-ascending-aorta-calcification-in-coronary-artery-bypass-grafting",totalDownloads:124,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"72425",title:"Early Detection and Endovascular Intervention to Correct Dialysis Vascular Access Malfunction",slug:"early-detection-and-endovascular-intervention-to-correct-dialysis-vascular-access-malfunction",totalDownloads:161,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73236",title:"Obesity Acceptance: Body Positivity and Clinical Risk Factors",slug:"obesity-acceptance-body-positivity-and-clinical-risk-factors",totalDownloads:210,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"72672",title:"Hemodialysis Vascular Access with Central Venous Disease",slug:"hemodialysis-vascular-access-with-central-venous-disease",totalDownloads:313,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73073",title:"Coronary Artery Intervention Techniques",slug:"coronary-artery-intervention-techniques",totalDownloads:103,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73939",title:"Genetic Determinant of Familial Dilated Cardiomyopathy and Genotype-Targeted Therapeutic Strategy",slug:"genetic-determinant-of-familial-dilated-cardiomyopathy-and-genotype-targeted-therapeutic-strategy",totalDownloads:79,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"72238",title:"The Function of Seven Transmembrane Receptors in the Cardiovascular System and Their Role in the Development of Cardiomyopathy",slug:"the-function-of-seven-transmembrane-receptors-in-the-cardiovascular-system-and-their-role-in-the-dev",totalDownloads:227,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74132",title:"Nonresectional-Graded Neo Chordal Dynamic Repair of Mitral Valve: Stress Analysis Induced Surgical Innovation",slug:"nonresectional-graded-neo-chordal-dynamic-repair-of-mitral-valve-stress-analysis-induced-surgical-in",totalDownloads:43,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61962",title:"Using IoT for Accessible Tourism in Smart Cities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77057",slug:"using-iot-for-accessible-tourism-in-smart-cities",body:'\nIn the last few years, the IoT concept emerged as the forerunner of a sweeping technical and cultural change with a fast growing number of devices, sensors, actuators and various other objects becoming linked to each other and to upper-level systems [1]. Considering the potential very large amount of connectable devices and generated data, completely new features and services can arise that can constitute the basis for various innovative concepts, as for example, Big Data and Smart Cities. The latter concept has the potential to make citizen lives smarter and more sustainable and, at the same time, to create extended market opportunities.
\nThe Smart Cities architectures implemented or designed up to date are tackling with use cases from the following use cases: transportation, energy, environmental management and waste disposal. The specific architectures for these use cases rely mainly on IoT platforms connecting heterogeneous devices and systems with the upper layers where services and applications are implemented [2]. Among the aforementioned use cases, transportation is of particular interest, taking into consideration that tourism is currently the largest growing economy branch worldwide. Without transportation -local one included- there is little or no tourism, so the development of tourism is tightly linked to the concept of mobility which, for the specific case of an urban environment, can be included in the frame of the Smart Cities paradigm.
\nRecent estimations state that there are more than 1 billion persons with disabilities worldwide, to be summed to other more than 2 billion representing the spouses, children or caregivers of the persons with disabilities, for a total of almost a third of the population directly affected by disability [3]. While this signifies a huge potential market for the aforementioned economic branches of travel and tourism, it still remains vastly under-served due to inaccessible travel and tourism facilities and services. The concept of accessible tourism [4] is an enabler for all categories of people to be part of and to enjoy tourism. Each person can have a specific access need, related or not to a physical condition. A typical example is the one of older and less mobile persons, that come with specific needs for traveling or touring activities. The concept of accessible tourism is starting to gain importance in order to enable destinations, products and services to all people, independently from their physical limitations, disabilities or age [5]. The changes induced by this new concept can affect public and private tourist locations, facilities and services. From idea to the practical implementation of a trip, a single destination visit normally involves many factors, including accessing information, local transportation, accommodation, shopping, and dining [5]. For these reasons, it can be stated that the impact of the implementation of the accessible tourism concept can reach far beyond the specific case of tourism, adding accessibility to the social and economic values of society [3, 6].
\nPutting together the previously mentioned elements, this chapter aims, to offer an overview on IoT requirements and technologies for Accessible Tourism applications in a Smart City environment, and to propose a specific architecture together with a practical implementation tailored for the use case of accessible tourism. The proposed implementation is targeted for persons with physical impairments or special access needs.
\nThe content of the chapter is structured as following: the next section analyses briefly the key requirements for an IoT architecture operating in a Smart City environment for the specific implementation; Section 3 presents an overview on the use of IoT technologies for accessible tourism, while Section 4 is dedicated to the proposed general IoT architecture. Section 5 describes the accessible tourism solution based on the optimization algorithm presented in Section 6, while Section 7 presents a series of simulations. Section 8 presents the conclusions and the future work.
\nThe Smart City concept has many definitions and implementation approaches. However, from an infrastructural point of view, all Smart Cities have at their core a highly capable ICT system, in the form of an IoT platform, connected to wired and wireless sensor networks. The hardware and communication part, together with advanced data analytics that settle the basis for developing intelligent applications and services for citizens [7]. Still now, even after some years of functionality, the key requirements for the requirements for IoT platforms operating in a Smart City scenario are difficult to define.
\nA forerunner of architectural designs is the PROBE IT EU-financed project having as main aim to benchmark IoT deployments and to set the guidelines for IoT roll-outs for Smart Cities [8]. Using some of these guidelines, considering various other surveys [9, 10, 11, 12] and consulting the requirements fulfilled by some of the existing commercial IoT architectures and platforms [13, 14], we extracted a set of key requirements tailored specifically for accessible tourism applications in the Smart City context.
\nBy the year 2020, worldwide there will be 50 billion connected devices [13], accounting for a mean value of 6 devices pro capita. IoT platforms aggregating data imply that these devices can be accessible over the Internet. Data networks, especially poorly configure ones, are vulnerable to all kind of attacks. IoT environments, always connected to the Internet, are not at all different, therefore there is the need for solid security mechanisms, which, specifically for a Smart City environment can be summarized in the following form:
The IoT market is still in its early stages of adoption, as it is also the case for the Smart City concept. The next generation of connected devices and products needs to rely on a certain software flexibility and for these reasons, an IoT platform in a Smart City environment should comply with following flexibility rules [15]:
The data in the IoT world comes mainly from things but can also arrive in the form of metadata from users. IoT and Smart Cities are more than a sink for incoming data, data intelligence being the key concept. This implies relatively strict requirements in terms of data [13, 14]:
In the last decade, Travel Recommendation Systems (TRSs) have benefited from the Information Communication Technology (ICT), which has become the main source of information for the tourists, assisting them in choosing services around them [16]. As the technology makes its way into the fabric of everyday life, it become easier even for people with disabilities to take advantage of TRSs.
\nIn particular, the IoT, as an enabler technology, can offer people with disabilities the assistance and support they need to achieve a good quality of life and allows them to participate in the social and economic life. In [17], the authors propose an IoT architecture to assist people with disabilities and envision some application scenarios where such users can benefit from the IoT, such as during shopping, at school or in a domestic environment. They claim how the IoT can make easier for people with some kind of impairments to carry out their daily activities and then increase their autonomy and self-confidence.
\nHowever, despite the rapidly increasing number of tourists with disabilities, both the tourism industry and the scientific community has paid little to no attention to find solutions to facilitate and make their tourist experience more enjoyable, due to the assumption that this group of people is usually not interested in traveling [18].
\nThe few works analyzing the needs of people with disabilities aim to understand which can be their stimuli to travel; in [5], for example, the authors research the criteria consumers with disabilities regards as being important to their choice of accessible accommodation; similarly, the work proposed in [19] deals with understanding how tourists with mobility disabilities make decisions to choose accessible travel products.
\nNevertheless, even if there are several solutions which apply the IoT paradigm to sustain and manage tourism (smart tourism scenarios), little work has been done to offer assistance and support to people with disabilities. In [20], the authors underline the strict correlation between smart city and smart tourism conceptualizations and the focus on public service models at the expense of comprehensive and systematic exploration of its business opportunities and implications. In [21], several possible smart tourism scenarios are presented: from services to help select destinations and search suitable travel arrangement to services that provide on-site support to the tourist during the trip helping her/him to discover nearest places of interest. Another example is proposed in [22], where the authors propose an agent-based system; such a system enables to model different kinds of activities in a flexible way, and allows the implementation of location-aware applications.
\nFinally, in [23], an IoT solution for sustainable tourism has been proposed and applied to a specific Smart City scenario. The authors take into account two main elements in order to propose the best set of Point of Interests (PoIs) for the tourist, namely the choice of the transportation mode and the information regarding the queue time expected at each PoI. Even if no implementation has been provided, simulated results show how such an approach based on the IoT paradigm can increase the tourists’ satisfaction.
\nTo the best of our knowledge, in this chapter we go for the first time beyond the state of the art, by proposing a solution to apply the IoT paradigm to accessible tourism for people with disabilities, in which cruise ship tourists, with limited available time, wants to maximize their tourist experience.
\nAs mentioned in Section 1, in this work we introduce an IoT platform suitable for a Smart City environment and applied to the sustainable management of the tourist flow in the city of Cagliari, Sardinia’s capital, which is one of the two biggest island in Italy and one of the most attractive point for tourism, especially in summer. In such a scenario, we envision that, through the use of virtualization technologies, each object in the real world is associated to its virtual counterpart in the cloud. This is a common practice in the latest IoT research efforts [24], since the virtualization of the physical devices enhances their capabilities, making the objects capable to: (i) describe their characteristics with semantic technologies in order to be able to interact with other virtual objects; (ii) identify, analyze and manage the context of the object’s surroundings, taking the decision accordingly; (iii) facilitate the search and discovery of devices and services, continuously joining, moving across and leaving the network.
\nThe proposed platform relies on the Cloud IoT architecture [25], named Lysis, organized on four distinct levels (Figure 1). Service discovery and information exchange do not need objects to be in vicinity of each other, since they take place in the virtual world through the exploit of social relations.
\nCloud-based IoT architectural solution.
In the following the four levels as described in details: the highest level is the
This approach has manifold motivations: (i) it enables objects to speak the same language at the virtual level; (ii) it enhances the service search and discovery; (iii) it decouples the service requests and the actual IoT objects which satisfy the request and (iv) it offers personalized experience to users based on their own needs and traits.
\nIn the following paragraphs, we describe in detail the layers proposed for the architecture.
(1)
(2)
The
In particular, the
To have a broader view of the user, the UC block alone is not enough. This is due to the fact that the UC only accumulate static information, and does not take into account the specific situation the user is involved in. This is the role of the
Finally, since an application is composed of one or more services, there is the need of a
(3)
To overcome the limited capabilities of the IoT objects, in the virtual world the VOs enhance their capabilities and enable them to perform additional operations. White canes, i.e. canes for blind or visually impaired people, wheelchair but also museums, parks or busses can communicate among them without any problem at this level even if they all use different communication technologies: simple technologies, such as RFID tags and NFC, can be attached to Points of Interest (PoIs) to enhance the visiting experience of tourists by interpreting information about the environment and making choices accordingly, for example by pushing additional information regarding the PoI to users [26].
\nTo activate a new VO, the system has to find a match between the possible VO templates and the information (metadata) provided by the physical device; such information comprehends: objects’ characteristics; objects’ location; resources, services, and quality parameters provided by objects. When a match is found, a new instance of the object is created (i.e. the web server representing the VO itself), which run in the
Each VO has two interfaces: the first one enables the VO to create a standardized communication procedure with the physical object; this way, the VO can communicate with the object using a set of different protocols based on the situation at hand. The other interface allows the VO to “speak” with all the other VOs in the VOES; thank to this, it is possible even for physical objects with have different communication technologies to communicate among them and become interoperable at the virtual level.
\nThe VO registry stores a semantic description for each active VOs in the VOES, in the form of metadata, which is then used every time there is the need to search for a particular VO.
\nThis metadata is particularly useful in the case of accessible tourism, where the information regarding the different objects available for people with disability needs to be described with the correct metadata in order to be easily discoverable; this is the case for example of busses with a platform for tourists in a wheelchair or of museums which provide audio guides for visually impaired tourists.
\nWhen the
(4)
(5)
(6)
This section presents an accessible solution designed on top of the IoT platform presented in the previous section, aiming to provide useful information to tourists in general, with particular attention to the ones with special needs. The application has been developed for the cruise ship tourists who land in the city of Cagliari, but it could be applied to many Western European tourist destinations, regardless of the means of arrival (i.e. plane, train, or ship).
\nWhen arriving in Cagliari, many cruise ship tourists, often prefer to take a walking tour rather than taking an organized tour. After getting off the cruise ship, these people have to spend too much time to get the needed information about programming their visit. And time is a very critical aspect for cruise ship tourists, due to the limited number of hours the cruise ship usually stays at the call port. This aspect gets worse for disabled people, depending on the type and degree of disability. In the case of mobility disability, for instance, a destination like Cagliari, where reaching the most important attractions require a lot of walking uphill, due to the natural and geographical features of the city, many tourists are constrained to limit their visit to the areas around the port. Instead, with some detailed information about accessible routes in the city, more tourists could reach all the attractions of interest within walking distance of the port getting a better experience from their visit. This is why we designed and developed a mobile application dedicated to generic tourists and specifically adapted to accessible tourism. In case of physical impairments, this mobile application is capable to optimize visits to specific mobility user needs. In this work we adopt the paradigm of people inclusion and universal access to information and tourism assets.
\nIn the recent years, tourism experiences of people with disabilities have largely been a research key topic [27]. Research results have been focused on accessible tourism and accommodation preferences [5]. Most of the available tools are based on web sites for travel planning with focus on inclusive tourism such as Tur4All (https://www.tur4all.com/) and Jaccede.com (https://www.jaccede.com/). Specific tools face just single aspects of the problem. LinkedQR [28] is a tool to improve the collaboration between QR codes and Linked Data, through mobile and Web technologies. Nevertheless, the role of IoT in tourism is expected to create innovative experiences for consumers [29].
\nThere is a lack of tools specifically designed for everyone and able to perform specific outcomes for disabled. Our application addresses this challenge, following the paradigm of whole-of-life to tourism, considering that 30% of a population will have access requirements at some stage during their life [4].
\nThe Tour Planner is a mobile application, useful to build a dynamic itinerary through a city, based on a repository of Points of Interest (PoIs), each one of them is represented as a VO on the platform (Figure 2).
\nThe RWO and the tour planner exchange information each other.
The Tour Planner application is developed on top of the proposed platform, and it takes in input not only the Points of Interest related to monuments, museums, archeological sites, parks, botanical gardens, shopping areas, restaurants, but also commercial offers and events as well as every information that can be important for the user, such as his/her particular needs, the length of the queue in real time from the PoIs or the weather.
\nMoreover, the Tour Planner allows to save the itineraries built by the end users (the tourists) in a format suitable to be saved in the platform, then making it available for other users. The information available on the platform are regularly taken and stored (updated) in the back end of the mobile application. The mobile application has been developed with the Ionic Framework in order to be suitable for any mobile platform.
\nThe platform takes all the information about the Points of Interest (PoI) in a certain geographical area. The PoIs are stored in the platform according to a classification related to the type (the already mentioned, monument, museum, archeological site, etc.).
\nThe Tour Planner aims to improve accessible tourism because it provides the possibility to build itineraries suitable for people with disability, adding detailed information about the accessibility of each Point of Interest, whenever available. Unfortunately, a well-known problem is related to the fact that most of the web sites based on the Points of Interest paradigm do not follow standards like the “ISO 7001:2007 Graphical Symbols” (https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#search/grs/7001). Although not comprehensive, these standards are suitable to notify tourists about the existence of facilities for disabled people. The information would be complete if also the “not existence” of the facilities would be reported (in a standard way, as well). Another issue in relation to this aspect is that quite often the presence of these facilities is not compliant to standard like the ISO 21542:2011 for building construction - Accessibility and usability of the built environment (https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:50498:en).
\nSome disability rights organizations periodically (for instance, yearly) verify if declared accessibilities are compliant to the standard. As a good example of this, in UK, there are important providers of access information like DisabledGo (https://www.disabledgo.com/). If this kind of verified information could be automatically collected and stored in the platform, the Tour Planner application would be able to acquire them and to build proper itineraries accordingly. In our case, a further improvement should come from the municipality of Cagliari by providing access infrastructures through the streets of the historical city, and making the related information available.
\nIn this accessible destination scenario, a disabled person, for example with a limited degree of mobility, could use the Tour Planner application to properly construct his or her tour, including the PoIs and the routes that connect them, depending on the needed level of accessibility.
\nObviously, the presented Tour Planner application represents only a technology which allows this scenario of accessible destination to become reality; in fact, the solution requires some effort by the decision makers in order to make all the actors of the scenario to co-operate for realizing it (Figures 3 and 4).
\nThe tour planner set up and the list of PoIs.
The map showing the PoIs chosen by the tourist (on the left), and the optimized itinerary (on the right).
The aim of the Tour Planner application is to make the visit of a destination accessible for everyone, addressing the described critical aspects through the following features:
The tourist defines the total amount of time he has to visit, his physical training level with respect to available paths, and the type of preferred attractions.
The application shows a list of most important Points of Interest, sorted according to the information described in 1.
The tourist can select each Point of Interest to get more information, including those related to accessibility, and then has the possibility to choose what to see during the visit.
The application connects the Points of Interest selected and optimizes the resulting path producing a tour suitable to the tourist.
Two optimization models are implemented to plan the tour of tourists. In the first model, a subset of PoIs is selected in order to maximize their attractiveness. In the second model, an optimal tour among this subset of PoIs is determined by solving a Traveling Salesman Problem: the tourist is given an optimal route where he/she visits each POI only once, minimizing the cost of moving between the selected PoIs.
\nWe consider the current location 0 of the tourist and a set
The problem can be described as the following graph theoretic problem. Let \n
The following decision variables are defined:
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
The problem can be formulated as follows:
\nIn (Eq. (1)) one maximizes the ranking generated by the selected POIs. According to (Eq. (2)), a PoI must be visited after the current location. Constraints (Eq. (3)) enforce for the tourist to come back to the current location after the visit of the last PoI. Constraints (Eq. (4)) guarantee that a tourists arriving at any PoI must also leave from that PoI. Constrains (Eq. (5)) link decisions variables on POIs selections and movement between nodes. Constraints (Eq. (6)) are the subtour elimination constraints of Miller, Tucker, and Zemlin. Constraints (Eq. (7)) enforce that the overall time spent to move between nodes and visit POIs is lower that the planned time interval. Finally, (Eq. (8)), (Eq. (9)), and (Eq. (10)) are the domain of decision variables.
\nIt is worth noting that one does not have to visit all nodes of the
Consider the subset \n
The TSP can be described as the following graph theoretic problem. Let \n
\n\n
\n\n
The problem can be formulated as follows:
\nIn (Eq. (11)) one maximizes the ranking generated by the selected POIs. According to (Eq. (12)) and (Eq. (13)), a node must be visited before and after the current one, respectively. Constraints in (Eq. (14)) are the subtour elimination constraints of Miller, Tucker, and Zemlin. Finally, (Eq. (15)) and (Eq. (16)) are the domain of decision variables.
\nIn this section we show the viability of the proposed tools to support the mobility of physically disabled tourists or elder persons. We also analyze the case of able-bodied tourists for the sake of comparison. The difference between the two cases is shown by increasing travel times along uphill and downhill routes for disabled tourists as opposed to able-bodied ones. The experimentation is carried out in the city of Cagliari, where many tourists disembark from cruise ships at the harbor. They typically aim to visit the oldest part of Cagliari, which is known as the Castello. It clings to the slopes of a hill that rises steeply from the harbor. Therefore, in this case study it is of particular relevance to distinguish between the waking times of disabled and able-bodies tourists, in order to properly plan which subset of PoI should be visited, as well as the order of the visit.
\nFour classes of PoIs are considered, which correspond to different profiles of tourists interested in museums, monuments, gardens or shops. We took their location and their altitude from the open data platform and we derived the average slope of the streets connecting PoIs. The average travel time per unitary distance was calibrated by a sample of tourists with similar disabilities over a set of streets with different slopes. Since the distance between all PoIs is known, we easily derived the travel times among them.
\nAll the PoIs are ranked with a value ranging from 1, less attractive, to 5, most attractive. A subset of PoIs is considered for each class by a score threshold, which specifies the PoIs the tourist wants to visit. For example, if it taken on value 2, we consider all PoIs with a score bigger than or equal to 2. We initially set the score threshold to 3 and relax the constrain on (7) and compute the itineraries for each class of PoIs. In Figure 5 the time to visit all PoIs is reported for all class of PoIs in four cases:
Open itineraries of disabled tourists from a given GPS location to the port (blue rhombus);
Closed itineraries of disabled tourists leaving and returning back to the port (red square);
Open itineraries of able-bodied tourists from a given GPS location to the port (green triangle);
Closed itineraries of able-bodied tourists leaving and returning back to the port (gray cross).
Minimum time for optimized itineraries with threshold = 3.
As expected, it takes longer to make closed itineraries than open ones and the overall visiting time for disabled tourists is larger than that of able-bodied ones. Next, we reintroduce constrain (Eq. (7)) and plan itineraries according to settings of the time limit
In the results of Figure 6,
In the results of Figure 7,
In the results of Figure 8,
In the results of Figure 9,
Optimized itineraries with maximum time 120 min and threshold = 3.
Optimized itineraries with maximum time 240 min and threshold = 3.
Optimized itineraries with maximum time 120 min and threshold = 2.
Optimized itineraries with maximum time 120 min and threshold = 4.
The obtained results show that the proposed tools can be customized to return a subset of PoIs for physically disabled tourists as opposed to the set of routes determined for able-bodied persons.
\nWithin the framework of Smart Cities, Accessible Tourism and Internet-of-Things (IoT), this paper analyses the key requirements for IoT applications in a Smart City context, the state-of-the-art for the use of IoT for Accessible Tourism and presents an IoT architecture for the specific Smart City scenario dedicated to the sustainable management of the tourist flow in the urban environment of Cagliari. Based on the presented IoT architecture, a Tour Planner Application with features for accessible tourism is presented, together with the mathematical optimization model used for generating a specific tour including a subset of PoIs. The proposed application is tailored for persons with physical impairments. The results of the initial tests are presented and first conclusions are drawn. The obtained results showed that the proposed algorithm can be customized to return a subset of PoIs for disabled tourists as opposed to the set of routes determined for able-bodied tourists. The future work will be focused on refining the used algorithm by taking into considerations new accessibility constraints and also other types of input, such as for example live accessibility data from public transportation.
\nThis work was partially supported by Italian Ministry of University and Research (MIUR), within the Smart Cities framework (Project CagliariPort2020, ID: SCN_00281).
\nWithin academia there is ongoing discussion over what constitutes natural disaster or what does not. Floods, which in recent years have taken the world by surprise, come into the discussion too. While that is the case, its impact on education systems is least discussed, if ever, yet literature acknowledges floods as one of the most devastating disasters ever recorded in human history globally. This Chapter, while attempting to examine the impact flooding has on education systems in Africa, it also explores whether flood sits well in the category of natural disaster. Furthermore, the writers also critically examine and interrogates adequacy of states responses to prevent flooding affecting education systems. The Chapter further explores whether flooding and its related impact on the education system is a disaster risk governance failure prior the conclusion section.
Floods come in various forms and are living testimonies of the conflict between urban development and weather-related vulnerabilities. According to Van Niekerk and Nemakonde [1], fluvial floods, flash floods and glacial lake outburst floods make the list. For Sub-Saharan Africa the main floods that inflict the region come from periods of high intensity rainfall emanating from tropical cyclones and storm surges [2]. For instance, the 2018 to 2019 South Indian cyclone was a fluvial flood that resulted in flood damage of exponential levels in Africa [3]. This was caused mainly by cyclone Idai which affected Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique leaving a trail of destructions and deaths [4]. As for flash floods, these are of a short duration caused by high intensity rainfall that quickly floods the smaller basins. Africa is overwhelmed with periods of extreme rainfall and recurrent floods which may be associated with El Nino events which leave a lot of destructions in all sectors of the economies [5]. However, it is a misnomer to suggest that it is only the African continent that is prone to floods. In his article titled, ‘The Floods: a man-made disaster?’, [6] warns the Army Corps of Engineers in America that its concrete navigation structures in the Mississippi River were intensifying floods, and that its plans to build more wingdikes and weirs would exacerbate a severe and growing problem. Grunwald [6] clearly shows the human hand in the creation of flooding condition. It therefore follows that, while there are naturally caused floods that would have occurred from time to time that natural systems could mostly handle, our development of a lot of the world’s landscape and our consumptive lifestyles have led to not only in the increase in flood occurrences, but also cause floods. Flood as natural event, relates to God’s venting of anger and flood as man-made implies man’s failure to mitigate and prepare adequately for hazard to reduce its impact on infrastructure on which livelihoods depend on.
Tockner and Stanford [7] opine that floods have always been an important part of nature’s regeneration process providing several benefits to countries in the developing world. To that end, some people choose to live in flood hazard prone areas and accept the high levels of risks because of the benefits they access from such areas [8]. The benefits of living in flood prone areas outweigh the risks involved for the vulnerable communities as the floods bring silt to nourish the deltas and to fertilise crops and seasonal fisheries [9]. Studies on floods in Tanzania’s Rufiji River Delta by Sandberg found out that it allowed for post flood agriculture which is of benefits to the community in that area as they grow cotton, peas and maize [10]. In case of Bangladesh, flood has noted to be necessary for fertilising, irrigating the fields and enabling fish to spawn [9]. In such scenarios, and as the populations grow, governments are obliged to provide services such as education infrastructure to the inhabitants despite the threat posed by flooding.
The value of flooding to mankind is not only limited to soil enrichment for agricultural purposes. Flood water absorbed underground recharges the underground aquifers to supply fresh water to rivers, wells, dams, and lakes from flood water to the extent that many countries are dependent on aquifers for fresh water. Floods are an alternating source of that fresh water supply [11]. Ecosystems also depend on flood water which carries and deposits nutrients rich in sediments that support both the plant and animal life of wetlands [12]. In this way, floods become a pull factor incentivising communities to choose to live in flood hazard prone areas, and accept the high levels of risks because of the economic benefits they access from such areas [8].
In view of the context of the here and now benefits of floods, the negative impact of floods on education, despite being real, tend to be masked and yet have a terrible impact on the same. A survey by the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center in 2002, in Cambodia speaks to this observation. The survey in question sought to identify the impacts of disasters on the education sector and the findings revealed that floods were one of the factors disrupting study program accomplishment and thus affecting the quality of current education, particularly in provinces which are prone to floods and where schools were constructed without proper flood resilience [13]. In the context of Zimbabwe, soon after gaining political independence in 1980, the introduced reforms in the education system that focused on the principle of ‘Education for all’ were adopted. Education for all principle embraced the practical principle of increasing the number of schools by building schools in marginalised areas and disadvantaged urban centres [14]. Incidentally some of the marginalised areas were in flood prone areas. As [14] further argues, the government involved local communities to help support schools through providing labour for moulding bricks and other resources. The emphasis was not so much on quality and cost effectiveness of the education system, but on accessibility to education. The Fast land reform programme in Zimbabwe did not help the situation either. People settled themselves under the disguise of black empowerment through access to land and they settled where ever they felt like. Some communities settled in flood prone areas. Owing to the population expansion in those places illegally occupied, the government had no option but to follow up with the construction of schools, commonly known as satellite schools. By allowing people to settle in such fragile spaces, in one way or the other, it helped to easy political tension that had started building in the country due to socio-economic hardships. However, like in the post-independence era quality of infrastructure in the context of resilience to shocks such as floods is not a priority. When floods eventually strike, because they impact communities in different degrees depending on the vulnerability of that community, the impact on education is least to be acknowledged.
The extent floods affect livelihoods and human life is well documented in literature. In fact, quantifying such loss has been the responders’ priority. While that is the case, literature has it that one’s political, social and economic status plays a significant role when it comes to exposure to risk of flooding. Poorest communities are the most vulnerable as they live in the most threatened locations [15] they lack the means to live in less vulnerable communities [16]. This construction of flooding implies that one’s exposure to flooding is a social construction, thus in a way implying that if it is socially constructed, then flood fits well in the discussion of it as being man-made. Cann
In the education sector floods leave a trail of destructions which may results in children’s education getting to a level where it cannot be salvaged. Schooling maybe cancelled, children may drop out of school and school absenteeism may occur if school buildings are used as evacuation centres. A case in point is on Cambodia floods that happens at beginning of academic year from July –December, and children and teachers fail to go to school because of damaged roads and having to travel across rivers becomes dangerous. Using boats increase the cost of getting to schools which parents fail to meet [20]. This is supported by [21] who argued that the most depressing effects of floods is to be found in the affected areas, as the students have to wade through the flooded fields or board canoes that are dangerously rowed through the floating water. Living conditions in evacuation centres, limited space in schools having taken in more students and limited teaching resources for teachers also have a psychological effect on children [22]. The destruction of school infrastructure by cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe in Chimanimani district bares testimony.
There has also been recognition in practice that schools are normally designated as evacuation centres by government authorities. While classroom offer relatively large space for the multitude in need, evacuates bring their animals into the evacuation centres and use the buildings to house their animals. In a situation where the evacuation centre is a school, as was the case in Cambodia [20], animals destroy the school infrastructure. This leaves the schools in pathetic situations and disheartens educationist. Such an outcome tends to lead to brain drain as teachers may find it difficult to take up teaching jobs in the affected areas thus causing shortages of qualified teaching personnel [21]. In the absence of qualified teaching personnel, coupled with unattractive and dilapidated learning infrastructure impede on the quality of education offered to students which in turn affect the performance of students. When schools are closed and stay closed longer to flood disturbances, female learners are further exposed to other risks such as early marriages.
It is important for the different stakeholders in a country to mobilise each other in order to develop different tools to manage floods. UNDP [23] in [24] defines governance as ‘the different ways in which governments, private sector and in general all individuals and institutions in a society organise themselves to manage their common affairs’. In relation to floods risk governance, governance then refers to the structural context in which various actors with a role in the development and implementation of flood risk management policies act and interact [24]. The level and trail of destruction caused by a hazard is largely defined type of governance in existence.
Case 1: Flood risk governance Cyclone Idai
The 2018–2019 Indian Ocean cyclone resulted in a level of flood damage previously unseen in Africa [3]. The main cause was cyclone Idai which affected Mozambique and Zimbabwe. It commenced in March 2019 as a tropical depression over Malawi which caused widespread flooding affecting almost a million people. This moved back out to sea forming cyclone Idai which hit the east coast of Mozambique before dissipating in the eastern Zimbabwe which is 200 km from away on the 14th of March and slowly moved to hit Chimanamani at about 7 pm the following day on a Friday.
Zimbabwe had more lead time to prepare for the cyclone and reduce the potential damage compared to Mozambique. Despite this relative advantage, it was hit the hardest when compared to Mozambique that had far less casualties, environmental and infrastructure destruction. Indeed, security favours those who are prepared. The Metrological Service in Zimbabwe had warned of the impending threat two (2) days before the cyclone landed. Chimanamani District was severely punished, with loses amounting to millions of US dollars, unimaginable environmental damage and loss of lives.
Case 2: Mozambique Foods in 2000 and 2007
Mozambique has a total of ninety three rivers of various sizes, and seasonal regimes cross Mozambique coastal plain [25]. The flooding of the Zambezi in 2000 affected 4.5 million people and approximately 800 died [26]. However, in the major flood of 2007 no more than 300,000 people were affected though water levels were as high as they were in 2000. This showed that lessons learned by the government, national and international NGOs from the 2000 flood disaster had paid off. It had led to improved warning system, establishment of protocols for disaster response, awareness-raising campaigns among the population, training of local government institutions and improved coordination among all stakeholders. Many of those that had been affected in the 2000 floods had been relocated to higher and safer areas.
Vyas-Doorgapersad and Lukamba [27] gave the same sentiments on how Mozambique has improved in its flood risk management from 2000 floods citing the 2010 floods. According to [28] in [27], ‘the Mozambique government had gone to great lengths to implement disaster risk reduction measures in the aftermath of the floods in 2000–2001. It had updated the contingency plans, prepared emergency site plans, conducted simulation exercises and pre-positioned supplies. The efforts paid as shown in the level of destruction during cyclone Idai which was not as bad as that inflicted in Zimbabwe, yet it still had higher destructive power from the Indian ocean when it made landfall in Mozambique. This shows the power of the flood risk reduction measures that have been put in place so far by the Mozambique government and its partners.
While the two case studies of two neighbourly countries do not detail the trail of destruction related to the school infrastructure and holistic education system, it has relevance to the discussion in place. Literature has identified a lot of weakness and some strength in governance issues pertaining to flood risks in countries in Africa, particularly Sub-Sahara Africa. Van Niekerk and Nemakonde [1, 27] identified that a number of countries have governance challenges to effectively respond to disasters and manage risk reduction measures because they lack pro-active measures from the government side. This is attested by Zimbabwe’s response to cyclone Idai as penned by [29, 30] who identified capacity and policy gaps around coordinating response, civil and social protection, humanitarian assistance, development planning and management and land policies. This could have affected the proper dissemination of educational information on disaster as well as the threat that was posed by the cyclone Idai. A lot could have been done by the countries involved judging by the time-lines of the events, which gave ample time to alert the communities of the impending threat.
A number of frameworks have been devised to understand how flood impact education systems as giving directions on initiatives for the protection of children during disasters and for education continuity. The Hyogo Framework for Action [31] which recognised the necessity for including disaster risk assessment, disaster preparedness programs and activities that minimise disaster impacts in schools clearly comes to mind. The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005–2015 was adopted in 2005 by 168 member states including Zimbabwe, to build resilient nations and communities through substantial reduction in disaster losses by 2015 [32, 33]. It was the primary global framework for DRR to give critical guidance to all nations in their efforts to reduce risk [34]. As such, five key indicators were formulated to guide nations towards a more disaster resilient society. Closely related to disaster risk reduction (DRR) education integration is Priority 3 which reads “Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels” [35], p. 8. This was to be implemented by integrating DRR knowledge in relevant sections of school curriculum, including local risk assessment and disaster preparedness programs in schools and institutions of higher learning, and implementing programs and activities in schools, that teach learners how to minimise the effects of hazards [5, 36]. In response to that call countries like Zimbabwe have made some strides in integrating disaster education in school curriculum [37]. Hence although, HFA lifespan has ended, it remains the rock on which her successor the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) (2015–2030) [38] is built on. Unlike its predecessor which had a ten year life span, the SFDRR has duration of 15 years. Priority 2 of the framework guides the strengthening of disaster risk governance to manage disasters risk through education. This priority encourages member states to formulate policies and legal frameworks relating to DRR education that are within their capacity, of all facets of their government to address key elements of DRR education. Importantly, it acknowledges schools as critically important facilities and calls for the implementation of structural, non-structural and functional disaster risk prevention and reduction measures. All the itemised intentions of the framework in question speak to the value of the education system. The Comprehensive School Safety Framework (CSS) provides a structure that can enhance school safety, strengthen disaster risk education, identify priorities to enhance students safety at school and ensure continued access to primary education for students following a catastrophic disaster [39]. It also allows for collaboration among the different stakeholders with a focus on aligning the education sector and disaster management policy [40, 41]. Not to be outdone and noted by [34] the Sustainable Development Goals also speaks to the value of education. These initiatives advanced and prioritised children’s continued access to education, the safety of school sites and using education to assist countries in improving disaster risk reduction efforts. However, where governance issues slake flood is one of the hazards proving to be a barrier of these efforts.
A number of global forums have enacted policy framework to acknowledge the importance of education to children. Sustainable Development Goal 4 stresses the importance of education by promoting an inclusive and quality education for all and lifelong learning as sustainability goal [21]. Wisner et al. [26] sees education as Children’s right and this is supported by Article 28 of the United Nations Children Act that recognises that a child has a right to education. While these global commitments need to be applauded, there is also need to appreciate that these have not kept pace with the huge numbers of children affected [21]. Anecdotal evidence indicates that floods have potential to slow down and hinder the progress towards the achievements of the MDGs.
Educational continuity is being threatened by floods and other disasters due to the adverse effects of climate change on countries in Africa. It is expected that children will bear a disproportionate share of the impacts of floods both in the immediate and long-term as documented by many researches [42]. Floods impact on education sector in different ways which include destruction of buildings and infrastructure, function of institutional and organisational structures as well as the wellbeing of individuals and communities [43]. Chang et al. [21] penned that, damaged schools disrupt hard won education right, and when instructional time is lost, ultimately quality of education drops, when there are no plans for alternative locations and students are denied continuous schooling, many will never be able to catch up and will drop out permanently [21]. The disruption of education due to flooding is common issues worldwide.
This is where governments and their development partners could make it priority to harness the capabilities of each community to respond to flood threats, since during a flood the first responders are active community members. Wisner et al. [26] penned that schools are more than just the site for educating students, there is more to a school that being classrooms that house the students for their lesson and these include recognising the symbolic, cultural, economic and political significance of the schools within communities [43].
Understanding floods as either natural or man-made is critical to not only intended interventions but also in locating education infrastructure. A number of studies around the world argue for the integration of DRR into education sector policy at multiple levels of government and stress importance of specific and strong local implementation based on national guidelines [44, 45, 46]. Post-flood educational continuity need to deeply engage with the physical, institutional and organisational context of the schools, as nuanced understanding of the vulnerabilities and capacities of school stakeholders must be central to strategic practice. Therefore, enabling environment and policy, strengthening communication and co-ordination between and among school stakeholders and governments as well as integrating DRR into education sector policies are key for averting flood induced school learning disruptions. Such an approach will ensure that building substandard and weak structures which are not resilient to flooding are eradicated. Such measures may include, raising the ground floor and adding floor levels, improving drainage systems and irrigation channels as well as promoting safe storage of teaching and learning equipment and supplies. A School disaster management framework that promotes standard the adoption of a flexible education calendar, taking cognisant of the need of adjusted exam schedules is paramount for promoting risk reduction and resilience education system. However, all may be seen to waste where flood is a disaster risk governance failure.
We are deeply grateful to National University of Science and Technology (NUST) and Cambridge School for allowing us to compile this paper using their time and library resources.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.
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