Research themes related to the SDP field.
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\r\n\tThe aim of this book project is to compile the updated research work on medicinal applications of noble metal complexes mainly focusing the structure activity relationship of metal complexes with targeting biological components.
The need to understand diversity in Anopheles mosquitoes to win the fight against malaria first became apparent with the paradox of ‘anophelism without malaria’, as it became evident that there is a vast diversity of Anopheles species and that not all species transmit malaria [1]. For example, in Europe it was eventually deduced that the mosquito Anopheles maculipennis existed as a species complex comprising several species that differed in their breeding, feeding and resting habitats, which resulted not only in differences in malaria epidemiology but also the success or failure of malaria control efforts [2]. This realisation resulted in countless studies around the world to distinguish and characterise Anopheles species, often using molecular or chromosomal characters in the absence of reliable morphological characters [3-4]. Such studies have played an invaluable role in improving malaria control and have, in turn, revealed another layer of complexity. This is exemplified most clearly in the Anopheles gambiae Complex, which includes several important African malaria vectors. Taxa within the An. gambiae Complex can exist as recently diverged species such as An. gambiae and An. arabiensis, which still have the potential to exchange genes [5]; as incipient species such as the S and M molecular forms, or as genetically divergent locally adapted forms, e.g. adapted to forest or savannah [6]. Recent genomic studies of the An. gambiae Complex are revealing patterns of differential divergence and introgression across the genome between species [7-8]; such phenomena are likely to further complicate the definition of species boundaries within Anopheles complexes. Differences in characteristics relevant to malaria control may be present at even the subspecific level (e.g. larval habitat and insecticide resistance both within and between the S and M molecular forms [9-11]), demonstrating the need to understand the generation and maintenance of Anopheles diversity at all levels.
This chapter focuses on the need to not only characterise species boundaries, ecology and distributions, but also to understand the potential for divergence and the extent of gene flow within and between species of Anopheles in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is characterised by having numerous vector taxa and epidemiological settings, and though there has been great progress in reducing malaria in Southeast Asia, it has proved difficult or impossible to completely eradicate in many places, e.g. [12-13]. A complete understanding of transmission dynamics in Southeast Asia and the best approach to interrupt them is complicated by several factors, including intraspecific variation in ecology and vector status across species distributions, potential interactions between species in malaria transmission (i.e. the fact that the vectorial capacity of one species may vary depending on the presence of a second vector species), and by the potential for ongoing gene flow between species. In this chapter, we argue that understanding the complexity and diversity of Anopheles species in this region and the nature of isolation, ecological variation and gene flow in driving divergence or homogenising variation within and between them is key to a complete understanding of malaria transmission dynamics and our attempts to interrupt it via vector control. This involves determining the historical processes that have driven diversification to understand both current intraspecific and interspecific variation and the potential for future change (e.g. in adaptation to environmental change) that could affect malaria transmission and/or vector control efforts.
This chapter primarily focuses on the diversity of Anopheles species in Southeast Asia, which encompasses the geographical area east of India, south of China and west of New Guinea. Southeast Asia is further subdivided into two sub regions: mainland Southeast Asia, comprised of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Vietnam and peninsular Malaysia; and insular Southeast Asia, comprised of Indonesia, East Timor, Singapore, East Malaysia, Brunei and the Philippines. However, as many of the vector species found within Southeast Asia, e.g. members of the An. minimus, An. dirus and An. subpictus Complexes, and Funestus and Maculatus Groups, also overlap into India (particularly northeast India), Sri Lanka and China we have included these regions where relevant in order to achieve a more complete understanding of Anopheles diversity in Southeast Asia.
The diversity of Anopheline fauna that exists within Southeast Asia is richer than in any other region of the world [14], and at least 19 species, some of which comprise cryptic species complexes, are known to play some role in malaria transmission [15]. Exactly 50% of the 24 currently recognised Anopheles species complexes are found within Asia, which when compared with the 21%, 13%, 13% and 4% found in the Americas, Africa, Australia-Pacific and Europe, respectively, emphasises the complexity of diversity found within the Asian continent [14]. The considerable variation that exists between species in terms of habitat preference and feeding behaviour makes the characterisation of species distributions highly relevant to malaria control efforts. Malaria transmission characteristics and the effectiveness of control efforts such as insecticide treated bednets (ITNs), larvicides, and indoor residual spraying (IRS), will depend to a large extent on the vector species present in a given area [14], and since the effectiveness of a given vector species can be influenced by other species present in the region, malaria transmission dynamics also depend on species composition. Hence considerable effort has been focussed on the stratification of malaria units for effectively targeted malaria control, with the ecological characteristics and geographical distributions of species having particular relevance [16]. In this section we discuss the geographical features that appear to define and limit species distributions, and the relevance of this information for malaria control.
Early attempts for a geographical stratification of malaria units [17] were based on the biogeographical realms of Wallace (1876). However, Wallace’s Oriental Realm is largely inappropriate for South Asia and Southeast Asia due to the exceptionally high biodiversity and high heterogeneity of spatial distribution of vectors in this region [14-15]. On a smaller spatial scale there are multiple biogeographical subregions within Southeast Asia, including the biodiversity hotspot regions of IndoBurma, Sundaland, the Philippines and Wallacea ([18]; see figure 1). These hotspots were defined in part on the basis of endemism so it is not surprising that they appear to define the distributions of many malaria vectors, with clear patterns of species turnover apparent at each of the biogeographical boundaries.
Topological map of Southeast Asia, indicating the four main biogeographical zones as defined by Myers et al. (2000) [17].
The first biogeographical boundary that shows a clear association with species distributions is that separating IndoBurma from southwestern Asia (Figure 1). It should be noted that northeast India, although politically part of India, is biogeographically and ecologically aligned with IndoBurma rather than southwestern Asia. The Anopheles fauna on either side of this boundary is generally distinct, for example several vector species that are distributed across IndoBurma, including An. baimaii, An. sawadwongporni and An. maculatus (Figures 2 and 3), have distributions that extend little further than this western border. The closely related An. minimus and An. fluviatilis Complexes show largely parapatric distributions that overlap along the western border of IndoBurma, with the distribution of the An. minimus Complex being primarily restricted to IndoBurma and that of the An. fluviatilis Complex being mostly limited to southwestern Asia (Figure 4).
The distribution of species within the Anopheles dirus Complex.
The distribution of species within the Maculatus Group.
The distribution of species within the Minimus Subgroup (which encompasses the An. minimus and An. fluviatilis Complexes).
The boundary between the biodiversity hotspot regions of IndoBurma and Sundaland (Figure 1) represents a second major biogeographic transition in Southeast Asia, and is characterised by high species turnover in a number of taxonomic groups (e.g. birds, mammals and reptiles [19-21]). This long-recognised biogeographic transition was first noted by Wallace in 1869, and though its exact position along the Thai-Malay Peninsula is debated, with some dispute as to whether the transition occurs at the Isthmus of Kra (10º30’N) or the Kangar-Pattani line (6-7ºN) further south [22], its biogeographical significance is unquestioned. The transition is associated with dramatic climate and phytological changes. IndoBurma has a very seasonal climate in terms of both temperature and rainfall, whereas that of Sundaland is much more stable, with precipitation levels remaining high throughout the year. Whereas mixed moist deciduous forest is the dominant forest habitat type of IndoBurma, that of Sundaland is perhumid evergreen forest [23-24]. Thus it seems unsurprising that this is a region of high species turnover, as the selective pressures on either side of the Isthmus of Kra biogeographic transition would differ considerably, potentially driving rapid adaptive change and subsequent ecological speciation following the dispersal of taxa from one side to the other.
Again, the majority of Anopheles species are limited in distribution to either side of the IndoBurma-Sundaland biogeographical transition. Within the Leucosphyrus Group (which encompasses both the An. dirus and An. leucosphyrus Complexes), for example, An. baimaii and An. dirus are found to the north of this biogeographical boundary whereas many other species in the Leucosphyrus Group occur only to the south, with many species spanning from the mainland of peninsular Malaysia into the major islands e.g. An. macarthuri, An. cracens, An. introlatus and An. latens (Figures 2 and 5). Again, the major vector species of the An. minimus Complex, An. minimus and An. harrisoni, are limited in distribution to IndoBurma, as are the majority of species within the Maculatus Group (Figures 3 and 4). Although there does appear to be species turnover between the mainland and each of the islands (e.g. An. nemophilous is found within peninsular Malaysia but on none of the islands (Figure 2); An. leucosphyrus is found only on Sumatra (Figure 5)), several species are found on more than one of the major landmasses but are limited to only one of the biogeographical zones (e.g. An. balabacensis is found on both Borneo and Java). This suggests that whilst sea barriers play a role in limiting dispersal, the mainland biogeographical transition is clearly important in limiting species distributions despite the lack of such an obvious physical barrier.
The distribution of species within the Anopheles leucosphyrus Complex and Anopheles macarthuri of the Leucosphyrus Group
The final distinct biodiversity hotspot regions of Southeast Asia are those of Wallacea and the Philippines, each of which harbours a unique assemblage of Anopheles species. Although separated from Borneo by only a narrow sea barrier, the Philippines are thought to share few of the major vector species of Southeast Asia. The Minimus Subgroup (which comprises the An. minimus and An. fluviatilis Complexes) appears not to have colonised the Philippines, and the species within both the An. leucosphyrus Complex and the Maculatus Group found in the Philippines (An. baisasi, and An. greeni and An. dispar, respectively) are limited in distribution to these islands (Figures 3 and 5). An. balabacensis provides somewhat of an exception, being found on both Borneo and within the Philippines, although its distribution within the Philippines is limited to the small, western islands between Borneo and the major Philippine Island of Luzon (Figure 5). Anopheles annularis s.l., on the other hand, is distributed within the Philippines as well as throughout mainland and insular Southeast Asia, although the limited available evidence suggests that the Philippine populations of this species show strong differentiation from those in other regions of Southeast Asia [25]. As a result of the described species turnover patterns, the subregions differ in terms of major malaria vectors, with the An. dirus and An. minimus Complexes, and Maculatus Group dominating throughout IndoBurma, the An. leucosphyrus Complex dominating within the Sundaic Region, and An. flavirostris being the main malaria vector within the Philippines and a major malaria vector within Indonesia [15].
In addition to the divisions between the biogeographic regions discussed above, there are some apparent transitions within biogeographic regions. As previously discussed, there is some distinction between the species composition of each of the major Sundaic Islands and the mainland, although several species within the An. dirus and An. leucosphyrus Complexes are found on more than one of the landmasses. An apparent distinction in species composition between the landmasses is seen in other taxa from shrike babblers [26] to macaques [27]. Besides this pattern, there is also an apparent distinction within IndoBurma, between the distribution of genetic diversity east and west of the Thai-Myanmar border. The closely related sister species An. dirus and An. baimaii have parapatric distributions within Southeast Asia, which overlap along this border region (Figure 2). An. sawadwongporni and An. rampae are a second pair of sister species that show a similar pattern, with An. rampae having a primarily easterly distribution, which extends from eastern Thailand towards Vietnam and does not overlap the Thai-Myanmar border (Figure 4). An. rampae has, however, recently been recorded at low frequency within northeastern India, suggesting the distribution and population structure of this species warrant further attention [28]. The Thai-Myanmar border region is also the site of a suture zone between highly divergent intraspecific lineages within species including An. splendidus, An. minimus and An. annularis [29]. The patterns in species distribution discussed throughout this section, with closely related species often falling on either side of biogeographical divisions that lack obvious geographical barriers, clearly indicate a role for vicariance and/or ecology in generating biodiversity within Southeast Asia, as will be discussed later in this chapter.
Although the distributions of the majority of Anopheles taxa appear to be defined by biogeographical boundaries, there are some taxa with relatively wide distributions that span many of the biogeographic subregions discussed above. For example, An. maculatus is distributed throughout Nepal, Pakistan, Bhutan and India and throughout the IndoBurma (including Taiwan) and Sundaic Regions of Southeast Asia, and An. vagus has a similar distribution throughout India, IndoBurma and the Sundaic Region. These species appear to be largely panmictic throughout their distributions [29-30], suggesting an ability to combine high dispersal capacities with generalist habitat requirements.
The distinctiveness of the Anopheline fauna of each of the major biogeographic regions of Southeast Asia, which occurs despite the continuity of landmass between these regions, suggests that ecological factors, such as climate and dominant habitat type, play a key role in defining species distributions. Malaria stratifications based on ecological biomes, such as forest, foothill and urban regions, are therefore especially useful in designating control efforts [16]. The clear ecological similarity between many closely related vector species also suggests a strong conservation of ecological niche. Species within the An. dirus and leucosphyrus Complexes, for example, show a strong association with forest habitat [31-33]. Thus in the IndoBurma and Sundaic Regions, where species within these complexes are distributed, malaria is often most prevalent in villages that are in close proximity to the forest fringe, and people involved in forest activities are often most at risk [16]. Species within the Minimus Complex, on the other hand, are prevalent within foothill regions and generally breed in slow running streams [31, 33-34], leading to the designation of a ‘foothill’ malaria stratification. The brackish water tolerant species An. sundaicus and An. epiroticus, which are also major vectors of malaria throughout Southeast Asia, dominate malaria transmission in coastal regions [35-37]. Thus the characterisation of species relationships, ecology and distributions has clearly facilitated great improvements to malaria control efforts. However, understanding of malaria transmission dynamics is still complicated by the potential for interactions between vector species, variation in vector capacity across a species range, and remaining taxonomical confusion in some groups (e.g. the An.\n\t\t\t\tculicifacies Complex) (reviewed in [33]). Thus the previously discussed high diversity of cryptic species within Southeast Asia may be one of the factors making malaria difficult to eliminate in parts of Southeast Asia.
As discussed in the first section of this chapter, as well as an understanding of extant species distribution and ecology, the characterisation of population dynamics and levels and patterns of gene flow both within and between species is essential, as the effective size and connectivity of populations will influence the speed at which traits relevant to malaria control evolve and spread between them [38]. The release of genetically modified mosquitoes has been proposed for the control of vector populations in Africa [39]; if such approaches were developed for Southeast Asia, population genetic studies would be necessary to determine the number of genetically modified individuals and release sites needed for a successful program [39-40]. The estimation of levels of contemporary gene flow is greatly complicated, however, by the historical genetic structuring of mosquito populations [41-42]. In order to reliably infer patterns of contemporary gene flow, it is therefore essential that we first gain a thorough understanding of the population history of the Anopheles fauna.
As with all organisms, the genetic structuring of Anopheles populations through time is likely to have been greatly impacted by the influence of geographical features on patterns of gene flow and dispersal. Geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers or sea can restrict or prevent gene flow between populations, so causing them to become increasingly differentiated from one another due to the processes of neutral genetic drift and differential natural selection [38]. Many of the Anopheles taxa of Southeast Asia, including those within the Minimus and the Leucosphyrus subgroups and the Maculatus Group, are forest associated [31]. Hence for these taxa, expanses of open habitat such as grassland or savannah can constitute an important barrier to gene flow and dispersal. In the absence of gene flow, reproductive barriers may accumulate between isolated populations and cause allopatric speciation [43]. Geographical barriers can shift over time, leading to patterns of repeated expansion and contraction in the ranges of species constrained by them. The biogeographical history of Southeast Asia is especially dynamic, featuring tectonic activity [44], substantial sea-level fluctuations, large shifts in the region’s landmass configuration [45], and climate-associated fluctuations in the distribution and extent of forest habitat [46-47]. The time-line below indicates the major biogeographic events inferred to have influenced Anopheline diversification from the mid-Miocene onwards (see figure 6).
Timeline showing the major biogeographic events inferred to have driven speciation and divergence in the Anopheline fauna of Southeast Asia.
The collisions of the Indian, African and Australian plates with Eurasia all had substantial impacts on the landscape and fauna of Southeast Asia. India initially collided with Southeast Asia approximately 50 million years ago (mya), and the subsequent northwards push of the Indian plate resulted in the formation and uplift of the Himalayas [44], forming a geographical barrier between Southeast Asia and the rest of the Asian continent. The second major period of tectonic activity, which involved the uplift of the Himalayas approximately 25mya, coincided with the collision of the African and Eurasian plates. This latter event resulted in the closure of the Tethys Sea and so created a land connection between the continents of Africa and Asia [48]. Although this region is now characterised by arid desert habitat, a corridor of tropical forest is thought to have persisted during the humid periods of the early and mid-Miocene [48]. Combined with low sea-levels, this allowed forest taxa such as the ancestors of the Oriental Myzomyia and Pyretophorus Series to disperse from their African origins into Southeast Asia [49-50]. Increasingly arid conditions and the consequent desertification of East Asia during the late Miocene (6.2 – 5mya) restricted this exchange [48, 51], effectively isolating the forest fauna of Asia and Africa. The Oriental and African taxa within the Myzomyia and Pyretophorus Series form monophyletic groups in both cases (with the exception of the placement of the African species An. leesoni within the Oriental Myzomyia clade), and are estimated to have diverged during the late Miocene [49-50]. This suggests that dispersal from Africa to Asia occurred during the humid mid Miocene in both cases, and was followed by the isolation of Asian and African lineages after the late-Miocene expansion of desert across East Asia (Figure 6). As Anopheles species rely on water bodies for their larval habitats, desert habitat is likely to pose an extremely effective barrier to dispersal. The close relationship of the African species An. leesoni with the Oriental Myzomyia species, from which it is estimated to have diverged just 2-3 mya, is somewhat of a mystery, and suggests some faunal exchange during the mid Pliocene despite the dominance of desert habitat throughout East Asia [49].
The increasingly cool and arid climate responsible for extensive desertification across East Asia during the late Miocene also resulted in the expansion of grassland and savannah habitat across Southeast Asia [52]. The consequent reduction in available Anopheles larval habitats likely to have occurred during this time, and the potential consequent fragmentation and isolation of populations in allopatry, is hypothesised to have driven late Miocene speciation (dated to 7.1 mya +/- 1.4 my) within the Neocellia Series Annularis Group [25] (Figure 6). This trend of increasing aridification was reversed during the early Pliocene (5-2.8 mya), which was characterised by increasingly warm and humid conditions, with global temperatures reaching approximately 3°C above current temperatures [53-54]. Tropical forest would have expanded across Southeast Asia during this period, and Anopheles habitats would have been more abundant and widespread. A subsequent major climatic transition towards a substantially cooler and more arid climate began approximately 2.8 mya, and culminated in the first of the Pleistocene glacial maxima, 1.8 mya [55]. Once again, tropical forest habitat would have been replaced by large areas of grassland and savannah, fragmenting and isolating populations of forest-dependent Anopheles species across Southeast Asia. The consequent divergence of populations in allopatry is thought to have driven speciation within the forest-associated Maculatus Group [25], with contemporary species distributions in this group being fairly distinct (although exhibiting large areas of overlap), and the majority of speciation events dating to within the 2.8-1.8 mya period of major climatic cooling (Figure 6).
During the Pleistocene, the ongoing fluctuations in the extent of forest cover across Southeast Asia were exacerbated by the dramatic impact of glacio-eustatic sea level change on the region’s climate [45-46]. These sea-level fluctuations, which involved drops of between 50 and 200 meters during each of the Pleistocene glaciations [56], had a more dramatic effect on the climate and habitats of Southeast Asia than those of any other tropical region [46]. Sea level regressions of 60 meters or more result in the exposure of the Gulf of Thailand, and dramatically reduce the surface area of the South China Sea [45] (Figure 7). This reduction in the surface area of ocean across Southeast Asia would have reduced evaporation from the ocean’s surface, and consequently the levels of moisture carried across the mainland by the monsoon rains. Due to the coincidence of periods of reduced sea level with glacial maxima, the reduction in the monsoon moisture content would have been exacerbated by the cool temperature and consequently reduced moisture-carrying capacity of the air [46]. The distribution of forest across Southeast Asia was in turn affected by the reduced precipitation levels, as regions with sufficient moisture to support them shrank [47, 57]. Reconstructions of the dominant habitat types across Southeast Asia during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), which are based on palynonlogical and sedimentological data, indicate that tropical forest became restricted to small and isolated pockets, often at intermediate altitudes and at the base of mountains, where precipitation run-off ensured moisture levels remained high enough to support it [58-59]. Substantial areas of forest habitat were replaced by grassland and savannah, although larger areas of forest are thought to have persisted in insular relative to mainland Southeast Asia [47, 57].
The reduction of forest habitat to small and isolated patches would have resulted in the fragmentation of forest-associated Anopheles populations, and their subsequent divergence in allopatry through genetic drift and differential local adaptation (see figure 8). The repeated climatic fluctuations during the Pleistocene are thought to have led to repeated cycles of forest fragmentation during the cool and arid glacial periods, and expansion during the warm and humid interglacials. This would have caused associated repeated cycles of Anopheles population range reduction and fragmentation, and subsequent divergence of populations in allopatry, followed by range expansion and secondary contact between the now genetically differentiated populations. The ‘refuge hypothesis’ of Haffer [52] was originally put forward to propose a scenario of increased allopatric speciation driven by such repeated cycles of population divergence during periods of major climatic fluctuation such as that characterising the Pleistocene. This hypothesis has since been frequently discussed in the literature and often contested as an explanation for Pleistocene tropical diversification events, due to evidence that speciation in tropical taxa generally predates the Pleistocene, and that forest habitat was not reduced in tropical regions to the extent originally thought [60-62]. As previously discussed, however, the biogeographical changes within Southeast Asia during the Pleistocene were more severe than in other tropical regions, due to the substantial impact of the sea level changes on the region’s climate [45]. The likelihood of allopatric speciation driven by such biogeographical change could therefore be expected to be greater. Indeed, speciation dated to within the Pleistocene has been inferred in both the forest-dependent Leucosphyrus Group [63-64] and the Minimus Subgroup [49], as well as the coastal An. sundaicus Complex [65], and has been attributed to the repeated isolation of populations following the reduction of forest habitat and on sea-level fluctuations, respectively, across mainland Southeast Asia during glacial periods [25, 49].
Maps showing the IndoBurma and Sundaic Regions of Southeast Asia, a. 21 kya, the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), when sea levels were 116 m below the current level, and b. 6.07 kya, when sea levels were the same as at present. Figures taken from [66]).
The influence of Pleistocene climatic change on Anopheles diversity within Southeast Asia.
The evidence for allopatric speciation associated with Pleistocene environmental change is especially strong between the cryptic sister species An. dirus and An. baimaii, which are classified within the An. dirus Complex of the Leucosphyrus Subgroup. As discussed in the previous section, these species are major malaria vectors throughout mainland Southeast Asia, and have a parapatric distribution that overlaps along the Thai-Myanmar border. Although characterisation of their divergence is complicated by mitochondrial introgression and consequent widespread haplotype sharing between the species [42, 67], application of an isolation-with-migration model to data from three nuclear genes supported their divergence within the last 1.5 my of the Pleistocene [63]. The east-west divide between the distributions of these species suggests that their common ancestor was restricted to habitat fragments in the west and east of the Southeast Asian mainland, and that the subsequently differentiated lineages expanded from these restricted distributions during the warm and moist interglacials to meet along the Thai-Myanmar border (figure 8) [63].
Although the above examples provide exceptions, the majority of speciation events within the Anopheline fauna of Southeast Asia are estimated to pre-date the Pleistocene [25, 30, 49], and the environmental fluctuations of the Pleistocene appear to have been much more influential in driving divergence and shaping population structure within, rather than between, Anopheles species. Patterns of genetic divergence between largely allopatric eastern and western lineages, and signals of Pleistocene population expansion, have been reported within several Anopheles species (e.g. An. minimus [68]); An. annularis and An. splendidus [25]). These patterns have generally been attributed to the restriction of populations to isolated forest ‘refugia’ during the glacial periods, and expansion from these regions during the interglacials (Figure 8). Chen et al. [68] investigated this hypothesis further in the forest-associated An. minimus, using a modelling approach to compare the hypotheses of a single panmictic population, a stable but spatially structured population, and past fragmentation into eastern and western refugia followed by growth and range expansion. The latter hypothesis was strongly supported, providing further evidence for an evolutionary history shaped by Pleistocene climatic change [68].
Such an influence of Pleistocene climatic change might be expected to be shared across multiple forest-dependent taxa. This hypothesis has been statistically evaluated in several Anopheles species, which exhibit varying degrees of forest-dependency, using a comparative phylogeographical approach [29]. Simultaneous divergence of eastern and western lineages within four Anopheles species (An. annularis, An. splendidus, An. minimus and An. maculatus), dated to the mid-Pleistocene and attributed to the similarly-timed restriction of populations to allopatric forest refugia, was strongly supported. Patterns of isolation in allopatry followed by secondary contact across the ranges of these species resulted in the formation of a common suture-zone along the Thai-Myanmar border [29]. Various hypotheses of Pleistocene demographic history were further evaluated using a spatially explicit modelling approach, in which the simulation of demographic and spatial expansions, incorporating environmental information, is followed by the generation of simulated genetic datasets through coalescent theory [69]. Comparison of real to simulated datasets best supported scenarios in which populations were restricted to allopatric eastern and western refugia, before expanding their ranges during the warm and moist interglacials, in all seven species examined (An. aconitus, An. philippinensis, An. maculatus, An. sawadwongporni, An. annularis, An. baimaii, and An. minimus). Similarly timed population expansions dating to the mid-Pleistocene were inferred in all species, further supporting this scenario [29]. Hence there is substantial evidence supporting a common role of historical environmental change in driving vicariance, and shaping the intraspecific population structure that we see today.
Besides driving divergence between isolated populations, the restriction of populations to refugial regions is also likely to have influenced patterns of genetic diversity across the landscape. The long-term persistence of populations within refugial regions leads to the accumulation of high genetic diversity and population structure. Since only a fraction of the gene pool is generally involved in range expansion, regions that are repeatedly re-colonised following local extinction are expected to harbour substantially lower genetic diversity [70-71]. These predicted patterns can be used to identify potential refugial regions, and in Southeast Asia have led to the identification of the mountainous regions of northeastern India, northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, southern China and northern Vietnam as potential Pleistocene glacial refugia for Anopheles mosquitoes [25, 29, 42, 68, 72]. Indeed, mountain foothills are the most likely regions to support the persistence of forest habitat during cool and arid climatic periods, due to the interception of precipitation by the mountains surrounding them [46]. The prediction and characterisation of these historically driven patterns, of high diversity and spatially structured populations within formal refugial regions and more homogeneous populations in more recently colonised regions, is important if contemporary levels of gene flow are to be reliably estimated and used to predict malaria transmission dynamics.
Although the majority of main Anopheles malaria vectors within Southeast Asia show a strong association with forest habitat, this is not true of all species. The influence of historical environmental change on species such as An. vagus and An. sundaicus, which typically inhabit open habitat and coastal habitat [31, 37, 73], respectively, are likely to have differed substantially from the effects on forest-associated species discussed above. Relative to the majority of forest-associated species, An. vagus shows relatively little population structure, and appears to be a single, widespread and highly diverse species that is distributed throughout the biogeographic realms of IndoBurma, Sundaland and the Philippines. The expanse of the open grassland habitat favoured by this species throughout much of the Pleistocene is thought to have facilitated gene flow and dispersal, maintaining population connectivity and homogenising population genetic structure [30]. The Pleistocene evolutionary history of the coastal species An. sundaicus, meanwhile, is likely to have been influenced by changes to the landmass configuration, as is discussed below. This illustrates the importance of taking species ecology into account when predicting patterns of historical intraspecific genetic structure across a landscape.
Besides substantially influencing climatic conditions across Southeast Asia, the alterations in landmass configuration during the Pleistocene also had a considerable effect on the availability of migration routes across Southeast Asia. The Sunda Shelf is thought to have been dominated by grassland and savannah habitats during periods of exposure, and thus was important in allowing the exchange of open-habitat species such as early hominins and hoofed mammals between the mainland and the Sundaic Islands [56, 74]. Although the open habitat is thought to have acted as a barrier to dispersal of forest-associated taxa between Borneo and Sumatra, the persistence of gallery forests along the major river systems of the Sunda Shelf is thought to have provided narrow dispersal corridors for such taxa [74]. The repeated exposure and submergence of the Sunda Shelf is thought to have promoted allopatric speciation in a number of Sundaic taxa, with periods of dispersal facilitated by the exposure of the Sundaland bridge being followed by the isolation of populations on different landmasses as sea levels rose, e.g. [26, 75]. Although as previously mentioned, there is some species turnover within Anopheles between each of the islands and the mainland, several species of the An. leucosphyrus Complex are found on more than one land mass. This suggests that the intermittent presence of forest corridors between the mainland and insular regions during the Pleistocene was sufficient to allow some dispersal and gene flow between current land masses [64].
Inferred speciation events within the An. sundaicus Complex have also been attributed to patterns of dispersal and isolation driven by the Pleistocene exposure and submergence of sea barriers, with the subsequent isolation and divergence of the nominal species An. sundaicus, An. sundaicus E and An. epiroticus within Borneo, Sumatra and Java, and mainland Southeast Asia, respectively [65]. These species designations have since been disputed, however, and evidence supporting the existence of only a single, widespread species within the An. sundaicus species Complex was presented after more intensive sampling, sequencing of additional markers, and more comprehensive analysis [50]. An alternative scenario of Pleistocene evolutionary history was also presented for this littoral species. Although the current species distribution extends along the coast of mainland Southeast Asia, with the Thai-Malay Peninsula coast connecting that of southern Thailand with Cambodia and Vietnam [31, 37], the exposure of the Sunda Shelf would have eliminated habitat availability through the Gulf of Thailand and isolated populations on the east and west of the glacial insular landmass (Figure 7). This would have limited gene flow between the current coastal regions of Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam, and facilitated dispersal between the mainland and insular regions. The detection of allopatric eastern and western mitochondrial and nuclear genetic lineages within An. sundaicus s.l., the closer relationship of Vietnamese populations with populations from Borneo and Indonesia than with those from Thailand and Myanmar, and the detection of Pleistocene gene flow between Borneo and Vietnam, and between Indonesia and the mainland, strongly support the influence of sea-level changes on the dispersal and population genetics of An. sundaicus s.l. [37, 50], although evidence suggests speciation has not resulted in this case.
The rich diversity of habitat types and host species available within Southeast Asia is likely to have driven differential local adaptation leading to divergence between ecologically isolated populations and consequent ecological speciation [43]. Characterisation of the bionomics, habitat and feeding preferences of vector species, and of interspecific and intraspecific variation in these traits, is an important step in defining appropriate vector control strategies. Additionally, through the relation of species biology and ecology to phylogenetic relationships we may infer the ecological adaptations that are likely to have driven divergence and speciation, and given rise to the most effective malaria vectors within Southeast Asia. This may also give an indication of the characters that are evolutionarily labile and those that show niche conservatism, which may allow the prediction of how species may respond to anthropogenic change such as urbanisation and an expansion of agriculture. The Leucosphyrus Group provides one example of ecological differentiation between closely related species. This group includes several important vectors of both human and simian malaria, and due to its medical importance, has been well characterised in terms of taxonomy, phylogeny and ecology ([76]; reviewed in [33] and [32]). The mapping of species feeding preferences onto a phylogenetic tree supported two independent host-switching events, each leading to the evolution of anthropophilic taxa from their zoophilic ancestors, which fed on non-human primates in the forest canopy [64]. This switch in host preference is likely to have involved a change in behaviour, from feeding in the forest canopy to feeding on the forest floor, as well as changes in host detection. This host switch was estimated to have occurred during the late Pliocene/early Pleistocene, which has important implications for human evolution, suggesting that hominins were present within Southeast Asia as early as 2.2 million years ago (mya), and that their arrival shaped the evolution of malaria vectors [64].
As well as the change in host preference, several other ecological adaptations are likely to have driven divergence within the Leucosphyrus Group. The distribution of the group overlaps the biogeographical transition zone that lies between IndoBurma and Sundaland (figure 1;[21]), with the majority of species being limited in distribution to the region either south, or north, of this divide. All basal species are limited in distribution to insular Southeast Asia, suggesting that this region represents the group’s ancestral origin [64]. Despite the existence of several species within peninsular Malaysia only two northwards dispersal events into IndoBurma were supported, suggesting that this dispersal required some kind of ecological adaptation. It has been suggested that this may have involved an adaptation specific to the more seasonal climate of Southeast Asia, such as the increased resistance of larvae to desiccation observed in An. dirus and An. baimaii [32, 64]. Whatever the nature of the ecological adaptation, it is likely to have driven divergence between Indo-Burmese and Sundaic taxa, facilitated the spread of the Leucosphyrus Group throughout mainland IndoBurma, and maintained the distinction between Indo-Burmese and Sundaic species assemblages.
All species within the Leucosphyrus Group show a strong association with tropical forest habitat and are remarkably similar in terms of habitat preference; however An. scanloni and An. nemophilous do show a unique specialisation to specific habitat types. An. scanloni is found in association with limestone karst habitats, whereas An. nemophilous is found within mangrove swamp habitats [31], thus specialisation and ecological divergence is likely to have played a role in the history of these species. The divergence of An. scanloni from its sister species An. dirus occurred despite inferred uni-directional gene flow from An. scanloni into An. dirus [63]. The uni-directional nature of this gene flow is thought to have resulted from a unique ecological adaptation of An. scanloni to limestone karst habitat, which confers a fitness advantage to this species in regions of sympatry with An. dirus, reducing hybrid fitness. The accumulation and maintenance of reproductive isolation between An. scanloni and An. dirus is therefore likely to have been driven by ecological adaptation [63].
The likely involvement of ecological variation in species divergence has also been assessed within the Maculatus Group, within which the phylogenetic mapping of species’ altitudinal distribution supported a scenario of ecological speciation through altitudinal replacement[25]. This is a phenomenon in which the distribution of one species replaces that of its sister species along an altitudinal gradient, as populations become adapted to the environmental conditions within their altitudinal zone [77-78]. Species within the Maculatus Group typically lay their eggs within streams or the rock pools associated with them. Various characteristics of these typical larval habitats, such as the water temperature and the speed of water flow, are likely to vary with altitude. Adaptation to these specific larval habitats may therefore have played a role in the ecological divergence of populations at higher altitudes [25].
Whilst ecological differences between species may provide clues as to the factors driving past speciation events, investigation of intraspecific ecological variation within a species range may give an indication of the processes involved in the early stages of ecological divergence and speciation. Variation in traits such as anthropophilic vs. zoophilic, or exophagic vs. endophagic feeding preferences have the potential to greatly influence vector status, and there are several species in which vector status is reported to vary across the range. Anopheles minimus, for example, is reported to show strong anthropophily within central Vietnam and Laos, but is more attracted to cattle in northern Vietnam and Cambodia [79]. This behavioural variation is thought to be related to the availability of cattle hosts in a region, and will considerably impact the role of An. minimus in malaria transmission. Variation in anthropophily, endophagy, biting cycle and endophily in both An. dirus and An. minimus across the species’ ranges have been related to regional variation in human land-use and habits [79], and may be driving intraspecific adaptive divergence between vector populations. Although it is not currently known whether this variation is the result of phenotypic plasticity or genetic adaptation, any rapid ecological diversification may affect patterns of disease transmission. Thus uncovering the processes involved in the generation of ecological divergence within a species may have considerable relevance for malaria control.
Although several examples of species-specific differences in ecology can be found, there does seem to be considerable ecological similarity between species within each of the major groups, as was discussed earlier in this chapter. All species within the Leucosphyrus Group, for example, show an extremely strong association with forest habitat, laying their eggs within temporary forest pools [31-32]. Although species vary in their feeding preferences, and An. scanloni and An. nemophilous show previously discussed unique habitat specialism, a number of species within the group show no apparent ecological differentiation from one another. This pattern of apparent ‘niche conservatism’ is also the case within the Maculatus Group and Minimus Subgroup, with the majority of species within showing preferences for disturbed habitat within forest clearings, and for hilly forest habitats, respectively [31, 80]. It seems surprising that so many apparently ecologically similar species coexist, often with large areas of distributional overlap, and it seems likely that there are subtle ecological differences between species that we are yet to uncover. These ecological differences may involve the bionomics or feeding behaviour of species, and may therefore be of considerable interest in terms of malaria control. The probability of undiscovered ecological differences between species seems especially likely given the fact that methods of cryptic species identification have only recently been developed (e.g. [81-86]), and that early studies of species biology and ecology were marred by incorrect species identifications. Besides the clear direct applications of studies into the biology of Anopheles species within Southeast Asia, such studies may shed further light on the role of ecological speciation in the evolutionary history of the region’s Anopheline fauna.
The absence or presence of gene flow between populations and species has a considerable impact on the dynamics of malaria transmission, and on the measures used for vector control. In the absence of gene flow, genetic drift and local adaptation result in the genetic differentiation of populations, and potentially in divergence at ecological traits likely to influence malaria transmission [38, 43]. The presence of gene flow, on the other hand, homogenises genetic variation and may lead to the exchange of adaptive and potentially medically relevant alleles between populations. Although the accumulation of reproductive barriers generally restricts gene flow between species, gene flow may still continue across certain genomic regions, creating patterns of differential divergence and introgression across the genome [7, 87-89]. Numerous cases of mitochondrial introgression between Anopheles species, including the Southeast Asian malaria vectors An. dirus and An. baimaii [63, 67], reveal that gene flow between species may be fairly common. The adaptive exchange of the 2La inversion between An. arabiensis and An. gambiae provides evidence of the phenomenon of gene flow across certain regions of the genome [5, 8, 90-91], and recent advances in next generation sequencing and population genomics have enabled more detailed examination, providing comprehensive examples of interspecific gene flow such as between the purported species An. gambiae M and S [92-93], and between the diverged species An. gambaie and An. arabiensis [7]. An understanding of patterns of contemporary gene flow both within and between species, and of the landscape features that facilitate or restrict this exchange, is of great importance for malaria control efforts. Characterisation of gene flow within and between species will also be relevant to the design of control efforts involving the release of genetically modified mosquitoes, as it will enable prediction of spread of relevant alleles (such as those influencing vectorial capacity) throughout Anopheles populations [39].
The dynamic demographic histories of the major malaria vector species, as discussed previously in this chapter, complicate the inference of contemporary gene flow. For example, population bottlenecks and subsequent expansions, which appear to be common in the Anopheline fauna of Southeast Asia (e.g. [29, 42]), can homogenise genetic variation and thus eliminate accumulated genetic diversity between isolated populations, giving false signal of ongoing gene flow [94]. Knowledge of the historical patterns of divergence, range restriction and expansion in Anopheles populations, as discussed in previously in the chapter, may provide a baseline from which to study contemporary gene flow. Additionally, whereas to date studies of population structure and gene flow within and between species has been primarily restricted to neutral markers, the increasing availability of next generation sequencing (NGS) data will provide the opportunity to study the exchange of adaptive alleles across landscapes (e.g. [8], see below).
Despite the wealth of knowledge of Anopheles diversity within Southeast Asia, there are many directions that remain to be explored. Firstly, although much is known of the historical dynamics of gene flow and divergence and the climatic and landscape features that have been important in defining those patterns, little is known of the impact of contemporary landscape features on dispersal and gene flow. Such questions may be addressed using a landscape genetics approach, which involves the combination of fine-scale, dense spatial sampling with spatial and environmental information [95-96]. This approach has been successful, for example, in revealing the impact of urbanisation and forest corridors on connectivity in amphibian populations [97], and the impact of major roads on the genetic structure of caribou populations [98]. Such an approach may reveal the impact of phenomena such as deforestation and increased urbanisation on the demography of Anopheles populations, information which would be beneficial for predicting the impact of future landscape changes on the origin and spread of adaptive alleles relevant to vector control.
Secondly, the investigation of patterns of population structure at a genomic level remains to be performed in the Anopheles taxa of Southeast Asia, and will have many potential applications. As previously discussed in this chapter, intraspecific phenotypic variation such as that reported within An. dirus and An. minimus [79] may be due to phenotypic plasticity, or may have an underlying genetic adaptive basis. Patterns of divergence at small numbers of neutral loci, while useful in identifying general population genetic patterns, are insufficient to address such issues comprehensively. Genome-wide approaches can, however, facilitate the identification of loci involved in adaptive response to environmental variation, and may reveal associations between adaptive loci and phenotypic traits (e.g.[99-101]). The availability of the Anopheles gambiae reference genome [102] provides additional scope for genomic studies using NGS data, enabling annotation of any identified adaptive loci, and the future availability of 13 additional Anopheles genomes, including those of several Southeast Asian species, will aid genomic studies even further [103].
Besides gene flow between populations within a species, the possibility of contemporary interspecific gene flow should also be considered. The identification and characterisation of such contemporary gene flow between species will be vitally important in determining whether medically important traits may spread between them. Again, this issue will benefit from a genome-wide approach, as patterns of introgression and divergence will vary across the genome due to the differential influence of selection [7, 87-89]. Genomic studies have been invaluable in characterising divergence and introgression across the genome, and identifying the targets of selection within the genomes of An. gambiae M and S forms [8]. For example, in contrast to the kdr mutation, which is responsible for pyrethroid resistance to insecticide and is thought to have spread from the S to the M form of An. gambiae through introgression [104], different resistance substitutions within the resistance to dieldrin (rdl) gene are thought to have evolved independently within An. gambiae M and S forms [8]. Genome-wide approaches will enable similar issues to be addressed within recently diverged species pairs such as An. baimaii and An. dirus.
The possibility of ongoing gene flow or historic introgression between species is also important for the reliable delineation of species boundaries, particularly within complexes of closely related and morphologically identical Anopheles species. The importance of selecting appropriate markers for species delineation, and of considering levels of interspecific gene flow has been recently reviewed [105], and highlights the potential benefits of a genome-wide approach. Questions relating to Anopheline taxonomy and ecology remain to be answered within several of the medically important Anopheles groups (including the An. sundaicus, An. subpictus, An. culicifacies and An. fluviatilis Complexes, for example [33]), and the delineation of species boundaries, resolution of species relationships, development of species identification methods and characterisation of species ecology are still vitally important for the design of more traditional methods of vector control. The usefulness of bed nets in reducing malaria, the identification and control of potential larval habitats within a region, and informing of residents of how to reduce exposure, all rely on detailed information of the species present within a region and of their ecology. Zarowiecki [50] has illustrated the importance of taking a systematic approach to delineating and identifying species and resolving taxomonic relationships, and such an approach should be followed for potentially cryptic species complexes in which taxonomy is still uncertain. Thus taken together, the development of NGS technologies and population genomic analytical methods provides great scope for studies into Anopheles diversity in Southeast Asia, which are likely to considerably benefit both the understanding of malaria transmission dynamics and the effectiveness of vector control.
Sport for Development and Peace (SDP) is an international movement that began in the 2000s to meet the Millennium Development Goals (2000–2015). Several local, regional, national and international organizations are currently continuing to implement sports projects in an international development context to reach the United Nations’ sustainable development goals (2015–2030).
\nThis chapter aims to present the various origins and objectives that are being used around the SDP. It then focuses on current research on SDP, providing illustrations of research projects conducted in the field. Finally, this chapter offers perspectives for future research in this domain.
\nSport for Development and Peace (SDP) is not a new phenomenon contrary to what one might think. In 1894, Pierre de Coubertin had already considered the reconstruction of the modern Olympic Games to bring nations closer together around sports disciplines. He said “I remained convinced that sport is one of the most forceful elements of peace and I am confident in its future action” [1]. But the use of sport to serve development, peace, or diplomatic interests in the contemporary world is more due to the work of Mandela, who said “Sport has the power to change the world. It has the power to inspire, it has the power to unite people in a way that little else does” [2]. Indeed, the South African leader decided to use the power of sport during the 1995 Rugby World Cup to fight apartheid and unite the South African people. According to him, “Sport can create hope, where once there was only despair. It is more powerful than governments in breaking down racial barriers” [2].
\nThe United Nations (UN) took a step further toward the recognition of sport and its diplomatic, integrative, educational, or peace-building potential by signing a resolution in favor of the use of sport as a tool for development and peace-building among peoples, which was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2003. This vote also led to the reaffirmation in 2015 of the 1978 UNESCO International Charter for Physical Education and Sport. The prevalence of SDP projects was so high that the UN has recognized its potential by setting up a specific instance between 2008 and 2017 (United Nations Office for Sport and Development and Peace; UNOSDP) through which it has initiated a large number of projects, particularly in Central America and West Africa [3]. This office had three main roles: to encourage dialogue, to establish SDP collaborations and partnerships, and to support international sports organizations, civil society, private sector, and media.
\nSDP projects have been developing in recent years around the world. They have been defined as “the intentional use of sport, physical activity and play to achieve specific development objectives in low- and middle-income countries and disadvantaged communities in high-income areas” [4], which includes “all forms of physical activity that contribute to physical fitness, mental well-being and social interaction, such as play, recreation, organized or competitive sport, indigenous sports and games” [4, 5]. These definitions have since been widely used by many SDP actors and several researchers [5, 6, 7].
\nIn these initiatives, sport is presented as a lever for integration or social reintegration in developing countries or in conflict-affected areas [7, 8]. For example, soccer matches are used between two enemy sides to help rebuild relationships. In addition to its positive impact on health, sport is now recognized for having a number of other benefits such as the prevention of violence or doping, awareness of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and also as a medium for instilling respect for opponents and rules, teamwork, sportsmanship, determination, and discipline, in youth [7, 8]. These fundamental principles could also be transferred to the social life of person according to some organizations that value them [9]. The UNOSDP [10] indicates other elements related to the use of sport as a lever for development and peace, among others:
Sport is a powerful tool with unique power to attract, mobilize, and inspire;
Sport embodies issues of participation, inclusion, and citizenship by its very own nature;
It represents human values such as respect for the opponent, acceptance of restrictive rules, teamwork, and equity;
Sport is used in a very wide range of situations to serve development and peace-building as an integrated instrument in short-term emergency humanitarian aid activities or in long-term development cooperation projects [11, 12].
Finally, sport has benefits such as individual development, health promotion and disease prevention, gender equality, social integration, peace-building or conflict prevention/resolution and post-disaster/trauma assistance [13, 14]. UNESCO published a report in 2016 on the power of the values of sport that reinforces this vision, and then UNOSDP published a document that shows the articulation of using sport to support each of the new Sustainable Development Goals 2015–2030 [10]. From a development perspective, the focus is most of the time on mass sport and not elite sport [15, 16]. In a development context, sport generally includes a wide range of activities adapted to people of all ages and abilities, with an emphasis on the positive values of sport [10]. Sport is used to reach the most needy, including refugees; child soldiers; victims of conflict and natural disasters; poor people; people with disabilities; and victims of racism, stigma, and discrimination [14, 17, 18].
\nBeyond descriptions of SDP programs and contributions from international organizations, researchers examined the SDP field and analyze the benefits of these programs on individual development, health promotion and disease prevention, gender equality promotion, social integration, peace-building or conflict prevention and resolution, and assistance after a disaster or trauma, among others [13, 14]. At the moment, four main types of research that have been conducted around SDP can be identified: (1) macrosociological studies on the positive attributes of SDP; (2) exploratory field and case studies; (3) studies on the management and evaluation of SDP programs; and (4) literature reviews on SDP.
\nFirst, researchers are conducting a large number of macrosociological studies to question the so-called positive attributes of sport by raising its potential abuses [11, 12, 19, 20, 21]. For example, Kidd [14, 22] conducted extensive literature reviews describing the landscape of the SDP movement. According to the author, SDP initiatives were motivated by athlete activism, the reaction to the fall of apartheid and made openings possible by the end of the Cold War, the neoliberal emphasis on entrepreneurship and mass mobilizations for “Make Poverty History,” as part of a major focus of UN political development and the SDP International Working Group [14, 22]. The current results of these global studies show that despite the potential benefits of sport, these positive social impacts do not automatically accumulate. Achieving positive impacts require professional and socially responsible interventions that are adapted to the social and cultural context, prioritize development objectives, and are carefully designed to be inclusive [10, 17, 23]. Nevertheless, some authors note the lack of scientific literature regarding the understanding of the specific mechanisms by which sport can foster development and peace among participants [9, 24, 25].
\nSecond, some researchers have used several exploratory methodologies to conduct field case studies [26, 27, 28]. For example, Oxford [27] focused on the social inclusion of young Colombian women through football, a traditionally very male sport. The researcher conducted a 6-month ethnographic study in Colombian neighborhoods of the SDP organization to explore the social, cultural, and historical complexities surrounding the safe practice of girls’ sports. Whitley et al. [28] attempted to question key players in SDP about their experiences and expertise in the field. The study provided a better understanding of the limit, the lack of efficiency and equity in practices as well as a concrete impact that they felt was unclear. The study concludes with a list of recommendations to improve SDP field work, research partnerships, and evaluation collaborations in a more rigorous way. Finally, some authors such as Gadais et al. also aim to develop research methods adapted to the SDP field, which is often unstable, complex, or unsafe [26]. The authors intended to implement analyses and methods from a distance and on the field to better understand SDP organizations and their needs in order to better support them in their work.
\nThird, researchers are also interested in questions of program evaluation and management of SDP activities. On the one hand, SDP organizations are frequently approached by the funding agencies to conduct SDP program evaluation studies. This is a classic way of observing the impact of sport on social change [29, 30, 31]. The evaluation studies examined various aspects of the missions and paradigms of SDP projects [30, 32, 33]. A literature review conducted by Levermore [30] revealed three major limitations to SDP evaluation studies: (a) monitoring and evaluation are insufficient; (b) they are conducted with acclaimed programs; and (c) they tend to use a positivist logical framework (Levermore [30]). Levermore concluded his analysis by stressing the need for evaluations that can take into account the diversity of SDP projects, some of which have unclear objectives or missing justifications. Indeed, their objectives and strategies remain unclear and questionable in relation to fully implemented program evaluation protocols [30, 34]. Programs should be evaluated using solid methodological documentation on logical frameworks and critical participatory approaches to try to apply these approaches to specific case studies or to consider their use in the context of a particular sporting event [30]. On the other hand, some researchers aim to strengthen the managerial aspects of SDP projects to improve their functioning, management, or implementation mechanisms [34, 35, 36, 37]. Often, the overall idea is to build connections between the theory generated by macrosociological studies and field case studies. Sport management specialists have begun to critically review and evaluate SDP initiatives, and they are now more strategically planned and pedagogically solid than before. For example, Schulenkorf [37] reviewed the main achievements of sport management research and classifies current research under four headings: (a) SDP programming and design; (b) sustainable management and capacity-building; (c) creation and optimization of impacts and outcomes; and (d) conceptual/theoretical advances. Finally, he suggested that future research could focus on the managerial concepts of leadership, entrepreneurship, and design thinking to maximize the potential of sport (management) to contribute to desired, innovative, and sustainable outcomes for community development.
\nFourth, three literature reviews have been conducted on SDP. Until 2016, there was little research to synthesize research on SDP. There was no mapping to know what projects existed and to have an overview of the situation at the global level. In 2017, the review conducted by Svensson and Woods [38] addressed this gap by providing a systematic overview of SDP organizations. While the precise locations of action of SDP organizations remain largely unknown, this review has focused these efforts and on the physical and sporting activities used in the programs. It provided an opportunity to review the practice of SDPs in order to provide an overview of the current state of the field: 955 entities involved in SDP practices were identified based on a systematic review of 3138 organizational entries in the SDP databases. The majority of organizations operate programs in Africa, but many are present in Europe, North America, Asia, and Latin America, with more than 80% of them having their headquarters in the same region. Education, livelihoods, and health emerged as the most common themes, while disability and gender were less represented. A total of 32 types of sports have been identified, one-third is only based on football (soccer). In relation to positive youth development (PYD) through sport, Jones et al. [39] conducted an analysis of how sport is a mechanism for achieving various development objectives. The review shows that this link between sport and development is not inherent and depends not only on a variety of programs and activities but also on contextual factors. The positive potential of sport does not develop automatically; it requires a professional and socially responsible intervention, adapted to the social and cultural context [17, 23, 30]. Finally, Schulenkorf et al. [8] conducted an integrated analysis of the literature on sport for development to provide a comprehensive and holistic picture of the sector. Despite the significant increase in published research in the field of sport for development, there has been no attempt to rigorously review and synthesize scientific contributions in this field so far. The paper shows an upward trend in scientific publications since 2000, with an emphasis on social and educational outcomes related to youth sport, with football (soccer) being the most common activity. The vast majority of SDP research has been conducted at the community level, where qualitative approaches dominate (70% of conceptual and qualitative methods). The authors also noted an interesting paradox regarding the geographical contexts of the studies: a majority of the projects are carried out in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, but 74% of the study fields and 90% of the SDP authors are based in North America, Europe, and Australia.
\nAccording to the Journal of Sport for Development, several research themes have been identified in relation to SDP (Table 1).
\nThematics | \nDescriptions | \n
---|---|
Sport and disability | \nSport and disability focuses on research related to sport as a vehicle for the development, access, inclusion, and human rights of people with disabilities. This section encourages critical thinking and diversity of perspectives, welcoming research at the intersection of theory and practice. | \n
Sport and education | \nSport and education presents research and case studies related to interventions that use sport to advance education, youth development, and life skills. Rather than focusing on sport education, this section discusses the role of sport in achieving the academic and social outcomes of youth. | \n
Sport and gender | \nThe theme on sport and gender presents research and case studies related to interventions using sport to promote gender equality, challenge gender norms, and empower girls and women in disadvantaged environments. | \n
Sport and health | \nSport and health presents a wide range of outcomes associated with physical, mental, and social well-being. This is the effect of SDP programs on the risk factors for communicable and non-communicable diseases, including the direct effect of sports programs on physical activity. It also examines the role that sport can play in preventive education and health promotion interventions. | \n
Sport and livelihoods | \nThe theme on sport and livelihoods presents research and case studies on interventions using sport to improve the livelihoods of disadvantaged people, from programs focusing on vocational skills training to rehabilitation and social enterprise. | \n
Sport and peace | \nSport and peace focuses on projects that use sport as a vehicle for reconciliation and peace-building. The concept of peace is broadly defined to include connotations of personal, community, and social well-being, as well as the absence of conflict and tension between groups. In particular, this section examines the possibilities of creating peace between individuals and groups in socially, culturally, or ethnically divided societies. | \n
Sport and social cohesion | \nThe sport and social cohesion theme includes projects in the areas of community empowerment, social inclusion/integration, and diversity management. It focuses on social impact assessments and capacity-building initiatives that can lead to social cohesion, skills enhancement, and overall community development. | \n
Research themes related to the SDP field.
Bel Avenir (BA) is a Malagasy NGO working in the southern region of Madagascar, through social projects, focusing on “education as a vehicle of development.” BA carries out activities in various fields of education for young disadvantaged populations in Madagascar, particularly in Toliara and Fianarantsoa. The field of education includes: (a) formal education in two schools, (b) non-formal education including a school of sports and a music and arts center, among others, (c) awareness-raising projects, such as international inter-school exchanges, or publications of Malagasy stories. Thus, the organization offers a holistic approach to education for development and the SDP proposed by its school of sports, which is only one of its various services. The country is severely affected by extreme poverty, malnutrition, severe hygiene and health problems, child labor problems (mining or prostitution), corruption in society, and frequent political crises. In this sense, BA works in a complex context, most often difficult, unstable, and sometimes insecure, where reality could be ephemeral. BA is finally a member of the international network Agua de Coco, based in eight countries, and mobilized around children’s rights.
\nTwo research projects are currently running to support and strengthen BA’s projects. The first study attempts to develop a methodology that uses the Actantial Model [40] and the Snakes and Ladders [7] to analyze and understand the NGO’s situation from a distance [41]. By using the NGO’s annual reports and comparing them to reality, the researchers are developing a methodology to verify whether a research can be successfully conducted in collaboration with the local organization. A second study, focusing on the needs of the NGO, aims to measure the effects of sports (school of sports) and artistic activities (arts and music center) [42] in order to understand their consequences on the psychological and social well-being of disadvantaged youth. This research also aims to strengthen monitoring and evaluation tools for young people and to set up a psychological unit to monitor young people in their development.
\nThe non-profit organization Pour 3 points (P3P), established in Montreal, Canada, since 2013, uses sport as a tool to promote the development of youth in socio-economically disadvantaged neighborhoods. More specifically, P3P offers a 2-year life coaching training program for young Canadians who are interested in coaching and are willing to make a long-term commitment to the program and to disadvantaged communities. Their role is to learn how to support young people in their lives and to help them to avoid dropping out of primary or secondary school, and to support those who experience learning problems or have serious behavioral problems. By being well trained, coaches can help young people develop the skills they need to succeed in school and in their life. After parents, coaches are the most influential adults in the lives of young athletes according to P3P. This influence is felt not only in the teaching of the game but also in the teaching of life.
\nCoaches are recruited at the time of enrolment in the training program, based on the skills required to become life coaches while becoming sport coach in one of the organization’s partner schools. Each year, the program recruits approximately 15 coaches who participate in a 4-day training retreat, five peer discussion circles, five formal training sessions, and three personal evaluations each year, all under the supervision of a development consultant.
\nSeveral research projects have been conducted with P3P. A first study conducted on the P3P training program [43], examined coaches’ perceptions based on a humanist coaching workshop they received in their training. The results revealed that coaches perceive positive results in autonomy, communication, skills, motivation, and willingness to help their athletes’ teammates. A second study was conducted to strengthen the organization’s logic model to identify indicators for subsequent program evaluation. The results showed differences in the understanding of the program between key stakeholders. Recommendations from research allowed P3P administrators to reframe their theory of change [44]. This study was designed in collaboration with P3P administrators to help them improve their logic model and prepare their program evaluation. The idea for this research came directly from the P3P administrators and the researchers acted as facilitators.
\nSeveral tensions can be noted between the needs of practitioners and their realities on the field with the possibilities of SDP research. The aim is to identify them and then propose a plan for action and research (Table 2).
\nSDP practice | \nAxis of tensions | \nSDP theory or research | \n
---|---|---|
Practical needs of SDP | \nNeeds for research | \n|
Evaluate effects or impacts of the SDP projects | \n\nProgram evaluation\n | \nNeed for indicators/criteria to conduct evaluation | \n
Projects are imperfect and need be improve | \n\nCritic/support\n | \nNeed to critic projects but also support actors and organizations | \n
Reinforce administration team and management work | \n\nManagement\n | \nNeed to reinforce management elements of projects | \n
What is the finality/use/form of SDP? | \n\nFinality/use\n | \nNeed to identify the types of SDP and needs about thematics | \n
What is the qualification/training of SDP personal/staff | \n\nTraining/workshop\n | \nNeed for research on training | \n
Reality field could be unsecure, unstable, complex, dangerous | \n\nMethod/tools\n | \nNeed to improve quality of research and have adapted tools for investigation | \n
Tensions between practice and theory on SDP.
First, we can observe a first axis of tension around program evaluation. On the one hand, SDP organizations are often asked by their donors to conduct program evaluations. This allows them to justify the rationale for their projects and to demonstrate the effectiveness of their actions. However, if these evaluations are not well planned, negative results can be found that compromise projects. SDP organizations often call on researchers to help them conduct their program evaluation because it is a time-consuming process. On the other hand, researchers need precise and specific criteria to conduct a relevant program evaluation. Unfortunately, few projects are able to provide evaluators with these very important indicators to conduct a fair and meaningful evaluation.
\nSecond, SDP projects are rarely perfect in their planning and implementation because they face limited resources and highly changing contexts. As well, it is necessary for administrators to make constant adjustments to improve the implementation and realization of their projects. While SDP projects are criticized by researchers in demonstrating several nonsense between the aims and actions of the project, it remains true that researchers would also benefit from offering a support and collaboration service to try to solve the field difficulties encountered by the actors.
\nThirdly, another axis of tension can be detected on the managerial aspects of SDP projects. On the one hand, the administrations of organizations are increasingly developing with their projects. As they do so, they must strengthen their structure and organization, which is often dependent on the financial and human resources at their disposal. On the other hand, researchers have started to conduct several studies to better understand the managerial aspects of SDP organizations, and it would be relevant if these studies could strengthen the organizational aspects of SDP projects which often do not have much support.
\nFourthly and for the time being, few differences have been made in SDP projects between those aimed at elite sport, competition, physical education, physical activity for leisure, or another theme such as health education through SDP. In our opinion, there is a very important tension about the purpose, use, and form that the SDP can represent and be truly in field projects. While several texts have been written to attempt to highlight these elements, few studies have attempted to go further in understanding what the SDP really is. This research seems essential to us to make the difference between the various forms of SDP and their multiple uses. This will eventually make it possible to identify new themes to investigate around the SDP.
\nFifth, there are currently many questions around who are the people who work with the populations in SDP, what are their training or qualifications? While the research strongly recommends the use of sport supervised by qualified and trained personnel, few studies have focused on the profiles and the training of those people who work in the field every day. On this axis of tension, research must propose areas of response to strengthen field actions. And on this point, it is therefore necessary for researchers to go down to the field to see and understand the reality of the projects.
\nFinally, SDP fields are often dangerous and unsafe as they are located in humanitarian crisis or international development situations. These situations can change in a few minutes and working in this environment is therefore extremely unstable. They also face very complex realities in which it is necessary to take into account as many elements as possible in order to operate. Faced with the reality of this type of terrain, researchers must adapt their work. In particular, research methods and tools must evolve to adapt to a changing reality and to conditions that are sometimes very inappropriate for conducting a traditional research project. These adaptations are necessary to improve the quality of research in SDP’s fields.
\nSDP research now offers a better understanding of the movement and allows practitioners to better orient themselves in their use of sport for development. However, the research also raised a set of concrete issues for field projects and some questions remain unanswered at this time. Following the results of the latest studies, six main areas of work should be considered to guide further research on SDP.
Provide a space for reflection (criticize vs. support): current research is often critical of SDP projects and too rarely supports or improves the action of actors in the field. However, it seems important to strengthen the work of the actors while continuing to question their actions and achievements. In this sense, the researcher must offer a space for joint reflection with the actors in the field;
Use a collaborative or partnership approach to conduct research (be a facilitator): one of the roles of research is to help solve practitioners’ problems. Specifically in the domain of SDP, field actors express difficulties and needs that must be listened in order to co-construct research projects. In this sense, the researcher should act as a facilitator to support the projects and the work of the actors while continuing to criticize them in his/her support;
Starting from the concrete angle of the field: to be able to fully understand the nuances of the context and/or the environment of the SDP actors, researchers are invited to be as close as possible to reality, and to step into the field as possible. This element is essential to build a relationship of trust with the actors to help them by understanding their background and endings as much as possible;
Seek interdisciplinary research: SDP themes are complex and often overlap with scientific knowledge from several research fields (e.g., sociology, psychology, and education). Researchers from several scientific disciplines must be open and work together as much as possible, in order to have the most precise and complex understanding of the phenomena that are difficult to capture from a single angle. Research must provide a better understanding of the multiple issues and the complexity of the issues, problems, and realities;
Propose better quality of research: it also seems relevant to us to question how to carry out better quality research on ephemeral or unstable fields, when access is considered complex and dangerous. This requires, among other things, the development of methods able to adapt and respond to the requirements of the domain as well as to the various fields of investigation;
Clarify the uses of SDP: finally, it seems essential to us to question the type of sport for development and peace that is used in the various contexts of SDP. More specifically, is it competitive sport, physical education, physical activity, health education, or any other form? On this subject, Hills et al. [45] had opened up interesting avenues for reflection by mentioning sport + and + sport [46], sport for social inclusion [24], sport as a universal language [1, 24], sport as a diversion [47], as a replacement or alternative [48], as a hook [49, 50] or for life skills [51, 52], among others.
This chapter aimed to present the field of SDP, its origins, its evolution, the research that has been carried out so far, as well as illustrations to give the reader a better idea of what “Sport for Development and Peace” is. However, answering the question “what is the SDP?” is not easy given that this field is vast, complex, and constantly changing in practice.
\nIn conclusion, three main elements can be remembered: (1) a large number of projects and programs have been developed since the 2000s, mainly in Africa, Latin America, and Asia, with football being the main sport [8, 38]. Other various forms of physical activity and sports (e.g., physical education, competitive sport, and leisure activities) have also been used in order to achieve development or peace and related topics; (2) research on SDP has intensified since 2010 [8]; and it can be grouped into four main categories of studies: macrosociological, exploratory field studies, managerial and program evaluation, and literature reviews; (3) several challenges and tensions remain to be resolved in order to accomplish quality research that will truly help and support actors from the field who use SDP.
\nWe can finally return to the proposals of Baron de Coubertin and Mandela, who were very visionary in using sport as a vehicle for development and as a means of establishing peace. Because today, many organizations such as the United Nations prefers to rely on the universal potential of sport or other non-formal recreation to resolve conflicts and educate future generations, rather than traditional institutions such as schools or governments.
\nThe author would like to acknowledge all research collaborators (Arvisais, O., Ayoub, M-B., Bardocz-Bencsik M., Belanger, C., Charland, P., Caicedo, J-C., Dalcourt-Malenfant, S., Decarpentrie, L., Falcão W. Parlavecchio, L., Rouzaut, M., Varela, N., and Webb, A.) and also send a special thanks to all field partners of SDP researches (Bel Avenir, Escuela de communidad—Cuidad Bolivar, P3P, Conseil de Bande des Premieres Nations d’Opitciwan).
\nThe author declares no conflict of interest.
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',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Chapters",metaDescription:"IN TECH aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.\n\nWhen submitting a manuscript the Corresponding Author is required to accept the terms and conditions set forth in our Publication Agreement as follows:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-chapters",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
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\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
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\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
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\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\n\n\n\n
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