Backgrounds of informants.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6166",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Maize Germplasm - Characterization and Genetic Approaches for Crop Improvement",title:"Maize Germplasm",subtitle:"Characterization and Genetic Approaches for Crop Improvement",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Maize is an important staple food crop worldwide. It is the third most important cereal crop after wheat and rice and is economically used for both livestock feeds and human consumption. The latest maize research has opened up new opportunities for crop improvement. This book brings together recent work and advances that have recently been made in the dynamic fields of genetic characterization, molecular breeding, genetic engineering technologies, and mapping of agronomic traits of global maize germplasm. It also provides new insights into and sheds new light regarding the current research trends and future research directions in maize. This book will provoke interest in many readers, researchers, and scientists, who can find this information useful for the advancement of their research works toward maize improvement.",isbn:"978-1-78923-039-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-038-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-313-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68373",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"maize-germplasm-characterization-and-genetic-approaches-for-crop-improvement",numberOfPages:100,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"c417c25f765a026f5ebbf9d3119edb2e",bookSignature:"Mohamed El-Esawi",publishedDate:"May 9th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6166.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4340,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 30th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 20th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 7th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 7th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 7th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191770/images/system/191770.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi is a visiting research fellow at the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom, and an associate professor of molecular genetics at the Botany Department of Tanta University in Egypt. Dr. El-Esawi received his BSc and MSc from Tanta University, and his PhD degree in Plant Genetics and Molecular Biology from Dublin Institute of Technology, Technological University Dublin, in Ireland. Afterwards, Dr. El-Esawi joined the University of Warwick in the United Kingdom, University of Sorbonne (Paris VI) in France, and University of Leuven (KU Leuven) in Belgium as a visiting research fellow. His research focuses on plant genetics, genomics, molecular biology, molecular physiology, developmental biology, plant–microbe interaction, and bioinformatics. He has authored several international journal articles and book chapters, and participated in more than 60 conferences and workshops worldwide. Dr. El-Esawi has received several awards and is currently involved in several research projects on biological sciences.",institutionString:"Tanta University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Tanta University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"305",title:"Plant Genetics",slug:"agricultural-science-plant-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"59482",title:"Introductory Chapter: Introduction to Biotechnological Approaches for Maize Improvement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74871",slug:"introductory-chapter-introduction-to-biotechnological-approaches-for-maize-improvement",totalDownloads:529,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59482",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59482",authors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],corrections:null},{id:"56856",title:"Polyembryony in Maize: A Complex, Elusive, and Potentially Agronomical Useful Trait",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70549",slug:"polyembryony-in-maize-a-complex-elusive-and-potentially-agronomical-useful-trait",totalDownloads:749,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Mariela R. Michel, Marisol Cruz-Requena, Marselino C. Avendaño-\nSanchez, Víctor M. González-Vazquez, Adriana C. Flores-Gallegos,\nCristóbal N. Aguilar, José Espinoza-Velázquez and Raúl Rodríguez-\nHerrera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56856",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56856",authors:[{id:"67240",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristobal",surname:"Aguilar",slug:"cristobal-aguilar",fullName:"Cristobal Aguilar"},{id:"183439",title:"Dr.",name:"Raul",surname:"Rodriguez-Herrera",slug:"raul-rodriguez-herrera",fullName:"Raul Rodriguez-Herrera"},{id:"185302",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariela R.",surname:"Michel",slug:"mariela-r.-michel",fullName:"Mariela R. Michel"},{id:"185304",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana Carolina",surname:"Flores Gallegos",slug:"adriana-carolina-flores-gallegos",fullName:"Adriana Carolina Flores Gallegos"},{id:"217785",title:"Dr.",name:"Marisol",surname:"Cruz-Requena",slug:"marisol-cruz-requena",fullName:"Marisol Cruz-Requena"},{id:"217786",title:"Mr.",name:"Marcelino",surname:"Avendaño-Sanchez",slug:"marcelino-avendano-sanchez",fullName:"Marcelino Avendaño-Sanchez"},{id:"217787",title:"Mr.",name:"Victor",surname:"González-Vazquez",slug:"victor-gonzalez-vazquez",fullName:"Victor González-Vazquez"},{id:"217788",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",surname:"Espinoza-Velázquez",slug:"jose-espinoza-velazquez",fullName:"Jose Espinoza-Velázquez"}],corrections:null},{id:"57244",title:"Molecular Breeding for Abiotic Stresses in Maize (Zea mays L.)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71081",slug:"molecular-breeding-for-abiotic-stresses-in-maize-zea-mays-l-",totalDownloads:1018,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Asima Gazal, Zahoor Ahmed Dar and Ajaz Ahmad Lone",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57244",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57244",authors:[{id:"208555",title:"Dr.",name:"Asima",surname:"Gazal",slug:"asima-gazal",fullName:"Asima Gazal"},{id:"208558",title:"Dr.",name:"Zahoor",surname:"Dar",slug:"zahoor-dar",fullName:"Zahoor Dar"},{id:"208560",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajaz",surname:"Lone",slug:"ajaz-lone",fullName:"Ajaz Lone"}],corrections:null},{id:"56913",title:"Genetic Variability for Resistance to Leaf Blight and Diversity among Selected Maize Inbred Lines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70553",slug:"genetic-variability-for-resistance-to-leaf-blight-and-diversity-among-selected-maize-inbred-lines",totalDownloads:622,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Abera Wende, Hussein Shimelis and Eastonce T. Gwata",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56913",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56913",authors:[{id:"85318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein",surname:"Shimelis",slug:"hussein-shimelis",fullName:"Hussein Shimelis"},{id:"128502",title:"Prof.",name:"Eastonce T",surname:"Gwata",slug:"eastonce-t-gwata",fullName:"Eastonce T Gwata"},{id:"208124",title:"Dr.",name:"Abera",surname:"Wende",slug:"abera-wende",fullName:"Abera Wende"}],corrections:null},{id:"57343",title:"Use of Technology to Increase the Productivity of Corn in Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70808",slug:"use-of-technology-to-increase-the-productivity-of-corn-in-brazil",totalDownloads:664,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Wilian Henrique Diniz Buso and Luciana Borges e Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57343",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57343",authors:[{id:"184046",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilian Henrique",surname:"Diniz Buso",slug:"wilian-henrique-diniz-buso",fullName:"Wilian Henrique Diniz Buso"},{id:"208283",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Borges E",surname:"Silva",slug:"luciana-borges-e-silva",fullName:"Luciana Borges E Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"57540",title:"Impacts of Nitrogen Fertilization and Conservation Tillage on the Agricultural Soils of the United States: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70550",slug:"impacts-of-nitrogen-fertilization-and-conservation-tillage-on-the-agricultural-soils-of-the-united-s",totalDownloads:766,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Meimei Lin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57540",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57540",authors:[{id:"208050",title:"Dr.",name:"Meimei",surname:"Lin",slug:"meimei-lin",fullName:"Meimei Lin"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5781",title:"Phytohormones",subtitle:"Signaling Mechanisms and Crosstalk in Plant Development and Stress Responses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"054eaa85c13ebe3d04fb8852005d2bad",slug:"phytohormones-signaling-mechanisms-and-crosstalk-in-plant-development-and-stress-responses",bookSignature:"Mohamed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5781.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6277",title:"Physical Methods for Stimulation of Plant and Mushroom Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33dff71e3489403e273057ae36bd0dbd",slug:"physical-methods-for-stimulation-of-plant-and-mushroom-development",bookSignature:"Mohamed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6277.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7991",title:"Understanding the Molecular Crosstalk in Biological Processes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4b678bab3a6334187a4fb5bb44a3811",slug:"understanding-the-molecular-crosstalk-in-biological-processes",bookSignature:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7991.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7000",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Characterization and Breeding for Improved Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d0f73bf883bbb984cc2feef1259a9a7",slug:"legume-crops-characterization-and-breeding-for-improved-food-security",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7000.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7444",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plant Species",subtitle:"Characterization and Conservation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"25f15c723c96ab2d6209d7aa0961cacc",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plant-species-characterization-and-conservation",bookSignature:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7444.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6627",title:"Brassica Germplasm",subtitle:"Characterization, Breeding and Utilization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f11a68d95e239f899f787ef2ecd31466",slug:"brassica-germplasm-characterization-breeding-and-utilization",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6627.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6628",title:"Circadian Rhythm",subtitle:"Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"628bbcbfaf54a56710498540efe51b87",slug:"circadian-rhythm-cellular-and-molecular-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6628.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5978",title:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"129c29bcddd8225ed58e908138b2cda5",slug:"new-perspectives-in-forage-crops",bookSignature:"Ricardo Loiola Edvan and Leilson Rocha Bezerra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5978.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171035",title:"Dr.",name:"RICARDO",surname:"EDVAN",slug:"ricardo-edvan",fullName:"RICARDO EDVAN"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{},chapter:{},book:{}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"9708",leadTitle:null,title:"Banana Farming",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"48f956276db593f31c6f1b6ccf8b27f7",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9708.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 6th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 27th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 26th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 14th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 13th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50290",title:"Traditional Raised-Floor Granary and Rice Production Cycle in Bali: Past, Present, and Future of Balinese Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/62643",slug:"traditional-raised-floor-granary-and-rice-production-cycle-in-bali-past-present-and-future-of-baline",body:'\n
This chapter discusses the Lumbung, a Balinese traditional raised-floor rice granary, and its relationship with the production cycle of rice and local farmers’ perceptions of it. The author uses ethnohistorical research and proposes a measure for the proper preservation of the Lumbung as a symbol for the promotion of agriculture in the future.
\nArchitecture is the materialization of the function of a human activity space and thus represents certain set of human activities reflecting cultural and regional characteristics. Therefore, traditional architecture can be associated with not only practical activities but also symbolic meanings including the concept of sacredness and taboo and cultural identity. In the preservation of traditional architecture, we must therefore take a holistic view of both the practical and symbolic aspects of traditional structures in the mental landscape of local populations.
\nAmong the various types of architecture, granaries are among the most commonly seen constructions. Food storage facilities emerged in the very early stages of human history and played a fundamental role in everyday landscapes [1]. The style of a granary not only reflects the subsistence strategy of each society but also the characteristics of its culture. Granaries have also been symbolic objects or stages for ceremonies and thus concern the human mental landscape.
\nMany ethnographic researchers have become interested in traditional granaries and their past functions and symbolism. For example, in Japanese scholarship, research has been mainly conducted in subtropical islands, such as [2–5] Amami and Okinawa Islands, Japan. These studies noted that sacredness or display of political power or wealth is associated with traditional granaries. Accordingly, a granary could be an instrument for connecting the economical and daily act of storing food with sacredness and politics. On the other hand, the perspectives of those studies tended to be limited to granaries themselves; the relationships of granaries to the overall routine associated with subsistence have not been sufficiently discussed. This ethnographic study on Bali focuses on this aspect of traditional granaries.
\nBali has a traditional raised-floor granary for rice. Previously, granaries were called by several names depending on their size, as will be explained below. However, the number of granaries remaining today is much smaller, and size distinctions have been lost; therefore, in this chapter, traditional Balinese granaries are referred to as Lumbungs, which is now the most commonly used term in modern Bali.
\nRice farming is vital in Balinese culture, and the Lumbung has played a significant role in Balinese life; however, the tradition now only survives in limited places. Here, the author would like to discuss the role of the Lumbung in the Balinese rice production cycle and the factors underlying its survival and gradual disappearance, using data obtained from field work carried out from 2006 to 2011. The Lumbung can be an important cultural symbol for Bali and useful for reviving agricultural practices. Thus, understanding local people’s perceptions of the Lumbung is important for the future planning of the Balinese agricultural landscape.
\nBali is a province of Indonesia and is located to the east of Java. It has a population of 3.89 million (as of 2010), covering 5633 km2 (Figure 1). Because of its location near the equator, its year-round temperatures range between 23 and 31°C, and the average annual rainfall is around 2000 mm in the province capital, Denpasar. It has a tropical humid climate with a dry season from April to November and a wet season from December to March [6–8]. The island is divided into eight prefectures (Kabupaten) inheriting the regional divisions from the Klungkung dynasty and the seven small kingdoms from the seventeenth to eighteenth centuries [6]. 93.18% of its population is Hindu and referred to as “Balinese Hindu” [6], and the Bali Aga and Bali Mula communities comprise the minorities [6]. The author’s ethnographical studies target the Balinese Hindu population.
\nThe map of Bali and locations of field research areas.
The Lumbung, the theme of this research, is a Balinese traditional raised-floor rice granary with a gable roof. Today, such granaries are only used in a few specific areas, mainly in Tabanan prefecture; however, a few decades ago, they were common sights in the Balinese agricultural landscape.
\nCovarrubias [9], a Mexican painter who lived in Bali in the 1930s, documented various aspects of the contemporary Balinese culture. Among them, he mentioned the raised-floor granary, noting that it was called by different names according to its size, such as Lumbung, Glebeg, Djineng, Kelumpu, and Kelingkin, in order of importance. According to Covarrubias, “a granary symbolized the economic status of a family,” and the structure is “similar to a yam house in Melanesia” with a thatched gable roof and four pillars attached with rat guards [9: pp. 107] (translated by Hosoya). He also recorded certain taboos associated with granaries, such as that against speaking while bringing out rice in the daytime and the condition that a person entering a granary be mentally and physically healthy and not chew betel nuts. Covarrubias’s description suggests that granaries were a common part of the Balinese landscape.
\nThis standing of granaries in Bali appears to have continued into the 1960s. The book edited by Miyamoto [10], conducted as part of the “Rice Farming Culture in Southeast Asia” project, is a good authority on Bali during this period, with rather detailed descriptions of granaries as a part of rice farming culture. Ishikawa [11], as a member of the same project, recorded the classifications for granaries in Sesetan village, south of the capital city Denpasar. According to him, granaries that stocked more than 800 rice sheaves (10–11 kg/bundle) were called Keling, those holding more than 200 sheaves were called Djineng, and those holding more than 100 sheaves were called Kelumpu. Ishikawa also described the granaries as having gable roofs thatched with Alang-alang/lalang (a kind of reed) grass and noted that some granaries had an additional floor beneath the raised floor for a workshop space, which was sometimes surrounded by a bamboo mat that served as a wall. There were also several rules regarding these granaries; for instance, they were always constructed near the kitchen in the southern part of a house complex, and when there were two wives in a household, they could have separate kitchens but had to share one granary. It is also reported cases in Pantjur village in Lombok Island, an island east of the main Bali Island, where granaries were also classified by the size: The larger ones were the Lumbung, and smaller ones were the Sambi. In case of the Lumbung, an additional floor was built beneath the raised floor as a workshop space [11]. When one household had both the larger and smaller granaries, the two may be connected by an extended roof, and the in-between space could be used as a cowshed. These records in [11] show that granaries in the 1960s were still a common part of the Balinese landscape and also a fundamental part of daily life.
\nHowever, in 1980s, it appears that the situation started to change, namely Lumbung seems to have become out of use except a particular region. In Kagami’s discussion [12] of the contemporary Bali house complex, he observed that “… today, more and more families process and sell rice directly from the field, and [traditional] granaries are falling out of use even if a family owns one” (translated by Hosoya). On the other hand, Nagafuchi [13] observed that the Mantenin ceremony for raised-floor granaries was still regularly practiced in the Wongayagede village, Tabanan prefecture, indicating regular use of granaries. These studies show that by the late 1980s, the raised-floor granary had become a disappearing tradition except in the specific area of Tabanan prefecture, where it continued being a part of the everyday landscape and was still actively used. This 1980s pattern is basically what can be observed today, and Tabanan prefecture is the main area of Lumbung survival.
\nThese records on raised-floor granaries in Bali indicated that a remarkable shift occurred in the use and popularity of granaries in the 1970s and 1980s. What was the change? Why did the raised-floor granary disappear in most areas in Bali, and why did it survive in specific areas such as Tabanan prefecture? To answer these questions, the study of the present state of the Lumbung and its cultural background, with a comparative view of the areas where it has survived and disappeared, would be useful. This will also provide a clue to understanding the significance of the Lumbung in the Balinese agricultural landscape today. To this end, the author carried out a field research in Balinese farming villages.
\nThe field research was conducted from 2006 to 2011, and the detailed results have been published elsewhere [1, 14–18]. The research method involved interviewing farming families on the Lumbung and observing agricultural activities/ceremonies concerning the Lumbung. The interviewees were mainly comprised of Lumbung owners in Tabanan, Gianyar, and Karangasem prefectures, but for comparative study, farmers without Lumbungs in Karangasem prefecture were also interviewed. Detailed information on the interviewees is shown in Table 1. Names of the interviewees are given as initials to protect their privacy. The spellings of village names are based on those in the “Bali Street Atlas, 2005/2006 edition” (Periplus Editions).
\nPrefecture (Kabupaten) | \nVillage (Desa) | \nInformants | \nCultivated rice | \nNo. of Lumbung | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tabanan | \nBabahan | \nBB1 | \nMen (75 and 40 years old) | \nLand owner | \nLocal 1*/year, normal 1/year, Keten | \n1 | \n
Gunungsaridesa | \nGN1 | \nMan (62 years old); Woman (53 years old) | \nLand owner | \nLocal 1–2/year, normal 2/year, Keten | \n14 | \n|
GN2 | \nMan (86 years old) | \nLand owner | \nLocal 1–2/year, normal 1/year, Injin, Keten | \n1 | \n||
Jati Luwih | \nJT1 | \nWoman (38 years old) | \nLand owner | \nLocal 1/year, normal 1/year, Injin, Keten | \n3 | \n|
JT2 | \nWoman (30s?) | \nLand owner | \nLocal 1/year, normal 1/year, Injin, Keten | \n2 | \n||
JT3 | \nWoman (60 years old) | \nLand owner | \nLocal 1/year, normal 1/year | \n5 | \n||
JT4 | \nMan (27 years old) | \nLand owner | \nLocal 1/year, normal 1/year | \n4 | \n||
Kesambi | \nKS1 | \nWoman (55 years old) | \nLand owner | \nLocal 2/year, normal 1/year | \n1 | \n|
Penebel | \nPN1 | \nWoman (75 years old); Man (46 years old) | \nLand owner** | \nLocal 1/year, normal 1/year | \n1 | \n|
Senganan | \nSG1 | \nMan (80 years old) | \nLand owner | \nLocal 1/year, normal 1/year | \n1 | \n|
SG2 | \nMen (42 years old & 36 years old) | \nLand owner | \nLocal 1/Year, normal 2/year, Keten | \n3 | \n||
Wongayagede | \nWG1 | \nMan (45 years old) | \nLand owner | \nLocal 2/year, Injin 2/year | \n1 | \n|
WG2 | \nWoman (60s?) | \nLand owner | \nLocal, Injin | \n2 | \n||
Gubug | \nGB1 | \nWoman (80 years old) | \nLand owner | \nNormal 3/year | \n2 | \n|
GB2 | \nWoman (60s?) | \nLand owner | \nNormal 2/year | \n1 | \n||
Sudimara | \nSD1 | \nMan (55 years old) | \nLand owner | \nNormal 2/year | \n2 | \n|
Gianyar | \nSebatu | \nSB1 | \nMan (45 years old) | \nland owner | \nLocal 2/year, Injin, Keten | \n3 | \n
Karangasem | \nAbabi | \nAB1 | \nWoman (65 years old) | \nLand owner** | \nNormal 2–3/year | \n1 | \n
Jasi | \nJS1 | \nMan (50 years old) | \nLand owner | \nNormal 3/year | \nnone | \n|
JS2 | \nWoman (50s?) | \nTenant | \nNormal | \nnone | \n||
JS3 | \nMan (64 years old) | \nTenant | \nNormal | \nnone | \n||
Selat | \nSL1 | \nMan (60 years old) | \nTenant | \nLocal 1/year, normal 2/year. Injin, Keten | \nnone | \n|
SL2 | \nMan (70 years old) | \nLand owner | \nLocal, normal, Injin, Keten | \nnone (1 Tukub) | \n||
\n | \n | SL3 | \nWoman (43 years old) | \nLand owner | \nNormal 2/year, Keten | \n1 | \n
Backgrounds of informants.
*The number indicates harvest number within 1 year shifting.
**Not farming his/herself.
The results of the field research suggested the high possibility that the survival of the Lumbung is strongly tied to the type of rice cultivated. Here, I introduce the present status of the Lumbung as observed through the fieldwork and then demonstrate that its relationship with cultivated rice is the key to explaining why Lumbungs have survived in specific areas of modern Bali while disappearing in other areas.
\nAs previously mentioned, the author interviewed primarily households that owned Lumbungs, with a few exceptions for comparative purposes. Accordingly, the research area was limited to Tabanan, Gianyar, and Karangasem prefectures. It must be noted that in other areas, namely the majority of Bali farming lands, Lumbungs no longer exist.
\nThe surviving Lumbungs observed by the author have either four or six posts but exhibit no notable differences in size corresponding to those recorded in historical documents such as [9, 11]. However, interviewee GN1 explained that Lumbungs with six posts were built when abundant rice harvests were expected and paddy fields were large, so the difference in the number of posts may be a relic of the diversity of the Lumbung sizes.
\nThe Lumbung roof was traditionally thatched by Alang-alang grass, as described by [9, 11], and some old Lumbungs still retain this traditional style of roofing (Figure 2). However, over the last several decades, almost all farmers have chosen metal roofs to replace thatched ones when rebuilding roofs (Figure 3), mainly because of the cost: While a thatched roof costs 3–5 million rupia, a metal roof costs only 0.8 million rupia (GB1, SD1, in the interview in 2007). It is also difficult today to find Alang-alang grass or to employ workers capable of thatching. At the same time, many interviewees cited the advantages of metal roofs over thatched ones, such as more durability (JT3, GN1), more effective for keeping off rats (JT3, SB1), and better for drying stored rice (SB1). Metal roofs therefore appear to be a positive introduction.
\nTraditional style of Lumbung.
\nLumbung with a metal roof.
Most Lumbungs have a second floor beneath the raised floor (Figure 4), as reported in [11] in 1960s. The second floor is used for various purposes (as an eating space, a resting space, a meeting space with a guest, and so on), but many interviewees (PN1, GB1, SD1, SL3, GN1, etc.) said that it was used for preparation for Lumbung-related ceremonies. Indeed, the author observed this ceremonial usage and was also often invited into the space for interviews or dining.
\nUtilization of the second floor beneath the raised-floor of a Lumbung.
Some Lumbungs, in particular, the ones that have rather recently been renovated, are decorated, sometimes quite elaborately, with carvings and coloring (Figure 5) (eg., PN1 renovated 16 years ago; GN2, 3 months ago; BB2, 2 years ago). Decoration, the means of which vary, is normally done by a family member, but it also can be done by an architect (BB1). According to GN2, the purpose of decoration is “showing off.”
\nDecorated Lumbung.
In Wongayagede village, Tabanan prefecture, the shape of Lumbungs is quite characteristic. Lumbungs observed by the author in this village and the nearby Tengkudak and Penatahan villages were uniformly bell-shaped with a red tile roof (Figure 6). In Tengkudak village, there was a metal-roofed Lumbung, which was also bell-shaped. The author could not determine the origin of this specific Lumbung shape despite interviewing several farmers, but the shape resembles that of typical Balinese temples, suggesting some possible connection. It is reported [13, 19] that Wongayagede village was a special village in a religious context, as village residents were in charge of managing ceremonies at Luhur Batukau Temple located in the north of the village, at the foot of Batukau Mountain. In the village, Injin, black rice specially used to make ceremonial cakes, was also intensively produced [15].
\n\nLumbung of Wangayagede village.
Several regulations and taboos associated with Lumbungs were recorded in [9, 11], as was shown in Section 2, but many of them are now obsolete.
\nIt is reported in [11] that the Lumbung had to be in the south part relative to the house complex. Some farmers mentioned that today, it must be constructed in the south (PN1, JT2, and JT3) or in the south or west (KS1). However, many farmers claim, “It can be constructed anywhere there is space” (GB1, SD1, JT4, SG1, SG2, AB1). Therefore, this condition seems to be gradually losing importance. Indeed, BB1 reported, “Once, it had to be in the south, but it doesn’t matter now.” Some interviewees also said that the door of a Lumbung must face south or west (JT3, JT4, SG2, AB1).
\nNone of the Lumbung-related taboos recorded by Covarrubias [9] were mentioned by the interviewees. Instead, most of them mentioned the same two taboos: “Women on their period cannot enter a Lumbung” and “Rice cannot be taken out from a Lumbung on particular days.” These “particular days” varied by interviewee, such as specific days of a week, a day of a ceremony, or the day of the new moon/full moon. Other taboos mentioned by interviewees were as follows: “Rice cannot be taken out repeatedly on the same day, and no one can look inside the Lumbung on a day rice is taken out” (GN2), and “Anyone can put rice into a Lumbung, but only the owner couple can take rice out; even a child of the couple cannot do that” (JT2). Other interviewees denied the existence of any taboo (PN1, AB1).
\nIn terms of the symbolism associated with the Lumbung, normally, some rice sheaves placed in the Lumbung are carefully separated from the rice for consumption by placing them on a beam, in a basket, or else, as an offering for Dewi Sri, the goddess of rice. In some cases, the offering rice is replaced regularly with new rice, but in others, it stays unchanged for several decades. The detail is explained in the next section, as it is connected with the issue of the rice types. Furthermore, a ceremony for rice harvest and storage called Mantenin is still regularly held in particular areas, mainly in Tabanan prefecture. Although the original concept of Mantenin seems to be a celebration of rice granaries in general, it seems to be rather exclusively associated with the Lumbung. This notion is also explained below.
\nNext, we discuss how the type of cultivated rice and the survival of Lumbung are related according to the field research results.
\nPaddy field rice cultivation was introduced in Bali through the Dong Son culture, which spread across Southeast Asia around the fifth to third centuries BC [7]. Paddy field rice became the staple food of the islanders, and paddy fields were reported to occupy 17% of the island’s area in the 1960s [20]. Today, rice is still the fundamental food in Bali, and a meal is not considered “proper” without rice [15]. Tubers, which are eaten as staple foods in many other tropical regions, and bread, which was introduced through Western cultures, are also eaten but are treated as merely snacks. Rice is also considered the best of all crops [6]. In the author’s interview, many interviewees said that “rice is the food of human beings, but tubers are for pigs” (such as JT1, JT3, WG1, SD1, JS1, JS2 SL2, SL3).
\nIn present-day Bali, two types of rice are cultivated. One is the traditional “local rice (Padi Bali)” in red and white variations, and the other is the more recently introduced normal rice (Beras).” Along with these, the black rice Injin and red and white Ketan varieties for making ceremonial cakes are also cultivated (for detail, see [14]). Normal rice was introduced as a part of the BIMAS (Bimbingan Massal = group instruction) and IMMAS (Intensifikasi Massal = group intensification) Programs promoted by the Indonesian government in 1960s and 1970s [21]. Today, normal rice production is prevalent in Bali because of its higher yields than local rice and is promoted by the government, but in certain areas, local rice continues to be regularly cultivated. In present-day Bali, rice can normally be harvested 2–3 times a year, and in many cases, local rice farmers cultivate both local rice and normal rice in rotation within 1 year (see Table 1). Yet, some farmers still only cultivate local rice.
\nTabanan prefecture is a representative and well-known area of local rice farming, and most of these also cultivate normal rice. Among the author’s interviewees, only the farmers of Wongayagede village cultivated local rice but not normal rice. In addition, the field research revealed villages in other prefectures that also regularly cultivated local rice, namely Sabato village in Gianyar prefecture and Selat and Ababi villages in Karangasem prefecture. In case of the villages in Karangasem, only specific households of the villages continued exclusive local rice cultivation. Among these, a household in Sabato and one in Selat cultivated local rice only, but other households produced local rice and normal rice.
\nIn general, those regions of continued local rice cultivation seem to originally have had high yields of rice because of rich water sources. On the other hand, the areas that have now completely turned to normal rice cultivation seem to have had lower rice production. Before the introduction of normal rice, the current yields of 2–3 rice harvests per year were impossible except in especially productive areas such as Tabanan prefecture. In other areas, farmers rotated cultivation of rice and dry field crops such as tubers and peanuts. It is recorded in [20] that in the 1960s, rotating cultivation was practiced in 70% of Bali’s farmlands. According to the author’s interviews with farmers, local rice cultivation is still maintained in the few areas where multiple rice harvests were possible even before the introduction of normal rice introduction, whereas in the rotating-cultivation areas, which comprise the majority of Balinese farmlands, the introduction of normal rice now enables several rice harvests a year. In these areas, rotating cultivation with dry field crops is still conducted as needed.
\nThe author’s field research surveyed 24 households (Table 1), and among them, 19 owned Lumbungs. The 19 households can be categorized into three groups by their rice cultivation patterns: (1) cultivating local rice only; (2) cultivating local rice and normal rice alternately within one year; and (3) cultivating normal rice only. Among these groups, there seem to be characteristic differences in the ways the Lumbungs are used. These provide a clue to understanding the significance of the Lumbung in Balinese farming.
\nThree households in Wongayagede of Tabanan and Sebatu of Gianyar (WB1, WB2, SB1) fit into category 1. Remarkably, their Lumbungs were extremely well-maintained with frequent reconstructions positively introducing new material for better rice storage, such as tiled roofs and concrete walls, as well as new decorative designs. In SB1’s case, it is notable that a new Lumbung, in addition to an existing two, was created only 15 years ago, which rarely occurs today. The interviewee said that the new Lumbung was needed: “Because we have too much rice production, two Lumbungs were not enough to store it.” The older two Lumbangs were passed on to their first son, whereas the new one was given to their second son. Formerly, Balinese custom dictated that when a son became independent and had his own family, he received a new granary even if he continued living in his old household with its own raised-floor granary [11]. However, today, the custom seems to have almost disappeared because of the shrinking number of Lumbungs, and new ones are rarely constructed. However, in the case of SB1, the old custom was still followed in part.
\nThe majority of the surveyed households (11) fit into category 2 and were all in Tabanan prefecture. The noticeable feature of Lumbung usage in these households was that although they cultivated both local and normal rice within one year in most cases, the Lumbungs were used exclusively to store local rice. Normal rice was stored elsewhere, such as in the main residence or in a storage shed without a raised-floor or not constructed in the traditional style. KS1 from the Kesambi village was the exception and stored both types of rice in the Lumbung, explaining “We have only a small paddy field, and the rice production is not very high, so we store everything in the Lumbung” (KS1). The most common explanation for the different storage spaces for different types of rice was the difference in harvesting methods: Local rice is picked the head, which are bundled into sheaves for storage (Figure 7), whereas normal rice is cut at the bottom of the stalks and threshed in the field (Figure 8,9), with the grains stored in sacks. Normal rice sacks are generally heavy (20–30 kg) and difficult to carry up a raised-floor Lumbung, which could be one reason why only local rice is stored in the Lumbungs. However, this cannot explain why both types of storage are maintained despite the high maintenance costs of Lumbungs, rather than storing both local and normal rice in new sheds. This raises the possibility of a perceptual connection between the Lumbung and local rice, rather than a logistical necessity.
\nHarvesting local rice.
Harvesting normal rice.
Normal rice threshing in the field.
Five households fall into category 3, that is, only cultivating normal rice. Of these, three were in the South Tabanan villages of Gubug and Sudimara, and one each was in the villages of Ababi and Selat in Karangasem. In fact, these were rather exceptional cases since the majority of farmers in Bali who cultivate only normal rice do not own Lumbungs. In these cases of category 3, the Lumbungs were generally old and poorly maintained. In the case of SL3 in Selat village, the Lumbung was not used at all. In the author’s 2008 interview, SL3 said “When we switched to normal rice 10 years ago, we stopped storing new harvests in the Lumbung. Then, 3 years ago, we used up all the remaining local rice storage in the Lumbung, and it has been empty since then. But we keep it because it was passed down from our ancestors, so we do not dare destroy it.” However, when the author made a second visit in 2011, SL3’s Lumbung had been replaced by a small shop (Warun) run by the family. In other cases of category 3, Lumbungs were still used for storing normal rice, but this use did not appear to be out of necessity. Some interviewees provided explanations: “Because I got it from my mother, I maintain it” (AB1) and “As a Lumbung is precious, I will use it until it breaks” (SD1). These responses indicate that Lumbungs are relics for them to maintain for the sake of tradition rather than daily use. This conceptual shift regarding the Lumbung seems to have occurred when normal rice was introduced, as most obviously evident in the case of SL3. The cases in category 3 again show the conceptual connection between local rice and the Lumbung.
\nFor the comparative study, the author also interviewed some households without Lumbung in Karangasem prefecture. In the case of SL2 of Selat village, the household cultivated both local and normal rice in a year, and they stored local rice in a storage facility called a Tukub, which is another traditional facility with a bamboo-thatched roof, an attic to store rice in, and a ground floor for storing other objects. SL2 had owned it for more than 65 years. The family used to own a Lumbung as well, but it was demolished with the introduction of normal rice cultivation in 1970s. In three cases from Jasi village (JS1, JS2, and JS3), the interviewees were exclusively normal rice farmers and had no memories of the Lumbung.
\nIn summary, these examples show that the Lumbung is evidently connected with local rice cultivation and plays an active role only in local rice production areas. According to the author’s research, all households still cultivating traditional local rice own a Lumbung (categories 1 and 2), and these Lumbungs are not just maintained but actively used, with regular maintenance and refurbishing. Some Lumbungs are even elaborately decorated or remodeled with new materials and structures. In households cultivating only local rice (category 1), Lumbungs are used the most intensively, and even new ones are being constructed. Farmers cultivating both local rice and normal rice (category 2) commonly store only local rice in Lumbungs, whereas normal rice is stored elsewhere, which demonstrates an obvious connection between the Lumbung and local rice. In contrast, in category 3, that is, those no longer cultivating local rice, Lumbungs seem to be treated as relics or mementos rather than essential parts of the agricultural routine; consequently, maintenance or refurbishment is rarely performed.
\nTherefore, the survival of the Lumbung seems closely related to the survival of local rice production. This view is reasonable from a historical perspective as well as the introduction of normal rice in the 1970s and 1980s coincides with the gradual decline in the popularity of the Lumbung.
\nNext, we discuss the fundamental difference between local rice and normal rice production routines and their connection to the Lumbung.
\nIt has already been mentioned that the harvesting methods of local rice and normal rice clearly differed, and other conspicuous differences also distinguished their production and processing routines.
\nFirst, the tools used in their production were typically different. The most obvious difference was in the harvesting tools. To harvest local rice, a traditional handmade picker called an Anggapan (Figure 10) was used. It is a tool with a hand-sized wooden body and an attached metal edge. Their shapes varied as they were made by the farmers themselves. In contrast, mass-produced sickles (Arit) were used for normal rice harvest. Thus, traditional tools and the production techniques were exclusively related to local rice. In addition, local rice was threshed and dehusked with a traditional mortar (large mortar: Katungan, small mortar: Lesung) and pestle (Luu) until 30–40 years ago (according to interviews with PN1, SL1, BB1, KS1, SB1, SL2). Stored local rice sheaves were brought out part by part for several days’ use and threshed and dehusked near a Lumbung. However, this work has now been almost completely replaced by mechanical threshing and dehusking by a machine owned by the village. The shift to this method occurred 30–40 years ago, at the same time as the introduction of normal rice, and indeed, some interviewees concurred that machine threshing and dehusking were introduced with normal rice (SL2, AB1).
\nTraditional handmade picker (Anggapan) for local rice.
Second, the organization of planting and harvesting also differed between the two rice types. On the one hand, both planting and harvesting of local rice were basically conducted on a family basis, and normally, fewer than five people worked together in the field. Sometimes, other farmers from the village joined to help in keeping with the traditional Gotong Royong system, in which farmers in a village help each other, and the reward is not money but tea/snacks and a share of the harvested rice (see also [19]). Even in these cases, however, the work is still done on a small scale. On the other hand, planting and harvesting of normal rice were done by a group of tenants led by a landlord, and harvesting, in particular, was done on a large scale. Normal rice was threshed immediately after the harvest in the field, and the threshed grains were packed into sacks, so around 10 people normally worked together for this. However, the households farming both local rice and normal rice (those typically found in Tabanan prefecture) used the same harvesting method for normal rice (harvesting and threshing conducted in sequence in the field), but this work was still done on a family basis on a small scale. This shows that the difference in work organization between local rice and normal rice is not a mere reflection of different harvesting methods but rather a conceptual divide: Local rice farmers today apply the family-based working style to the introduced normal rice as well.
\nIn connection with the work organization issue, the rhythm of annual work scheduling also seems to differ between local rice and normal rice farmers. Local rice farmers plant and harvest rice on a fixed schedule shared with other farmers in their village, whereas normal rice planting and harvesting are rather random in timing, even within in a single village (for details, see [15]). In addition, several ceremonies were traditionally performed at critical stages of the rice production cycle by the whole village [15]. While these ceremonies are mostly no longer observed, the village-shared scheduling of farming routines again seems to reflect a more traditional way of farming.
\nIn addition, the gender division in work responsibilities appeared to differ between the two types of rice, though information collected in this study on this area is still limited. Interviewee BB1 said “Rice harvesting has been the responsibility of women from the old times. But anyone can harvest normal rice.” Indeed, normal rice was normally harvested by a mixed group of men and women, according to the author’s observation, whereas almost all harvesting workers for local rice were women. Furthermore, all interviewees said that threshing and dehusking with a mortar and a pestle were exclusively women’s job, but this work division was discontinued when the threshing and dehusking machine was introduced. It is suggested that traditional gender roles could have also disappeared with the introduction of normal rice and new farming techniques.
\nThird, the author also conducted interviews regarding the farmers’ perceptions of the two rice types, and, again, clear differences emerged. When asked about local rice, all the interviewees gave positive comments such as “I love the taste” (JT1, JT3, SG1), “It contains a lot of vitamins” (SG2, SB1, KS1), “It is filling” (JT3), “It is not easily infected by germs” (AB1, JT3), and “It does not require much fertilizer” (AB1). It is intriguing that even AB1, who had already completely stopped producing local rice, made such comments. In contrast, the only positive, uniform comment all interviewees made about normal rice was “It can be harvested more quickly than local rice.” Obviously, local rice holds special value for Balinese farmers that normal rice does not despite the fact that normal rice production is now much more common across Bali. Apparently reflecting this perception, many farmers who cultivate both local and normal rice (such as JT1, JT3, BB1, SL2, GN2) clearly distinguished the uses of the two types of rice: Local rice was for home consumption, and normal rice was for selling outside the community. In fact, the standard price of local rice in the market was higher than that of normal rice. According to the interviewees the author interviewed in July 2006, local rice sold at 6000–7000 rupia per kilogram, whereas normal rice sold for 4500 rupia per kilogram. Therefore, for profit, it would be better to sell local rice and eat normal rice themselves, but in reality, farmers do the opposite. This also shows the strong mental attachment to local rice among Balinese farmers. Yet, it must be also noted that some people who were not originally farmers but started farming as a business have recently begun cultivating local rice to sell for profit (such as PN1). This suggests that the perceptions of Balinese rice farming are gradually shifting.
\nRelated to the perception issue, ritual practices related to rice farming also seemed to be influenced by the introduction of normal rice. Bali is called the “Island of the Gods” because of the numerous ceremonies and offerings for various occasions, which are deeply rooted in Balinese daily life. There are also a number of ceremonies associated with rice farming (see [15]), though some of these, particularly village-based ceremonies, are no longer regularly practiced, as mentioned above. Mantenin, the ceremony for rice granaries after a new harvest, is one of the farming ceremonies still practiced with certain regularity but only in households with a traditional Lumbung. Furthermore, these ceremonies are observed differently among such households, depending on the types of rice they cultivate. Basically, when a family cultivates local rice, they regularly hold Mantenin. Even in the case of SL2, who cultivated local rice but replaced the household’s Lumbung with another traditional storage facility (a Tukub), Mantenin was observed, albeit on a small scale. In cases of families cultivating both local and normal rice, while Mantenin was observed for harvests of both types of rice, the scale of the ceremony was smaller with normal rice (JT1, GN1). In households that owned Lumbungs but no longer cultivated local rice, the situation varied. SD1 reported using both a Lumbung and a modern storehouse for normal rice and observing Mantenin for both storage facilities. However, the ceremony was much simpler with the modern storehouse, as the author directly observed. GB1 reported a similar situation of using a Lumbung for normal rice, but they had stopped holding Mantenin. Instead, they conducted a ceremony for the goddess Dewi Sri, who is believed to reside in the Lumbung, twice a year regardless of the actual harvest timings. Furthermore, in the case of SL3, who owned a Lumbung but did not use it, they stopped holding Mantenin at the same time they stopped cultivating local rice. This suggests that the regular and proper observance of Mantenin depended on the presence of local rice production rather than that of a Lumbung itself. It is noted in [6] that Balinese people did not practice farming ceremonies for cash crops despite their deeply rooted tradition of farming ceremonies. The simplified Mantenin for normal rice may reflect the local perception of normal rice as more like a cash crop than a subsistence one.
\nIn addition, it is notable that the rice placed in a Lumbung as an offering for Dewi Suri was exclusively local rice, even when normal rice was stored in the Lumbung. Among those the author interviewed about the offering rice, WG1, BB1, JT1, and SB1 were local rice producers who stored only local rice in Lumbungs. In their cases, not only was local rice the offering but also the offering activities seemed comparatively frequent. WB1 headed a household that cultivated local rice only, and they offered fresh rice from every harvest, or every 6 months. BB1, JT1, and SB1 grew both local and normal rice but stored only the former in a Lumbung. BB1 reported adding fresh rice little by little to the existing offering rice during every local rice harvest. The rice added was picked just before starting the harvest. When the amount of the offering rice become too large, the whole offering rice pile was removed from the Lumbung and burnt, and the ash was scattered in the paddy field. In JT1’s Lumbung, approximately 1 kg of local rice was placed as an offering, and although the rice was not regularly replaced, it was regularly removed for the annual Mesabe ceremony offered at a temple and returned to the Lumbung after the ceremony. In SB1’s Lumbung, five or six sheaves of local rice were placed as an offering and kept there for a “long time” (SB1) but regularly taken out as offerings for various ceremonies.
\nKS1 was also a local and normal rice producer and, in contrast to other such farmers, stored both types of rice together in the Lumbung, as mentioned above. However, although both types of rice were stored in the Lumbung, rice for offerings in the Lumbung exclusively had to be local rice. The offering rice was replaced over a period of several years.
\nSD1 did not produce local rice at all and stored normal rice in the Lumbung. Nevertheless, SD1’s offering rice in the Lumbung was local rice, though quite an old stock. They stopped cultivating local rice in 1965, but following the will of the interviewee’s father, who had died “30 years ago” (SD1), a basket of local rice was kept in the Lumbung as an offering “till it crumbles away” (SD1). Again, the offering rice in these different cases showed that the custom is still a part of daily life for local rice farmers but only a traditional relic for normal rice farmers.
\nAbove all, it can be said that the introduction of normal rice not only resulted in the shift in the type of cultivated rice but also led to the erosion of traditional farming routines, tool making, work organization, gender-based labor divisions, and ritual practices. On the basis of these field research results, we now discuss the reasons for the disappearance/survival of the Lumbung and their meaning.
\nThe preceding discussion raises the question of the nature of connection between the Lumbung and local rice. The authors’ field research revealed that the routine of local rice production was significantly different from that of normal rice production. Local rice was harvested by a handmade tool, the Anggapan, and the sheaf was dried and stored in a Lumbung. The work was generally done on a family basis. On the other hand, normal rice was harvested by a mass-produced Arit, and the grains put into sacks and stored in a non-traditional storehouse. Because normal rice harvesting and threshing were carried out together, related labor tended to be on a larger scale and commonly involved a large group of tenant farmers. In addition, traditional gender-based divisions of labor and mutual supporting systems in communities were more visible in the local rice production area. Differences between the two types of rice were also reflected in the rituals surrounding rice storage. Specifically, traditional ceremonies and taboos were retained with the Lumbung but were not observed with normal rice storage facilities.
\nIn summary, it appears that agricultural activities associated with local and normal rice form coherent circles (Figure 11). All elements involved in local rice production, such as working style, utilities, and tools used, seem to be based on tradition. On the other hand, activities for normal rice production seem to be based on the concept of efficiency, positively introducing new styles of work. It is thus likely that the Lumbung can find a reason to exist as a part of the traditional cycle of local rice but cannot accommodate the efficiency circle of normal rice. This explains why Lumbungs started to disappear at the same time local rice cultivation disappeared, while their active use in local rice cultivation continues.
\nConceptual circles concerning local rice and normal rice.
Moreover, it seems that each of the two coherent circles is sustained by different shifts in the mentality of Balinese people. In interviews, farmers often expressed a strong mental attachment to local rice, even those who no longer cultivated it, describing it as “tasty,” “good,” “nutritious,” and so on. Almost all the farmers said that they would like to eat local rice as much as possible. In contrast, no value was attached to normal rice other than its being “productive.” Indeed, among farmers mix-cultivating local and normal rice, many said that they saved local rice for their own consumption and sold normal rice commercially. This reflects the perception of local rice as real food and normal rice as more of a cash crop. The general consensus was that because local rice is real food, it is produced in a more “real” way using traditional facilities and tools and proper ceremonies, whereas with people do not care about normal rice and thus change their production methods for greater efficiency.
\nAbove all, the traditional circle of local rice seems to be sustained by the Balinese people’s idea of “real rice production,” and the Lumbung, which is the most visible factor in the circle in the everyday landscape, symbolizes the idea. Therefore, if Lumbungs are properly protected and presented in the planning of the Balinese landscape, it can be usefully connected to the protection of Balinese farming culture and people’s motivation to farm.
\nIn modern-day Bali, the decrease of farmlands and populations under the pressure of the tourism industry is a serious problem. To promote rice farming, it would be effective to protect local rice cultivation and Lumbungs as part of the whole agricultural landscape and to encourage local people to work with these to affirm their own cultural identity.
\nAlthough rice terraces in Tabanan and Gianyar are among the most popular and highly promoted sightseeing spots, Lumbungs, which are an indispensable factor in traditional rice farming, are not sufficiently promoted or protected. Traditional and characteristic styles of store houses also exist in other parts of the world, such as the yam house in Papua New Guinea and the Takakura raised-floor granary in the Amami Oshima Island, Japan [18, 22]. Because of their distinctive shapes, these store houses are heavily promoted as symbols of local culture (e.g., the miniature models are sold as souvenirs, and the models are displayed in important places such as airports of the Amami Oshima Island, the Papua New Guinean Diet Building, and sightseeing spots of those areas). On the other hand, Bali’s Lumbungs are not as well promoted. At present, they are treated as cultural icons only in limited areas, such as the Lumbung display at some souvenir shops around Ubud and a new Lumbung-shaped hotel by the Bali Nature Land in Gunungsaridesa, Tabanan. It will be useful to promote the Lumbung as a Balinese cultural symbol more broadly because it can contribute much to those who consider agricultural work their own cultural identity and promote agriculture along with tourism.
\nThe field research was supported by the Grants-in-Aid of Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) below: Promotion Grant “Constructing Foundation for Japanese Archaeobotany: Data collection of Jomon and Yayoi excavated botanical remains and ethnographic research” (No. 17904030, Fiscal Year 2005, Principal Investigator: Aoi Hosoya), Grant-in-Aid (A) “Ritual and Landscape of Paddy Rice Culture in East Asian Villages” (Fiscal Year 2004–2007, Principal Investigator: Tadashi Ebisawa), and Young Scientists Starting-up Grant “Rethinking Prehistoric Subsistence Strategy in Japan Archipelago: Ethnographic research to construct foundation of archaeobotany” (No. 19820059, Fiscal Year 2007–2008, Principal Investigator: Aoi Hosoya)
\nThe author would also like to thank Professor Takuma Yogo (Waseda University) for his great help for the author to start research in Bali, Mr Nyoman Lai for his thorough work as a translator and driver, and Enago (
Pandemics and epidemics of infectious origin are large-scale outbreaks that can greatly increase morbidity and mortality globally or over a wide geographic area, respectively [1]. Pandemics have occurred throughout history and appear to be increasing in frequency in the last centuries. Noteworthy examples include the Black Death at the end of the Middle Ages, Spanish flu in 1918, the 2014 West Africa Ebola epidemic or the current COVID-19 pandemic. The direct impact of pandemics on health can be dramatic. These large outbreaks can disproportionally affect younger or active workers, but vulnerable populations such as the elderly are at a particular high-risk. Pandemics can cause acute, short-term as well as longer-term damage to economic growth due to public health efforts, health system expenditures, and aid to affected sectors. Evidence suggests that epidemics and pandemics can have significant social and political consequences too, by debilitating institutions, amplifying political tensions, stigmatizing minority populations, or encouraging sharp differences between social classes [2].
Outbreaks by respiratory ribonucleic acid (RNA) viruses such as influenza or coronaviruses entail the principal threat due to their ease of spreading among humans, their potential severity and recurrence. However, other RNA viruses such as flaviviruses (Zika) or filoviruses (Ebola) must be taken into consideration due to a great overall burden of morbidity and mortality [3]. Antiviral drugs can help mitigate a viral outbreak by reducing the disease in infected patients or their infectiousness. While these drugs can be very successful against some viruses (e.g. hepatitis C virus [HCV]) [4], they are not universally effective as exemplified in the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic [5]. Nowadays, having effective vaccines may be the only tool to reduce susceptibility to infection and thus, prevent the rate of virus spread [2].
Vaccination has dramatically decreased the burden of infectious diseases. Vaccines have saved hundreds of millions of lives over the years [6]. It has been estimated that approximately 103 million cases of childhood diseases were prevented in the United States through vaccination between 1924 and 2010 [7]. The eradication of smallpox in 1980 through vaccination is considered one of the crown accomplishments of medicine. Despite these achievements, effective vaccines have been developed against just over 30 pathogens among bacteria and viruses. There are many pathogens, including viruses such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), for which all efforts for vaccine development have failed so far. In addition, current available vaccines for worldwide important viral diseases like influenza are suboptimal, especially in the elderly, resulting in vulnerability among billions of at-risk populations [6]. On the other hand, having a new effective and safe vaccine in time to control highly contagious emerging viruses that cause epidemic or pandemic threats is an almost impossible task considering the timeframes for vaccine development. This includes preclinical and clinical research, its approval by the regulatory authorities, as well as its production and distribution [3].
Altogether, it has been postulated that one possibility of filling the gap between the appearance of a viral outbreak by an emerging pathogen and the availability of a specific vaccine is to take advantage of the heterologous protection of some existing vaccines, in order to increase the non-specific resistance of the host through trained immunity [8, 9].
Conventional (specific) anti-infectious vaccines are biological preparations containing live-attenuated or dead microorganisms, their antigens or nucleic acids encoding for them, designed for specific pathogens. The purpose of vaccination is to induce a long lasting adaptive immune response against key antigens able to confer host resistance for future encounters with the corresponding pathogen. Either the production of antibodies, generation of T helper/effector cells, or both, may play a critical role in such a resistance, which greatly depends on the type of pathogen, the route of entrance and the host-pathogen relationship (e.g., extracellular and/or intracellular) [10]. Successful vaccines are highly effective not only in inducing long-lasting immunity against disease-causing pathogens, but also in providing herd immunity to the community that substantially restricts the spread of infection [6].
Most of the vaccines available today have been developed empirically and used successfully long before their mechanism of action on the immune system was understood. Early protection is associated to induction of antigen-specific antibodies, being their quality (avidity, specificity, or neutralizing capacity) key factors for their efficacy. Long-term protection relies on the persistence of vaccine antibodies and availability of immune memory cells capable of rapid and effective reactivation with subsequent microbial exposure. On the other hand, T cells have a critical role in the induction of high affinity antibodies and immune memory. Furthermore, T cells have a direct role in protection conferred by some vaccines, including the tuberculosis Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine [11].
Vaccines using whole pathogens have been classically classified as either live attenuated or inactivated (killed). Subunit vaccines contain just selected antigens (e.g., proteins, polysaccharides). Recently, due to a growing availability of bioinformatics and sequencing tools, there has been an increase interest on so-called “rational” vaccine design approaches for subunit vaccines, such as the reverse vaccinology [12]. In this regard, modern vaccines include recombinant proteins or nucleic acids [13]. Rather than administering the antigen itself, DNA and mRNA vaccines targeting dendritic cells (DCs) encode the antigen of interest that will be produced by the vaccinated host, representing a new era in vaccinology [14]. In fact, the first RNA vaccine licensed for humans in Western countries has been recently developed for SARS-CoV-2.
As commented before, a vaccine response is linked to the induction of T and B cell specific responses to the antigens contained in the vaccine. This requires lymphocyte activation, proliferation and differentiation on specialized lymphoid tissues (e.g lymph nodes), where antigen presenting cells, like DCs for T cells or follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) for B cells, are present. Mature DCs are recruited into the T cell areas of lymph nodes from the periphery, e.g., at the site of injection of the vaccine. DCs express pattern recognition receptors (PRR) that recognize evolutionary conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are not contained in self-antigens and are identified as “danger signals” [15]. When immature DCs are exposed to the vaccine-derived antigens at the site of vaccination, they uptake them and become activated [16]. This activation will lead to their maturation with the expression of homing receptors at their surface, triggering DC migration to the draining lymph node through afferent lymphatic vessels, where the activation of T and B lymphocytes will occur. Mature DCs process the up-taken antigens and present them to naïve T cells associated to molecules of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) within the T cell areas of lymph nodes. On the other hand, unprocessed native antigens, either free or complexed with antibodies or complement, access the B cell areas of lymph nodes (lymphoid follicles) where they are captured by FDCs and displayed from their cell surface to the B cells. Antigen-specific B cells will rapidly proliferate forming a germinal center and differentiate into plasma cells producing low-affinity immunoglobulin (Ig) M antibodies. The B cells will then receive additional signals from activated T cells, undergoing isotype antibody switch from IgM to IgG or IgA and affinity maturation of the antibodies produced.
For a vaccine to be immunogenic enough, DC activation, that can be achieved by adjuvants, is essential. Live attenuated and inactivated whole-cell vaccines are considered “self-adjuvanted” as they naturally present sufficient PAMPs to activate innate immune cells, including DCs; thus, promoting a robust antigen-specific immune response. In contrast, subunit vaccines generally require different types of adjuvants to enhance and/or drive the immune response in the desired direction [15, 17].
Viral outbreaks appear when there is a sufficient number of susceptible individuals within a nearby population. Although susceptibility is a balance between host factors (high/low resistance) and pathogens (high/low virulence), in many cases it reflects a lack of prior contact with a given pathogen. In general, this is related to the emergence of new viruses or the lack of effective vaccines against known viruses. As pointed above, the development of effective vaccines is not an easy task against certain viruses. We are still lacking vaccines for some of the most lethal viral infections, including HIV and MERS-CoV, among others. These pathogens are difficult to tackle, as we do not fully understand their mechanisms to evade the immune system or how to elicit protective immunity against them [13]. However, encouraging progress is being made against these pathogens and there are currently several “pipeline vaccines” in development, such as RSV, universal influenza vaccine, and SARS-CoV-2 [18, 19, 20]. Apart of SARS-CoV-2 for obvious reasons in the current pandemic, there is an urgency to have a universal influenza vaccine that provides a broad and durable protection from influenza virus infection. Yet, the high level of antigenic diversity and variability, and antigenic drift in the surface antigens, enable these viruses to escape antibody-mediating neutralization [21]. On the other hand, there is a number of vaccines currently licensed, including the influenza A virus vaccine, that provide incomplete protection, especially in high-risk groups [22]. Mumps outbreaks observed in Ireland, United Kingdom and United States in vaccinated subjects with Measles Mumps Rubella (MMR) vaccine is another example [23]. Different factors have been postulated to contribute to mumps outbreak, including waning immunity and primary and secondary vaccine failure. Yet, their actual contribution is not fully understood [23].
Vaccine efficacy must consider different target populations as well. Adaptive immune response to vaccines may be limited in newborn and the elderly. Early in life, immune responses are dampened compared to adults [24, 25]. Neonates have underdeveloped germinal centers in lymph nodes and the spleen, and low expression of B cell receptors which in turn results in low levels of primary IgG responses to infections and vaccines [26]. As we age, our immune system undergoes age-related changes that lead to progressive deterioration of the innate and the adaptive immune responses, this is termed immunosenescence. The most common features of immunosenescence are short-lived memory responses, impaired response to new antigens, increased predisposition to autoimmune diseases and low-grade systemic inflammation (inflammaging) [27, 28]. Immunosenesence results in increased susceptibility to infections and deficient response to vaccination causing high hospitalization and mortality rates. For example, influenza vaccine efficiency has been reported to be 17–53% in the elderly, compared with the 70–90% efficacy in young adults [29]; and vaccination with Varicella zoster virus (VZV), also an important pathogen in elderly people, only partially prevents reactivation of herpes zoster [27].
If the difficulties listed above are outlined for existing or developing vaccines, quickly obtaining an effective vaccine to urgently control a new virus outbreak is almost an impossible task in the short-term as pointed above. This is well exemplified by the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine race pushed by the devastating COVID-19, with more than 100 vaccine candidates in the running. It is considered that no less than 1 year will last the time until the first licensed vaccine can provide protection in the best scenario [30]. This, in spite of greatly shortening the usual clinical development time and regulatory obstacles for a new vaccine and, therefore, without knowing its true performance and/or safety in the medium term compared to other authorized vaccines [31].
It has become evident from epidemiological, clinical and experimental data that some conventional whole-cell vaccines, like BCG and others, also provide resistance to infectious diseases not related with the specific pathogen targeted by the vaccine [32, 33, 34]. Much of these non-specific “heterologous” effects appear to depend on the activation of innate immune cells by the PAMPs contained naturally in these vaccines [10], although other mechanisms such as cross-reactive epitopes between different pathogens could also account for this protection in some cases [35].
Immunological memory, understood as the ability to “remember” past encounters with pathogens, has been classically attributed to the adaptive branch of the immune system exclusively, by virtue of the antigen-driven clonal expansion of T and B lymphocytes and exemplified by the mechanism of conventional specific vaccines pointed above. However, the notion that innate immunity was unable to induce immunological memory has been challenged in recent years, particularly from studies in organisms that lack adaptive immunity, such as plants or invertebrates, as well as early studies in mice lacking the adaptive immune system [8, 36]. Altogether, the term ‘trained immunity’ was coined to define an innate immune memory that lead the innate immune system to an enhanced response to secondary challenges [37]. Importantly, trained immunity seems to be underlying the heterologous effects of an increasing number of vaccines [38, 39, 40].
What is trained immunity? - Trained immunity is defined as the memory of the innate immune system, where an encounter with a first stimulus (e.g. a microbial insult) results in a subsequent long-term adaptation and enhanced non-specific response by innate immune cells against a secondary challenge (the same or unrelated), thus providing non-specific, broad-spectrum, long-term protection in case of infection [8, 9, 37, 41].
Which cells can be trained? - Trained immunity properties have been defined for distinct cell subsets of the innate immune system [9, 42], including natural killer (NK) cells and innate lymphoid cells [43]. Of note, training of myeloid cells [42], particularly monocytes and macrophages [44, 45], and more recently DCs [46, 47] and hematopoietic stem cells [48], have been extensively studied. Finally, the acquisition of this immunological memory has also been demonstrated to a lesser extent for non-immune cells [49].
How to get trained? - A wide variety of stimuli can train innate immune cells, particularly when considering monocytes and macrophages [9, 50]. Among infectious agents, live microorganisms such as the tuberculosis vaccine BCG [51], Candida spp [52] or viruses [53, 54]; bacterial components, such as flagellin, lipopolysaccharide, muramyl dipeptide [55], fungal components as β-glucan [52] or even helminth products [56]. In general, microbial ligands engaging some PRR, like C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs) are well established training inducers, whereas those engaging toll-like receptors (TLRs) may have opposite effects depending on the TLR type and concentration [55, 57]. Intriguingly, not only infectious agents but also endogenous inducers and metabolites such as oxidized low-density lipoprotein or mevalonate can induce trained immunity [50].
What hallmarks define trained immunity? - In contrast to adaptive immune responses, epigenetic reprogramming of transcriptional pathways — rather than gene recombination — mediates trained immunity. This training phenomenon comprises three key hallmarks that occur at the intracellular level: increased cytokine production upon rechallenge, changes in the metabolism and epigenetic reprogramming [9, 58, 59], which eventually support increased protection upon infection.
Among those cytokines whose production is augmented after re-exposure in trained cells, proinflammatory molecules such as tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β and interferon γ (IFN-γ) are fairly constant [45, 52, 55, 60, 61]. Modulation of IL-10 varies between studies [45, 52, 56, 62, 63]. A noted shift from oxidative phosphorylation to aerobic glycolysis (Warburg effect) is the main change in cellular metabolism during the induction trained immunity [64]. Moreover, glutaminolysis, cholesterol synthesis and the tricarboxylic acid cycle are non-redundant pathways required for trained immunity to take place [64, 65]. Epigenetic reprogramming, mainly mediated by histone modifications, is one of the bases for the long-lasting effect of trained immunity [8, 66, 67, 68]. Immune pathway activation and changes in metabolism serve as basis for epigenetic rewiring [65]. As a result, epigenetic modifications have been found at the level of important promoters for the training process, which makes chromatin more accessible and conditions gene expression patterns of trained cells upon stimulation with a secondary challenge [69].
As a result of the whole process, enhanced, broad-spectrum, non-specific protection mediated by innate immune cells is found upon infection. This cross-protection has been observed for a wide range of human pathogens including fungi [51, 52], parasites [70, 71] and different bacterial infections [72, 73, 74, 75]. Importantly, induction of trained immunity has been proved to be effective against viral infections including yellow fever [76], influenza A virus [77] and others [78, 79]. In this line, the induction of this phenomenon has been also proposed as a tool for reducing susceptibility to emergent SARS-CoV-2 infection, as will be described at the end of the chapter [78, 80].
How long does trained immunity last? – Trained immunity phenotypes have been observed for months and up to one year after the training insult. This was initially controversial, as trained immunity properties had been attributed to short-lived myeloid cells such as monocytes or DCs [38]. In this regard, several studies have shown that modulation of bone marrow progenitors is also an integral component of trained immunity, supporting the long-lasting effect of this phenomenon [9, 81]. In this way, trained immunity inducers [82, 83, 84, 85] would be able to reprogram and induce expansion of hematopoietic progenitors with a particular bias to the myeloid lineage. Thus, bone marrow-derived mature cells would be also trained [86], showing improved clearance of infection [83].
Complementary to progenitor reprogramming, peripheral trained immunity induction would take place in tissue-resident cells [9]. This is especially relevant at the mucosal level, where cells encounter most of the infectious training inducers. Alveolar macrophage (AM) memory was demonstrated following viral infection [87, 88]. Training of these long-living cells led to increase antimicrobial properties, independently of systemic immunity [87, 89]. This local training of AM was further reproduced following respiratory mucosal administration of tuberculosis vaccine, being crucial for Mycobacterium tuberculosis clearance [90]. On the other hand, training of NK cells lead to long-lived, self-renewing, stable expanded cells with memory-like properties, both in an antigen-dependent or independent manner [91, 92, 93]. Finally, it was also reported that self-renewing long-living skin epithelial stem cells exhibited local trained immunity, providing faster wound healing in primed mice than in naïve mice [94, 95].
Non-specific effects of vaccines have been extensively studied and reported over the last decades. Although trained innate cells could partially account for these effects, involvement of adaptive immunity has also been suggested [96]. An adaptive immune mechanism of non-specific effects could be heterologous immunity; vaccine antigens can give rise to T cell cross-reactivity against other antigens that may confer some protection against unrelated pathogens [96, 97].
However, innate immune cells constitute the bridge between the intrusion of microbial threats and the activation of adaptive immunity. As said before, following sensing of pathogens by PRRs, activated innate immune cells secrete different factors and act as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) to initiate activation of adaptive immunity [98]. Thus, it would not be unexpected that trained innate immune cells, within their acquired enhanced properties, would be able to induce stronger adaptive immune responses [39]. In this regard, BCG vaccine, a well-known trained immunity inducer, has shown to enhance the antibody titer and alter heterologous T cell responses against a wide range of vaccines and unrelated infections [99, 100, 101]. In different experimental models, BCG-mediated protection against viral and Plasmodium infections was abrogated in the absence of T cells. In these models, BCG vaccination has been mainly associated with modulation of CD4+ T helper (Th) 1 responses. Similar observations have been found in different clinical studies [99]. Of note, BCG vaccinated human volunteers displayed a long-lasting heterologous Th1 and Th17 response upon stimulation with unrelated pathogens and TLR-ligands [38]. To some extent, similar observations have been found in other vaccines such as diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP) or measles vaccine [99].
As said before, trained immunity properties have been recently described also for DCs. As being the most professional APCs, they emerge as crucial bridge for potentiating adaptive immune responses. In this sense, DCs with high immunostimulatory properties that enhance adaptive immune responses via IL-1β release had been described [102]. More recently, programmed memory DCs have shown to increase Th1/Th17 immunity and confer protection during cryptococcosis [46]. Finally, different polybacterial preparations of whole-cell inactivated bacteria, have shown to prime DCs and induce enhanced Th1, Th17 and IL-10 T cell responses against related and unrelated stimuli [103, 104]. This capability of modulating heterologous T cell responses by APCs have been also described to suppress pathogenic T cell immunity in experimental models of autoimmune encephalomyelitis [56].
As noted above, a hallmark of trained innate immune cells is the enhancement of some effector functions leading to increased non-specific resistance against a variety of pathogens. In this regard, β-glucan-trained monocytes show enhanced candidacidal activity and efficiently inhibit the C. albicans outgrowth [52]. Production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) has shown to be also affected by the induction of training. Thus, BCG-trained monocytes [45], β-glucan-trained macrophages [105] or β-glucan-trained neutrophils [106] produced increased amount of ROS following different challenges. Finally, increased phagocytosis and production of microbicidal molecules have been observed in β-glucan-trained macrophages [70, 105]. Mechanisms underlying this enhanced effector function could be an intrinsic cell reprogramming as consequence of the training, as well as be supported increased expression of different PRRs and surface molecules [45, 60, 87]. Altogether, these enhanced effector responses could improve pathogen clearance by increasing host resistance.
On the other hand, a substantial part of the adaptive immune response is directed at recruiting other effector cells from the innate immune system to eventually resolve an infection. Both T helper and B responding cells release cytokines, antibodies, and other mediators that activate monocytes, macrophages, NK cells or neutrophils to clear extracellular and intracellular pathogens [107]. Multiple studies have demonstrated the importance of IFN-γ-mediated priming in the activation of macrophages [108, 109], produced by CD4+ Th1 and CD8+ T cells [107]. In this sense, it has been previously demonstrated that adaptive T cells render innate macrophage memory via IFN-γ-dependent priming [87, 89]. Furthermore, a deep crosstalk between Th17 and neutrophils have been widely demonstrated, via production of IL-17 and other related cytokines [110].
Taken into account the potential role of trained innate cells in both the induction of adaptive and effector responses, a notable amplification loop in the global immune response could be considered (Figure 1).
Effect of trained immunity on ongoing immune responses. Induction of trained immunity allows trained cells to enhance adaptive immune responses and vice versa, final effector functions of trained cells can be further potentiated by enhanced adaptive responses.
Based on trained immunity pillars, a next generation of anti-infectious vaccines has been postulated, coined as ‘Trained Immunity-based Vaccines’ (TIbVs). TIbVs would be conceived to confer a broad protection far beyond the antigens they contain. By proper targeting of innate immune cells to promote trained immunity, a TIbV may confer non-specific resistance to unrelated pathogens while trained immunity memory is still present, in addition to the specific response given by intrinsic antigens [39].
A bona fide TIbV would consist of two main components: the trained immunity inducer(s) and the specific antigen(s). The antigen(s) mission is to generate an adaptive (specific) immune response as any conventional vaccine. The trained immunity inducers aim to promote the training of innate immune cells. This innate immune training would confer non-specific resistance against unrelated pathogens for a window of time (months) plus an enhanced adaptive immune response to the antigens present in the vaccine itself or from other sources (e.g., coming from eventual infections or bystander pathogens) [39].
Two additional concepts arise under the TIbV umbrella: i) trained immunity-based immunostimulants (TIbIs) and ii) trained-immunity-based adjuvants (TIbAs). The former (TIbIs) would induce the training of innate immune cells, so they would be ready-to-act against upcoming infections conferring broad non-specific protection while trained immunity is present, still enhancing adaptive immune responses following any eventual natural infection. The latter (TIbAs) would enhance adaptive responses against specific antigens incorporated either to the trained inducers as in bona fide TIbVs, or in a separated but combined vaccine [39] (Figure 2).
Different possibilities of trained immunity-based vaccines (TIbVs). Under the umbrella of trained immunity-based vaccines (TIbVs) different possibilities exist depending on their design and purpose. Bona fide TIbVs are those containing both trained immunity inducers and antigens in the same vaccine as occurs in conventional vaccines with trained immunity inducing properties. These vaccines show heterologous protection in addition to the specific response to the target antigen. TIbIs are intended just to confer non-specific protection by means of trained immunity induction beyond the intrinsic antigens they may contain. TIbAs are intended to enhance the specific response of other vaccines that are administered later, once trained immunity has been induced, or specific antigens combined in the same vaccine as any other adjuvant.
Following the above features, the TIbV concept can be applied to existing anti-infectious vaccines composed of microorganisms that show heterologous protection ascribed to trained immunity.
During the last decades, robust epidemiological data has demonstrated the role of certain vaccines leading to protection against heterologous infection with a high impact on overall mortality in children [111, 112, 113]. This protection could not only be explained by protection achieved by the target disease. Studies on MMR vaccination in high-income settings have also evidenced a reduction in non-target infections, particularly in respiratory infections [114]. A limitation for most of these epidemiological studies is that they do not identify the agent (viral, bacterium or parasite) responsible for the infection. These heterologous effects of certain vaccines conferring non-specific protection for a quite long time are believed to be largely due to non-specific stimulation of the innate immune system. It is not yet clear whether this is a direct reflection of trained immunity induction (i.e., acting as TIbVs) in every case. The fact that most of these vaccines use live-attenuated microorganisms, i.e., self-replicating agents, may suggest that a continuous stimulation of innate immune cells is necessary to obtain protection and/or to achieve a proper trained immunity for this purpose.
The BCG-Denmark strain was tested in randomized-controlled trials (RCT) in infants who normally did not receive the BCG vaccine at birth. These studies carried out in Guinea-Bissau demonstrated that vaccination at birth was associated with lower neonatal mortality, especially due to neonatal sepsis, respiratory infections, and fever [111, 115]. In these lines, a meta-analysis commissioned by the WHO concluded that BCG administration during the first month of life reduces all-cause mortality by 30% [116]. In these studies authors did not discriminate the etiology of infection (bacterial vs. virus); therefore, a reduction in viral infections may explain, to some extent, this result. However, in two studied carried out in India in neonates with BCG-Russian strain no such effect was observed [117]; suggesting that different immunological effect of diverse BCG strains may account for these discrepancies. A study carried out in infants to assess the impact of BCG vaccination on the incidence of RSV infection suggested a possible protective role for BCG vaccination against acute lower respiratory tract infection [118]. Other clinical studies have provided evidence suggesting a protective role for BCG on secondary viral infections [79]. In this regard, the impact of BCG vaccination on viral infection in human healthy volunteers has been assessed using the live attenuated yellow fever vaccine (YFV) as a model of viral human infection [76]. BCG vaccination induced epigenetic reprogramming in human monocytes, and these modifications correlated with IL-1β upregulation and the reduction of viremia, all these features being the hallmarks of trained immunity [76].
Similar protective effect of BCG was observed in several studies in elderly people regarding respiratory tract infections. BCG vaccination in subjects of 60–75 years old once a month for three consecutive months resulted in reduction of acute upper respiratory tract infection, concomitant to significant increase in IFN-γ and IL-10 compared with those receiving placebo [119]. A recent randomized trial of BCG vaccination was carried out in elderly patients (age ≥ 65 years) returning home from hospital admission, these subjects are at high risk to develop infections. The BCG vaccination increased the time to first infection (primary outcome) and decreased the incidence of a new infection [120]. Besides, results demonstrated that BCG vaccination resulted in lower number of infections of all causes, especially respiratory tract infections of probable viral origin, although no discrimination was made between respiratory tract infections caused by bacteria or viruses.
BCG has also been shown to enhance the response to vaccines directed against viral infections [79]. A clinical study in healthy volunteers demonstrated that BCG administration prior to influenza vaccination increases antibody titers against the 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) vaccine strain, concomitantly with an enhanced IFN-γ production to influenza antigens compared with the control group [121].
The cold-adapted, live attenuated influenza vaccine (CAIV) has been shown to provide non-specific cross-protection against RSV in an experimental model of infection [122].
In a randomized pilot study conducted in healthy volunteers receiving a trivalent influenza vaccine, cytokine responses against unrelated pathogens were observed [121]. During the 2003–2004 influenza A (H3N2) outbreak, an open-labeled, nonrandomized vaccine trial was carried out in children 5 to 18 years old. Subjects received either trivalent live attenuated or inactivated influenza vaccine. Live attenuated influenza vaccine but not trivalent inactivated vaccine was effective in children administered during influenza outbreak, despite the dominant circulating influenza virus was antigenically different from the vaccine strain [123].
Measles vaccine (MV) is among the live vaccines that have been shown to have beneficial effects reducing all-cause mortality [124]. Randomized clinical trials and observational studies from low-income countries have concluded that measles vaccination is associated with decreased overall mortality and morbidity [100]. However, a systematic review carried out by Higgins and colleagues has pointed out that most of these studies were considered at high risk of bias [116]. Nevertheless, MV seems to induce a transient suppressive effect on both the lymphoproliferative and innate response evaluated in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from children, with slight increase in innate immune response, measured by non-specific cytokine production [100]. It has been reported that following measles vaccination, the ex vivo production of both innate (IL-6 and TNF-α) and adaptive (IFN-γ and IL-2) cytokines decreases for 2 weeks, but levels of IL-2, IL-6 and IFN-γ are increased at day 30 post vaccination compared with baseline [125]. Differences in males and females have been reported, where girls seem to receive stronger beneficial effects. In this regard, a study of MV-specific innate responses following MMR vaccination found higher TNFα, IL-6 and IFN-α secretion, cytokines associated to trained immunity, in adolescent girls than boys [126].
There are currently only three countries where polio remains endemic. Thus, polio-free, high income countries are introducing the use of the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV). However, there are still many countries that use the live-attenuated oral polio vaccine (OPV). Despite current WHO policy to replace OPV by IPV, there is epidemiological evidence that supports that replacing OPV by IPV might have an impact on overall mortality [96], since OPV has shown strong non-specific beneficial effects even in settings where the incidence of the targeted infection is low. In this regard, campaigns to eliminate polio in West Africa have been associated with lower child mortality rates [127].
As pointed above, most of the vaccines described so far showing non-specific heterologous effects contain live-attenuated microorganisms. Nevertheless, fully inactivated bacterial vaccines have also been described conferring protection against viral infections, and some of them for a fairly long period of time. Interestingly, these vaccines are mucosal preparations that are administered daily for long periods of time (weeks/months) rather than single, or seldom, doses used in live attenuated vaccines. Thus, it seems that the much longer administration of these inactivated mucosal vaccines resembles the effect achieved by live vaccines on heterologous protection associated to trained immunity (Figure 3).
Trained immunity window by self-replicating and inactivated TIbVs. Trained immunity-based vaccines (TIbVs) containing live-attenuated self-replicating microorganisms (e.g. BCG) may require fewer administrations to induce an adequate trained immunity window of sufficient intensity, quality and/or duration than vaccines with dead microorganisms. Fully-inactivated TIbVs can be enhanced to induce trained immunity with a multiple dose schedule (e.g. MV130).
These vaccines are used for the prevention of recurrent infections in susceptible subjects, mainly associated to the respiratory and urogenital tracts [128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134]. Since they target infections occurring in these tracts, their administration is generally through mucosal tissues to obtain a better mucosal response [135, 136].
MV130 is a sublingual vaccine used to prevent recurrent respiratory tract infections [128, 129] containing inactivated whole-cell bacteria that are common pathogens in the airways. Its ability immunomodulating DCs has been addressed experimentally in vitro and in vivo. MV130 triggers the release of cytokines ascribed to trained immunity in different setting, including TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 [103, 137, 138]. Sublingual immunization of mice with MV130 induces a systemic Th1/Th17 and IL-10 enhanced responses against unrelated antigens [103]. Similar enhancement was shown in patients treated with MV130 where an increased T cell response to flu antigens were described [128]. MV130 was successfully used in infants with recurrent wheezing, a condition triggered in most cases by viral infections. It is noteworthy that the protective effect was also shown 6 months after discontinuation of treatment, which points to a long-lasting effect that fits with the memory ascribed to trained immunity (Nieto et al., under review). In this regard, MV130 has been shown to induce trained immunity and to confer protection against experimental virus infections (Brandi et al., under review). Recent studies have assessed the clinical benefit of MV130 as a TIbV in the context of recurrent respiratory infections in vulnerable populations such as patients with different primary and secondary immunodeficiencies showing a reduced rate of respiratory infections [130, 139] (Ochoa-Grullón et al., in press).
Although not considered vaccines but immunostimulants, these bacterial preparations are, like MV130, used for the prevention of recurrent respiratory infections. OM-85, one of the best studied, is composed of chemically treated bacterial lysates for oral administration, acting through the gastro-intestinal mucosa. OM-85 has been shown to be effective in experimental viral infections [140] and in children with recurrent wheezing [141], a condition triggered by viruses as noted above. OM-85 stimulates the release of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6 by macrophages [142], typical of trained immunity induction, as well as Th1 cytokines including IFN-γ [143]. It is not known, however, the role of trained immunity in their mechanism of protection. A recent study conducted in infants, the observed protection against respiratory infections under OM-85 treatment stopped when treatment was discontinued [144], which may point against the memory ascribed to trained immunity.
The non-specific mechanism of TIbVs against widely differing pathogens associated to the induction of trained immunity can be exploited clinically. This makes TIbVs as a ready-to-act tool to tackle disease outbreaks from different angles where conventional specific vaccines have proven their limitations:
Newly emerging disease outbreaks, with no conventional vaccines available. Even in the presence of therapeutic options, vaccines are the best tool to prevent infections. However, even with worldwide efforts, getting a vaccine to the public takes time. In addition, side effects, dosing issues, and manufacturing problems can all cause delays [3]. Herein, using available TIbVs could mitigate the devastating consequences of emergent outbreaks by means of non-specific protection, until a suitable specific vaccine is available.
Newly emerging disease outbreaks, first coming vaccines with partial efficacy. Even if a vaccine gets available to the market, conventional strategies might raise some issues. The unpredictable identity of largely unknown emerging pathogens, the lack of appropriate experimental animal models, and the time for faster developing may give raise to an upcoming vaccine with no full efficacy [3]. On the other hand, limitations of current vaccines, such as mumps, also include a low efficacy resulting from an unacceptable drop in the immune response over time, requiring re-immunization [145]. In these contexts, the administration of a TIbV prior to the specific vaccine may enhance the response to the latter (111).
Re-emerging disease outbreaks, pathogens with high mutation rates and loss of vaccine efficacy. Mutations are the building blocks of evolution in any organism. Viruses are among the fastest evolving entities, especially RNA viruses such as influenza. Implications in conventional vaccine design are numerous, as a high mutation rate makes it hard to design a vaccine that is universally effective across many years. As a result, this makes a vaccine effective for shorter and raises the need for yearly vaccination programs [22, 146]. Since the underlying mechanism of TIbVs extend well beyond their nominal antigens and have a broad-spectrum of protection, TIbVs could overcome the troublesome of highly specific vaccines that promote antigen variant switching [147].
Disease outbreaks in vulnerable populations. During infectious disease outbreaks, vulnerable populations are usually disproportionately affected due to an interplay of immunological, epidemiological, and medical factors, which leads to sub-optimal or even under-vaccination [148]. This is well exemplified in the elderly population, where successful vaccination against important infectious pathogens which cause high morbidity and mortality represents a growing public health priority. Age-related immunosenescence and ‘inflammaging’ have been postulated as underlying mechanisms responsible for decreased response and high mortality, including during COVID-19 pandemic or influenza season [80, 149]. Therefore, more potent vaccines are needed. In this regard, the induction of trained immunity by the use of TIbVs is proposed to overcome the immune dysfunction found in these individuals [28]. Thus, elderly has been proposed as one of the groups to benefit from the use of TIbVs, including severe COVID-19 disease, with the aim of potentiating the immunogenicity of their vaccination [80]. Moreover, some types of immunodeficiencies or immunosuppression may benefit from TIbVs. These formulations, by means of tackling both branches of immunity, especially the innate compartment, may be an achievable alternative to reinforce protection or optimize immunogenicity of vaccination in this population [130, 139].
Altogether, harnessing the TIbV concept has been suggested as a crucial step in future vaccine development and implementation, because a wide range of clinical applications may benefit to some extent from their use [150].
Despite the tremendous financial and scientific effort invested to rapidly obtain a prophylactic vaccine against SARS-CoV-2, only the first one has been licensed in December 2020. Although this means less than a year since the declaration of the pandemic by the WHO, which is an unprecedented achievement, in the meantime, two pandemic waves of COVID-19 and more than 1.5 million deaths have been declared worldwide. Therefore, alternative strategies have been considered to fill the gap until a safe and effective vaccine is available. As noted earlier in this chapter, TIbVs can play an important role for this purpose by increasing host resistance to other pathogens, including viruses.
A bunch of recent studies have been published supporting the role of certain vaccines, including BCG, OPV and measles, as a possible successful strategy to reduce susceptibility and severity to SARS-CoV-2 through trained immunity induction [80, 151, 152]. Thus, clinical trials are currently being conducted to find out the contribution of trained immunity as a preventive tool in the context of COVID-19 pandemics [153]. In a prospective observational trial, 255 MMR vaccinated subjects were followed searching for COVID-19 cases, thirty-six presented COVID-19 but all with a remarkable mild course [154]. Recent studies have also suggested a potential benefit of influenza vaccine on the susceptibility and the outcome of certain infections including SARS-CoV-2. In this sense, a particular attention has been focused on a high-risk population, the elderly. In a study conducted in Italy, influenza vaccination in people aged 65 and over was associated with a reduced spread and a less severe clinical expression of COVID-19 [155].
Finally, in addition to the potential role of TIbV conferring resistance against SARS-CoV-2 infection, they can eventually be used to increase efficacy of specific anti-COVID-19 vaccines, when available, especially in vulnerable population. In this sense, implications of vaccination route and mucosal immunity have also been raised as a key aspect in the development of safe and effective prophylaxis interventions against SARS-CoV-2. Most formulations in development are parentally administered; only a few COVID-19 vaccine candidates are administered by mucosal routes. Still, studies indicate that even if mucosal immunization against coronavirus does not confer sterilizing immunity, the ability to induce anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgA responses in the airways may prevent virus spread to the lung and avoid respiratory distress [156]. In this regard, mucosal TIbVs could enhance the mucosal response of specific COVID-19 vaccines acting as TIbAs by combining them as pointed above in those especially vulnerable subjects.
Viral outbreaks can cause epidemics and pandemics if the route of transmission allows for the rapid virus spread. Given the ease of travel and the global exchange of potential transmitting agents, these situations will be increasingly frequent in the future. Preventing the spread of a virus outbreak caused by a highly contagious agent is not easy in the absence of effective therapies or preventive measures. Although the development of effective prophylactic vaccines specific for the threatening virus is the final goal when possible, this requires a minimum time of almost a year in the best possible scenario. Meanwhile, the consequences of the spread of a deadly virus can be devastating, as it is exemplified during the COVID-19 pandemic. This scenario may also take place in the case of re-emerging viruses tackled by partial efficacious vaccines. In such situations, harnessing the heterologous non-specific protection of some existing vaccines with a known safety track record is an interesting possibility. This protection may be critical for vulnerable subjects and/or for highly exposed individuals, like healthcare workers.
Non-specific protection of some vaccines is thought to be mainly dependent on their effect on the innate immune system. Increasing evidence gathered over the past few years points that innate immune cells show memory-like features when properly activated. This memory termed “trained immunity” has been associated with the non-specific protection of vaccines. The concept of “trained immunity-based vaccine” (TIbV) has been drawn to exploit the potential of trained immunity in designing novel vaccines or to redefine bacterial-derived preparations conferring broad protection against widely differing pathogens. As trained immunity may have implications on the adaptive immune response and vice-versa, its potential to provide enhanced immune responses is quite broad whether considering natural infections or following vaccination.
Taken advantage of the current COVID-19 pandemic, a number of clinical trials have been launched with putative TIbVs in order to address protection in highly exposed subjects. The results are eagerly expected as these initiatives may be considered as a proof-of-concept supporting their use in future epidemics/pandemics to fill the gap until a specific vaccine is available. Nevertheless, as trained immunity can be achieved by different inducers, it is unlikely to obtain the same degree of protection, duration, etc. for all of them, which may also depend on the biological behavior and the route of transmission of the threatening pathogen. As in most instances rapidly spreading viruses are airborne and primarily infect the mucosa of the airway tract, induction of trained immunity at the local mucosal level can confer a more adequate protection. This may be an opportunity for mucosal TIbVs as compared to those given parenterally.
Trained immunity may justify heterologous protection of vaccines, help to explain their underlying mechanisms, open avenues for next generation of vaccines, or be proposed to tackle outbreaks by new pathogens as described here. However, this is an emerging field that requires more clinical data before being a reality in the clinical practice; not only to be used against infectious outbreaks, but to fight against recurrent infections in vulnerable subjects for whom no effective vaccines are yet available.
JLS is the founder and CEO of Inmunotek SL, Spain, a pharmaceutical company that manufactures bacterial vaccines. LC and PS-L are employees of Inmunotek.
As a company committed to the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the OAI Metadata Harvesting Protocol (OAI-PMH Version 2.0).
',metaTitle:"OAI-PMH",metaDescription:"As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the OAI Metadata Harvesting Protocol (OAI-PMH Version 2.0).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/oai-pmh",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The OAI-PMH (Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting) is used to govern the collection of metadata descriptions and enables other archives to access our database. The Protocol has been developed by the Open Archives Initiative, based on ensuring interoperability standards in order to ease and promote broader and more efficient dissemination of information within the scientific community.
\\n\\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
\\n\\nAs a Data Provider, metadata for published Chapters and Journal Articles are available via our interface at the base URL:http://www.intechopen.com/oai/?.
\\n\\nREQUESTS
\\n\\nYou can find out more about the Protocol by visiting the Open Archives website. For additional questions please contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nDATABASES
\\n\\nDatabases, repositories and search engines that provide services based on metadata harvested using the OAI metadata harvesting protocol include:
\\n\\nBASE - Bielefeld Academic Search Engine
\\n\\nOne of the world's most powerful search engines, used primarily for academic Open Access web resources.
\\n\\n\\n\\nA search engine for online catalogues of publications from all over the world.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The OAI-PMH (Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting) is used to govern the collection of metadata descriptions and enables other archives to access our database. The Protocol has been developed by the Open Archives Initiative, based on ensuring interoperability standards in order to ease and promote broader and more efficient dissemination of information within the scientific community.
\n\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
\n\nAs a Data Provider, metadata for published Chapters and Journal Articles are available via our interface at the base URL:http://www.intechopen.com/oai/?.
\n\nREQUESTS
\n\nYou can find out more about the Protocol by visiting the Open Archives website. For additional questions please contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\nDATABASES
\n\nDatabases, repositories and search engines that provide services based on metadata harvested using the OAI metadata harvesting protocol include:
\n\nBASE - Bielefeld Academic Search Engine
\n\nOne of the world's most powerful search engines, used primarily for academic Open Access web resources.
\n\n\n\nA search engine for online catalogues of publications from all over the world.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10367},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118188},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10652",title:"Visual Object Tracking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"96f3ee634a7ba49fa195e50475412af4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10653",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"753812dbb9a6f6b57645431063114f6c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10653.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10655",title:"Motion Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"809b5e290cf2dade9e7e0a5ae0ef3df0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10655.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10657",title:"Service Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f81b9eea6eb3f9af984031b7af35588",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10673",title:"The Psychology of Trust",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f6cac41fd145f718ac0866264499cc8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10673.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10675",title:"Hydrostatics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c86c2fa9f835d4ad5e7efd8b01921866",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10675.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85eac84b173d785f989522397616124e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f63db439474a574454a66894db8b394c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10679",title:"Mass Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2dae91102099b1a07be1a36a68852829",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10679.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10684",title:"Biorefineries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"23962c6b77348bcbf247c673d34562f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10684.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:187},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1125",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",slug:"rehabilitation-robotics",parent:{title:"Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation",slug:"physical-medicine-and-rehabilitation"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:40,numberOfWosCitations:157,numberOfCrossrefCitations:114,numberOfDimensionsCitations:205,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"rehabilitation-robotics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7375",title:"Medical Robotics",subtitle:"New Achievements",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f24f06bf5980967a1ea36afe23fc0b02",slug:"medical-robotics-new-achievements",bookSignature:"Serdar Küçük and Abdullah Erdem Canda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7375.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"5424",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Küçük",slug:"serdar-kucuk",fullName:"Serdar Küçük"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5250",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e0eaf6765b0dd908ec6a9e888254cdcb",slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",bookSignature:"Sashi S Kommu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5250.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9902",title:"Dr.",name:"Sashi S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Kommu",slug:"sashi-s.-kommu",fullName:"Sashi S. Kommu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"572",doi:"10.5772/5175",title:"Upper-Limb Robotic Rehabilitation Exoskeleton: Tremor Suppression",slug:"upper-limb_robotic_rehabilitation_exoskeleton__tremor_suppression",totalDownloads:4050,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:27,book:{slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"J.L. Pons, E. Rocon, A.F. Ruiz and J.C. Moreno",authors:null},{id:"556",doi:"10.5772/5159",title:"The Rehabilitation Robots FRIEND-I & II: Daily Life Independency through Semi-Autonomous Task-Execution",slug:"the_rehabilitation_robots_friend-i___ii__daily_life_independency_through_semi-autonomous_task-execut",totalDownloads:2965,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:25,book:{slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Christian Martens, Oliver Prenzel and Axel Graeser",authors:null},{id:"555",doi:"10.5772/5158",title:'A 3-D Rehabilitation System for Upper Limbs "EMUL", and a 6-DOF Rehabilitation System "Robotherapist" and Other Rehabilitation Systems with High Safety',slug:"a_3-d_rehabilitation_system_for_upper_limbs_emul_and_a_6-dof",totalDownloads:2568,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,book:{slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Junji Furusho and Takehito Kikuchi",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69924",title:"An Active Exoskeleton Called P.I.G.R.O. Designed for Unloaded Robotic Neurorehabilitation Training",slug:"an-active-exoskeleton-called-p-i-g-r-o-designed-for-unloaded-robotic-neurorehabilitation-training",totalDownloads:282,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"medical-robotics-new-achievements",title:"Medical Robotics",fullTitle:"Medical Robotics - New Achievements"},signatures:"Guido Belforte, Terenziano Raparelli, Gabriella Eula, Silvia Sirolli, Silvia Appendino, Giuliano Carlo Geminiani, Elisabetta Geda, Marina Zettin, Roberta Virgilio and Katiuscia Sacco",authors:[{id:"14069",title:"PhD.",name:"Gabriella",middleName:null,surname:"Eula",slug:"gabriella-eula",fullName:"Gabriella Eula"},{id:"14077",title:"Prof.",name:"Terenziano",middleName:null,surname:"Raparelli",slug:"terenziano-raparelli",fullName:"Terenziano Raparelli"},{id:"61056",title:"Mr.",name:"Katiuscia",middleName:null,surname:"Sacco",slug:"katiuscia-sacco",fullName:"Katiuscia Sacco"},{id:"313089",title:"Prof.",name:"Guido",middleName:null,surname:"Belforte",slug:"guido-belforte",fullName:"Guido Belforte"},{id:"313094",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Sirolli",slug:"silvia-sirolli",fullName:"Silvia Sirolli"},{id:"313095",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Appendino",slug:"silvia-appendino",fullName:"Silvia Appendino"},{id:"313096",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuliano Carlo",middleName:null,surname:"Geminiani",slug:"giuliano-carlo-geminiani",fullName:"Giuliano Carlo Geminiani"},{id:"313097",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabetta",middleName:null,surname:"Geda",slug:"elisabetta-geda",fullName:"Elisabetta Geda"},{id:"313098",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Zettin",slug:"marina-zettin",fullName:"Marina Zettin"},{id:"313101",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberta",middleName:null,surname:"Virgilio",slug:"roberta-virgilio",fullName:"Roberta Virgilio"}]},{id:"553",title:"The Evolution and Ergonomics of Robotic-Assisted Surgical Systems",slug:"the_evolution_and_ergonomics_of_robotic-assisted_surgical_systems",totalDownloads:3516,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Oussama Elhage, Ben Challacombe, Declan Murphy Mohammed S. Khan and Prokar Dasgupta",authors:null},{id:"562",title:"Applications of a Fluidic Artificial Hand in the Field of Rehabilitation",slug:"applications_of_a_fluidic_artificial_hand_in_the_field_of_rehabilitation",totalDownloads:3146,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Artem Kargov, Oleg Ivlev, Christian Pylatiuk, Tamim Asfour, Stefan Schulz, Axel Graeser, Ruediger Dillmann and Georg Bretthauer",authors:null},{id:"560",title:"Task-oriented and Purposeful Robot-Assisted Therapy",slug:"task-oriented_and_purposeful_robot-assisted_therapy",totalDownloads:3956,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Michelle J. Johnson, Kimberly J. Wisneski, John Anderson, Dominic Nathan, Elaine Strachota, Judith Kosasih, Jayne Johnston and and Roger O. Smith",authors:null},{id:"575",title:"Stair Gait Classification from Kinematic Sensors",slug:"stair_gait_classification_from_kinematic_sensors",totalDownloads:4576,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Wolfgang Svensson and Ulf Holmberg",authors:null},{id:"549",title:"Biomechanical Constraints in the Design of Robotic Systems for Tremor Suppression",slug:"biomechanical_constraints_in_the_design_of_robotic_systems_for_tremor_suppression",totalDownloads:1956,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Juan-Manuel Belda-Lois, Alvaro Page, Jose-Maria Baydal-Bertomeu Rakel Poveda and Ricard Barbera",authors:null},{id:"551",title:"Designing Safety-Critical Rehabilitation Robots",slug:"designing_safety-critical_rehabilitation_robots",totalDownloads:2348,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Stephen Roderick and Craig Carignan",authors:null},{id:"548",title:"Robotic Solutions in Pediatric Rehabilitation",slug:"robotic_solutions_in_pediatric_rehabilitation",totalDownloads:3182,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Michael Bailey-Van Kuren",authors:null},{id:"564",title:"Cyberthosis: Rehabilitation Robotics With Controlled Electrical Muscle Stimulation",slug:"cyberthosis__rehabilitation_robotics_with_controlled_electrical_muscle_stimulation",totalDownloads:2932,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Patrick Metrailler, Roland Brodard, Yves Stauffer, Reymond Clavel and Rolf Frischknecht",authors:null},{id:"578",title:"An Embedded Control Platform of a Continuous Passive Motion Machine for Injured Fingers",slug:"an_embedded_control_platform_of_a_continuous_passive_motion_machine_for_injured_fingers",totalDownloads:3063,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Zhang Fuxiang",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"rehabilitation-robotics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/alternative-crops-and-cropping-systems/traditional-raised-floor-granary-and-rice-production-cycle-in-bali-past-present-and-future-of-baline",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"alternative-crops-and-cropping-systems",chapter:"traditional-raised-floor-granary-and-rice-production-cycle-in-bali-past-present-and-future-of-baline"},fullPath:"/books/alternative-crops-and-cropping-systems/traditional-raised-floor-granary-and-rice-production-cycle-in-bali-past-present-and-future-of-baline",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()