\r\n\tThis edited volume will contain chapters dealing with the different aspects of basic and applied chemical ecology. Scientists working in diverse fields of chemical ecology would contribute high impact articles on chemical ecology and semiochemistry of plants and animals. This book aims to be a rich source of information for the students, teachers and researchers working in this special field of ecological science.
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1. Introduction
Although the primary function of agricultural lands is to supply commodity outputs such as food, fibre and other raw materials for industrial use, these lands are also a source of many outputs that are not commodities. The non-commodity products are jointly produced and exhibit public goods[1] - characteristics. Although more commonly known as externalities of agricultural production, together with the primary production functions are referred to as ‘multifunctionality’ [1]. Now there is a wide recognition of the services provided by various types of ecosystems [2].
Multifunctionality is important to recognize in the context of human well-being, as it depends on goods and services provided by nature in association with other forms of capital resources. These other capitals include: human capital[1] -, social capital[1] -, and manufactured capital[1] - (Figure 1). In fact, humanity has always depended on the services provided by the biosphere and its ecosystems – natural capital [3]. In order to achieve sustainability, all types of capital are required, although natural capital and economic capital are complementary, and cannot be substituted for each other. Particularly, some of the natural capital cannot even be substituted for any other type of capital (human and manufactured capitals). Furthermore, in some cases, substituting some natural capital may be economically impractical.
An ecosystem service is some attribute of an ecosystem which provides value to humankind [4]. These services are usually related to some attribute of the ecosystem but there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence of functions to service. Ecosystems as a provider of goods and services have a value to humankind. These values measure the importance of ecosystem services to members of the society.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [3] has suggested four major types of ecosystem services: provisioning services, cultural services, regulating services, and supporting services that are related to well-being of humans (Figure 2). Provisioning services are the products that the people obtain from the ecosystem. Goods such as food, fibre, water, genetic resources, and others are typical examples. Regulating services include regulation of air quality, climate, water quality, pollination, biological control of diseases, among others. These services are related to productivity of human and non-human systems, and thus have a value. Cultural services result in non-monetary benefits to humans through recreation, aesthetics, and related services. Supporting services are those that are needed for the generation of all the above three types of ecosystem services. Their impact on people is not direct but indirect through these three services.
Figure 1.
Types of capital resources relevant to human well-being
Figure 2.
Ecosystems services and ecological goods and services from natural capital (Adapted from [2])
Common awareness of concerning trends in climate change and other negative externalities of human activities has recently attracted some attention towards the importance of ecosystem goods and services. Communities and governments have begun to recognize the services that are offered by nature [3]. In response to this need of societies, many researchers and research foundations have started assessing and valuating ecosystems goods and services. Reviewing such studies may shed a light on our way to recognizing the essential goods and services of grasslands in Canada and provide a better understanding of values of these goods and services for society.
Grasslands are an important part of the rural landscape and are defined as semi-arid areas dominated by herbaceous and shrub vegetation [5]. Worldwide, grasslands fall into three categories, namely, prairie, steppe, and savanna, and cover approximately 3,500 million hectares [6]. On the Canadian prairies, grasslands cover approximately 11 million hectares, extending across southern parts of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, and encompass five prairie eco-regions; Dry Mixed Grass, Mixed Grass, Foothills Fescue, Parkland Northern Fescue, and Tall Grass prairie [7]. Approximately 90% of the Canadian prairie grassland area is grazed by domestic livestock and wildlife [7].
Grasslands have long played a multifunctional role, as a source of feed for wild and domestic herbivores [8,9], and have provided a range of other goods and services (non-commodity goods) such as: management of water resources, carbon sequestration, nitrogen fixation, and recreation [8]. Grasslands are a sustainable source of producing high quality meat and milk [10] and are expected to play an increasingly important role in energy production. The use of perennial grass species, such as switchgrass for ethanol production, could reduce the use of fossil fuels (a positive move in the context of climate change) while also providing producers with an avenue for diversification [11]. Grasslands also play an important role in carbon sequestration. The substantial stocks of carbon sequestered in temperate grassland ecosystems are located largely below ground in the extensive root system of grasses [12, 13]. Perennial forages improve soil quality by reducing erosion and increasing nutrient content of the soil [14]. Grasslands breakdown plant litter and animal wastes and purify water, thus ensuring land and water sustainability and health for future generations [15]. The high plant species richness makes grasslands an ideal habitat for diverse animal populations [8]. Perennial grass cover is important for recreational activities, such as hunting and wildlife viewing [14]. Grasslands provide areas for species reproduction and refuge. For example, ducks need 40% of the landscape as grass in order to achieve nesting success [16]. Grassland flora and fauna are an important genetic resource and provide material for animal and plant breeding and biotechnology [13]. Grasslands are also an important source of biochemical substances that have important medicinal uses [17]. Animal products, such as skins and shells, and flowers from grasslands are important ornamental resources [18]. Thus, the multifunctional role of grasslands provides an important argument for the protection of grasslands as either managed or natural ecosystems.
Ecosystem services through generating ecological goods and services have a value to society, as they contribute to human welfare, both directly and indirectly, and to economic viability through the sustainability of healthy ecosystems [19]. Most goods and services provided by grasslands are not paid for directly and are often overlooked in land-use decision-making processes, resulting in either over-exploitation or inefficient use of grasslands [9]. Establishing an economic value for grassland goods and services increases perception of the importance of grasslands and can lead to improvement in land use in terms of improved grassland management, conservation and protection [9]. Valuation of grasslands can also form the basis for grassland damage assessment and compensation systems [20]. One report on temperate grasslands [20] notes that, although the role of goods and services from temperate grasslands has long been identified as important, the quantitative valuation of such Goods services has not received much attention. A similar sentiment has been expressed through a survey of producers (farmers and ranchers), where recognition of grassland ecosystem services by producers was found to be low – only 25% had awareness of the term ‘ecological goods and services’ while another 22% indicated some familiarity [21]. To fill this void in past research, this study was undertaken to (a) provide a strategy for assessing the economic value of goods and services from grasslands, (b) identify variables that influence the value of grassland goods and services, and (c) identify gaps in knowledge which require more information to improve the valuation process.
2. Methods
This study was conducted in the Province of Manitoba in Canada. Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan make up the Canadian Prairie Provinces. The Canadian prairies stretch from south-eastern Manitoba to northwestern Alberta [6].
2.1. Concept of value of good/service
Since ecosystem services are a combination of market-based commodities (food and fiber) and non-commodity based goods, their valuation needs to be comprehensive to capture all of these values. Two types of economic valuation are most commonly used: market price method, and non-market valuation. These methods are based on three types of approaches: (1) Revealed willingness to pay; (2) Imputed willingness to pay; and (3) Expressed willingness to pay [22].
Market-based valuation is an example of revealed willingness to pay. People’s willingness to pay results in a demand function for that good/service. Here consumers have revealed a preference captured by the curve DD’ for a given ecosystem service or ecological good or service (Figure 3). If that good or service is sold through a market, there would be a price established through interaction between buyers and sellers, shown by PP’. Similarly the supplier of that good/service would incur certain expenses and willing to offer that good/service only if it covers its cost of producing it. Adding all the sellers’ offers for that good/service results in a supply curve for it marked as SS’. The area DP’P is the benefit to the consumers, called consumer surplus and can be used as the value of that good/service through the use of that ecological good/service. In contrast, the area PP’S is the value accruing to producers of that good/service (shaded are in Figure 3), and is equated to be the value of that good/service to them. In the context of grassland, the commercial products are not consumed directly by people, the only relevant value is that to producers.
Figure 3.
Concept of Consumer and Producers Value of a good/service
Unfortunately many ecological goods and services are not traded through market place. However, for valuation purposes, it is not necessary that an ecosystem service be bought and sold in a market in order to measure its monetary value. What is required under these circumstances is a measure of how much of their purchasing power (dollars) people are willing to give up to enjoy that ecological good/service. Using their revealed willingness to pay, one can use techniques such as Hedonic Pricing method, Travel Cost method or Productivity method to establish a value of the good/service in question. Here the value of a good/service is determined indirectly from the data generated by the marketplace capturing actual market based transactions.
If market based transactions are not available, ecosystem valuation can be based on two other types of approaches: Imputed willingness to pay, and Expressed willingness to pay. These approaches are typically classified as non-market valuation. In the first approach value of an ecosystem service can be imputed from the actions people are willing to take to avoid the adverse effects that could be experienced if that service was lost. Damager Cost Avoided, Replacement cost, and substitute cost are common methods included in this category of non-market valuation. The expressed willingness to pay is through asking people directly what they are willing to pay for an ecosystem service based on a hypothetical scenario. Contingent valuation and Contingent choice methods are included in this category. To undertake non-market valuation, data need to be collected through primary surveys which tends to be costly.
2.2. Process of valuation of Manitoba grassland ecosystem services
The valuation process of grassland goods and services involved several steps. Firstly, detailed information on Manitoba grasslands was collected based on grass type (native, naturalized or tame/seeded), land use (hay, pasture and other) and ownership (private, crown and non-governmental organizations). Tame/seeded grassland was defined as those grasslands which have been cultivated within the past eight years, and are frequently used as part of the crop rotation [23]. Naturalized grasslands are areas that were under cultivation or were seeded to forage and subsequently reverted to grassland, approximately eight to 15 years since last cultivation [23]. Native grasslands were defined as areas that have never been broken, or have been re-established as grassland for such a length of time that native conditions have been restored, more than 15 years since last cultivation [23]. Collection of detailed information on grasslands was followed by identification and valuation of goods and services that could be expected from Manitoba grasslands, as listed in Table 1.
Although a longer list of ecosystem services has been proposed in literature, 21 ecosystem services were identified as being relevant to grassland ecosystems. Of these ten services were excluded from estimation for reasons related to either lack of importance or non-availability of information. The remaining eleven services included all four ecosystem functions. Provisioning services included forage production from grassland, a commercial product for which markets do exist. Under regulating services, six services were identified, including carbon sequestration (thereby affecting gas regulation function), nutrient cycling, water regulation, soil erosion control, soil formation, and water treatment. Recreation and aesthetics was identified as the major cultural service of the grassland ecosystem, whereas refugium services were identified under the supporting services category.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tEcosystem Function\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tDetailed goods and services\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tRelevant to grassland in Manitoba\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tValuation method\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tProvisioning services\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Forage production
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Market price
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Genetic resources
\n\t\t\t
Nil to ignorable
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Medicinal resources
\n\t\t\t
No data
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Raw materials
\n\t\t\t
No data
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ornamental resources
\n\t\t\t
No data
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tRegulation services\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Carbon sequestration (Gas Regulation)
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Market price –based on carbon trading
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Climate regulation
\n\t\t\t
Nil to ignorable (maybe some local effect, no data)
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Disturbance prevention
\n\t\t\t
Nil to ignorable
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Water regulation
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Value transfer
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Water filtration/water supply
\n\t\t\t
Nil to ignorable
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Soil retention/erosion control
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Value transfer
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Soil formation
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Value transfer
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Nutrient cycling
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Market price of accumulated Nitrogen
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Waste treatment
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Value transfer
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pollination
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
30% of market price of food production of grassland relies on pollination
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Biological control
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Value transfer
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSupporting services\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Wildlife habitat (refugium function)
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Value transfer
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Nursery function
\n\t\t\t
Nil to ignorable
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCultural services\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Recreation and aesthetics
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Value transfer
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Cultural and artistic information
\n\t\t\t
No data
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Spiritual and historic information
\n\t\t\t
No data
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Goods and services from natural ecosystems and methodology of estimation adopted.
Two methods were used to value identified goods and services from the Manitoba grassland ecosystem. A market-based approach was used for goods and services that are traded in the open market. For goods and services that are not traded on the open market, studies that have attempted to value ecosystem goods and services in similar eco-zones were reviewed, and using benefit transfer, values obtained from these studies were applied to non-market goods and services in Manitoba grasslands. Benefit transfer, which in other cases is called environmental value transfer, is related to the process by which a value or demand function of a characteristic or a set of environmental characteristics obtained from each valuation method in a location (original location) can be used to evaluate environmental values in another location (location transfer).
Using the estimates obtained from previous studies to evaluate the costs (or benefits) of new projects, environmental laws or other policies, is common to cost-benefit analysis and public decision making. Benefit transfer approaches are generally recommended and applied by the various institutes for economic valuation of environmental effects. Moreover, because of resource constraints and cost effectiveness, benefit transfer is recommended [24]. In fact, analysts can rarely provide the conditions and facilities of original studies. Therefore, when performing a complete study, transfer studies may provide an economical method to guidance of a researcher [25].
Sometimes the benefit transfer approach is not essentially considered as a methodology, but simply considered as transfer of estimates from one location to other location [25]. Some authors [26] believe that transfer studies involve all advanced skills required to the main research. Therefore, transfer analysts should have high judgment and innovation power of manipulating the existing data and provide results to decision-makers. They should also clearly show the relative roles of data and assumptions and help decision makers to understand the intrinsic uncertainty resources of estimates. Despite the widespread use of this approach, few professional studies exist on how the transfer of data and estimates should be done for grassland ecosystems.
In this study, the benefit transfer approach was used but was also subjected to a sensitivity analysis to account for market price fluctuations or uncertainties in benefit transfer values from other studies. The total economic value of Manitoba grasslands was obtained by summing economic values of market and non-market goods and services.
2.3. Market-based valuation
Under market-based valuation, a link between the environmental (ecosystem) service (and ecological goods and services generated by it) and society’s preference is developed. If the good is commercial in nature, it is bought and sold through the marketplace. Its demand reflects social preference (or value). If market price for a certain grassland service in the marketplace exists, the price is directly used to evaluate the goods and services [27]. Market-based valuation was used to assess the value of perennial forage production, carbon sequestration, and nutrient cycling.
2.3.1. Perennial forage production
Data on grassland area, forage yield and forage prices were obtained from consultations with individuals with in-depth knowledge of Manitoba grasslands (Bill Gardiner, MAFRI; Glenn Friesen, MAFRI; Rick Andrews, Ducks Unlimited Canada; Wybo Vanderschuit, Riding Mountain National Park) and other sources [23]. The yield of native and naturalized hay was estimated to be 3.92 t/ha/yr whereas that for tame/seeded hay was estimated to be 5.91 t/ha/yr (Glenn Friesen, Manitoba Provincial Forage Specialist, personal communication). The tame/seeded hay yield is the average of the alfalfa and alfalfa-grass yields. It was assumed that grass hay yields were comparable to alfalfa/grass hay yields. The yield for forage seed production (0.38 t/ha/yr) was the average of the yield in 2005 and 2006 [24]. The price (2004-2008 average) utilized for native and naturalized hay was $0.042/kg (Glenn Friesen, personal communication). Grass and alfalfa/grass hay grown on tame/seeded grasslands was valued at $0.055/kg and $0.075/kg, respectively. Forage seed was valued at $1.10/kg (average price for 2005-2006). Native and naturalized pasture was valued at $34.37 ha/yr and tame/seeded pasture was valued at $101.33 ha/yr (Glenn Friesen, personal communication). Energy production, an important direct value of forages, was not included in the valuation of Manitoba grasslands as there are currently no facilities for biofuel production from grass in Manitoba. In fact, perennial grasses that can be used to produce cellulosic ethanol are not yet grown on a commercial scale [11].
2.3.2. Carbon sequestration
The economic value of carbon sequestration was based on sequestration estimates from the Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems (PAGE) [5]. The PAGE carbon sequestration estimate for grasslands ranges from 100 to 300 t/ha/yr, with mid-latitude grasslands having lower carbon sequestration than high- and low-latitude grasslands [9]. This study adopted a carbon sequestration value of 105 t/ha/yr for valuation of Manitoba grasslands, as suggested to be appropriate for Canadian grasslands [28]. Due to lack of data on rate of carbon sequestration for various types of grasslands, the same level was assumed for all grasslands in Manitoba. Total amount of carbon sequestered by Manitoba grasslands was estimated at 250.5 million t/yr (Table 2). About 64% of this amount is sequestered by tame or seeded pastures, and another 35% by native pastures in the province.
Valuation of the carbon sequestered by grasslands is not a simple matter since it is not traded in a fully functional market place. A close approximation to a market is the Chicago Climate Exchange where in 2009 carbon was trading at US$2.10 per ton. Converting it using current exchange rates leads a value of $2.67 per ton in Canadian funds. This resulted in a total value of $668.8 million. However, during the past, exchange rates between US and Canadian dollar have fluctuated. In addition trading value of carbon at the Chicago Climate Exchange has also fluctuated from $1.60 to $2.15 per ton in US dollar. To see the change in the value of carbon sequestration, a sensitivity analysis was undertaken. The value of carbon sequestration ranged from $508 to $683 million per year (Table 3). On account of higher level of carbon sequestration, value of non-native grassland was higher ranging from $326 to $438/ha/yr compared to native grassland. If one argues that rate of sequestration or its unit value as shown in these tables can vary, further sensitivity analysis needs to be undertaken, which is presented in a later section.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tExchange rate\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTrading Price\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTotal value\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tValue (Can $/ha/yr)\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t2009 US $/ton\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t2009 Can $/ton\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t2009 Can $\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAll grasslands\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tExcluding native grasslands\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Base scenario
\n\t\t\t
1.2718
\n\t\t\t
2.10
\n\t\t\t
2.67
\n\t\t\t
668,819,781
\n\t\t\t
280.35
\n\t\t\t
428.91
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Lower C price scenario
\n\t\t\t
1.2718
\n\t\t\t
1.601\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2.03
\n\t\t\t
508,503,429
\n\t\t\t
213.15
\n\t\t\t
326.10
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Higher C price scenario
\n\t\t\t
1.2718
\n\t\t\t
2.152\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2.73
\n\t\t\t
683,849,439
\n\t\t\t
286.65
\n\t\t\t
438.55
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Strong Canadian dollar
\n\t\t\t
0.99842\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2.10
\n\t\t\t
2.10
\n\t\t\t
526,038,030
\n\t\t\t
220.50
\n\t\t\t
337.35
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
Sensitivity analysis of total value of carbon sequestration in Manitoba grasslands.
1Lowest trading price between 2003-2010 at Chicago Climate Exchange.
2The exchange rate on April 21, 2010.
2.3.3. Nutrient cycling
The value of increasing soil nitrogen was determined as a product of estimated amount of nitrogen accumulation in the soil, area of grassland and the value of the accumulated nitrogen. Utilizing a 10:1 ratio of carbon to nitrogen accumulation [29] resulted in accumulation of 0 t nitrogen ha/yr in native grassland, and 0.047 and 0.056 t nitrogen ha/yr in naturalized and tame/seeded grassland, respectively. The accumulated nitrogen was valued at $1.32/kg, the value of urea fertilizer. This resulted in a value for nutrient cycling of $81.47/ha.
2.4. Non-market-based valuation
Most goods and services in grasslands are not traded in the marketplace and require valuation techniques that reflect their existence outside the market system [27]. Techniques for the valuation of such non-market goods and services have been discussed above. Most of these techniques are time-consuming and require considerable resources to complete. Selection of benefit transfer as the method of choice in this study was based on cost-effectiveness and previous application in the valuation of ecosystem goods and services. Benefit transfer is widely applied in the economic valuation of non-market services, often as part of cost-benefit analysis of a new project that has environmental impacts. A legitimate use of benefit transfer should meet the following conditions: a) population of both regions should be similar, b) goods and services in all locations should have about the same characteristics, and, c) initial estimated values should be current because preferences change over time [30].
The benefit transfer values utilized in this study were obtained mainly from two studies [14, 24] and are listed in Table 4. The first study [14] used four case studies from different agricultural regions across Canada to assess the ecological goods and services provided by the natural capital within settled areas. The case studies estimated that the net value of conserving or restoring natural areas varied from $65/ha/yr in the Upper Assiniboine River Basin in eastern Saskatchewan and western Manitoba, $142/ha/yr in the Mill River Watershed in Prince Edward Island, to $195/ha/yr in the Grand River Watershed of Ontario. The transfer values from this study [14] were, in turn, obtained from a report [31]. The second study [24] undertook an evaluation of the economic value of New Jersey’s wetlands, marine ecosystems, forests, urban green space, beaches, agricultural land, open fresh water and riparian buffers. The transfer values from this study were only used in situations where no Canadian values exist.
Other important sources of benefit transfer values relevant to the Canadian prairies [32-34] were consulted and appropriate values were selected for this study. Benefit transfer was used to value water regulation, waste treatment, soil erosion control, soil formation, recreation, and wildlife habitat (refugium). The value of water regulation in Manitoba grasslands was calculated from total grassland area (2,385,660 ha) using the benefit transfer value of $5.14/ha/yr (Table 4). Benefit transfer values for soil formation ($10.70/ha/yr) and erosion control ($13.34/ha/yr) were transferred from two studies [24, 35] (Table 4). Waste treatment was estimated utilizing a benefit transfer value of $64.52/ha/yr (Table 4). The value of cultural services was transferred from reference [14]. The value of refugium was transferred from a study [34] which estimated willingness to pay for prairie grassland conservation for burrow owl (an endangered species) in Southern Alberta at approximately $34.07/rural household (Table 4).
In determining the preferred value to be transferred to this study, values derived from a similar eco-zone of grassland in Manitoba were used. In general, values transferred from North America grassland were preferred to the global grassland. Similarly, Canadian grassland values were preferred over the North America grassland. If a choice was available, values from Western Canada were preferred over those from Eastern Canada.
3. Results
Grasslands of various types occupy approximately 2.4 million ha of Manitoba lands (Table 5). Of this area, 64.5% is tame/seeded grassland and 34.6% is native grasslands. Naturalized grasslands make up less than 1% of the total grassland area. Almost half of Manitoba grasslands (54%) are utilized for pasture, while another 44% are utilized for hay production. Most of the grassland area in Manitoba (90%) is privately-owned (Table 5).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSingle value $/ha/yr\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tValue range $/ha/yr\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tNotes\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSource\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tWater regulation\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5.14
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Improved water quality-decreased sediment in Upper Assiniboine River Basin
Assuming that cropland provides no habitat to game species of wildlife, the average hunting value for lands in permanent cover is $11.91/ha/yr, an upper bound is $23.72/ha/yr. Revenue related to wildlife viewing is about $5.14/ha/yr.
Summary of grassland goods and services values1 reported in other studies and utilized in benefit transfer.
1Preferred transfer values were derived from a similar eco-zone as grassland in Manitoba. North America grassland values were preferred to global grassland values.
3.1. Market-based valuation
3.1.1. Perennial forage production
Most perennial forage production in Manitoba occurs on native (826,334 ha) or tame/seeded grasslands (1,484,999 ha), with only small amounts of naturalized grassland (18,211 ha) being utilized for this purpose (Table 5). Forages in Manitoba are primarily utilized for grazing and preserved forage (hay and silage) but may also be used for forage seed production (Table 5). The total value of forage production in Manitoba was approximately $524 million/yr (Table 6). Sensitivity analysis of the volatility of forage prices indicated that a 20% increase in the price of hay would increase the value of seeded forage or pasture to $629.5 million/yr. An equivalent decrease in the price of hay would reduce the value of seeded forage/pastures to $419.7 million/yr.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tGrassland Type\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tOwnership\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tGrassland use (ha)\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSub-total\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tHay\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPasture\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tOther uses2\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Native Grassland3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Private
\n\t\t\t
82,537
\n\t\t\t
577,754
\n\t\t\t
1376\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
660,428
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Crown
\n\t\t\t
10,114
\n\t\t\t
152,777
\n\t\t\t
2,999
\n\t\t\t
165,889
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NGO
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
17
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
17
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSub-total\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t826,334\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Naturalized Grassland4\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Private
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
1376\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
137
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Crown
\n\t\t\t
4,098
\n\t\t\t
14,113
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
18,211
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NGO
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
1,578
\n\t\t\t
1,578
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSub-total\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t19,926\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Tame/seeded Grassland5\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Private
\n\t\t\t
945,308
\n\t\t\t
498,312
\n\t\t\t
53,551
\n\t\t\t
1,497,171
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Crown
\n\t\t\t
5,008
\n\t\t\t
36,371
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
41,379
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NGO
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
8506\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
850
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSub-total\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t1,539,400\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tGrand total\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t2,385,660\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 5.
Area of Manitoba grasslands by grass type, use and ownership1.
1Compiled from several sources [24,35-37] and personal communication with Bill Gardiner (MAFRI), Glenn Friesen (MAFRI), Rick Andrews (Ducks Unlimited Canada), and Wybo Vanderschuit (Riding Mountain National Park).
2Mainly forage seed production, green space and aesthetic appeal.
3Grasslands which have been cultivated within the past eight years and are frequently used as part of the crop rotation.
4Areas that were under cultivation or were seeded to forage and subsequently reverted to grassland (approximately eight to 15 years since last cultivation).
5Areas that have never been broken, or have been re-established as grassland for such a length of time that native conditions have been restored (> 15 yr since last cultivation).
6Conservation purposes (Rick Andrews, Ducks Unlimited, Canada, personal communication).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tProduction\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tGrassland type2\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tHay\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPasture\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tForage seed\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTotal\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Native
\n\t\t\t
$16,767,375
\n\t\t\t
$25,109,664
\n\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Naturalized
\n\t\t\t
$88,984
\n\t\t\t
$485,111
\n\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Tame/Seeded
\n\t\t\t
$402,814,401
\n\t\t\t
$54,181,756
\n\t\t\t
$25,166,927
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Total
\n\t\t\t
$419,670,760
\n\t\t\t
$79,776,531
\n\t\t\t
$25,166,927
\n\t\t\t
$524,614,218
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 6.
Total annual value1 of forage and seed production from Manitoba grasslands.
1Areas of different grassland types are shown in Table 5.
With 19,926 ha of naturalized grassland and 1,539,400 ha of tame/seeded grassland in Manitoba, carbon sequestration in Manitoba grassland was estimated at approximately 250.5 million tons annually (Table 5). The average value of carbon sequestration was $280.35/ha/yr for all types of grasses (Table 7). Alternative values that were estimated to account for fluctuations in Canadian-US dollar exchange showed that the total value of carbon sequestration could range from approximately $508.5 million/yr to $683.8 million/yr (Table 7). The average value of carbon sequestration for all grasslands was approximately $213.35 to $286.65/ha/yr or, if native grassland is excluded, $326 to $439/ha/yr (Table 7). The value of carbon sequestration in this study lies between estimates of $267/ha/yr and $469/ha/yr reported in other studies [28,38].
Sensitivity analysis of the total value of carbon sequestration.
3.1.3. Nutrient cycling
Perennial forages can improve land productivity by increasing the nutrient content of soil. For example, inclusion of legumes in pastures will increase soil nitrogen due fixed atmospheric nitrogen being added to the soil [39]. The increase could also be due to the ability of forages to access nitrate from soil depths of more than one meter below the surface. With a total of 1,559,326 ha of naturalized and tame/seeded grassland, the total value of nutrient cycling was estimated at $127.04 million/yr. If the price of nitrogen fluctuates by 20%, the total value of nitrogen will vary between $101.63 and $152.45 million/yr (Table 8).
The annual value of goods and services from Manitoba grasslands.
1Estimates are based on 2,385,660 ha of grassland except nutrient cycling (1,559,325 ha).
3.2. Non-market-based valuation
The value of water regulation was estimated to be $12.26 million/yr or $5.14/ha/yr (Table 8). The total value for erosion control in Manitoba grasslands was assessed to be $32 million/yr or $13/ha/yr while soil formation by grasslands was estimated to be $26 million/yr (Table 8). Based on 2,385,660 ha of grassland, waste treatment in Manitoba grasslands was valued at approximately $153.92 million/yr (Table 8). Cultural services from grasslands include recreation, aesthetics, and cultural information. Perennial forage cover increases recreational activities such as hunting and wildlife viewing [14]. In riparian areas, perennial forage cover can increase the use of an area for fishing, camping, swimming, and canoeing [14]. Based on approximately 2.4 million ha of grassland and benefit transfer value of $17.05/ha/yr (Table 4), the value of cultural services from Manitoba grasslands was estimated to be $40.67 million/yr (Table 8). With 321,750 rural households in Manitoba in 2006, the total value for conserving the burrowing owl in Manitoba grasslands was estimated to be $10.96 million/yr or approximately $4.60/ha/yr (Table 4). Using these estimates, the total willingness to pay by Manitoba rural households was estimated to range from $0.25 to $0.46 million/yr or $0.20 to 0.37/ha/yr (Table 8).
3.3. Total value of Manitoba grasslands
The total economic value of Manitoba grasslands varies between $1,204 million/yr ($527/ha/yr) to $2,056 million/yr ($883/ha/yr; Table 8). This range is relatively narrow as a consequence of the sensitivity analysis conducted. The scope of research for values that were derived from benefit transfer was limited to those studies conducted in a similar eco-zone to Manitoba grasslands. Further, a 20% price fluctuation in prices was assumed for values that are derived using market price. The economic value of Manitoba grasslands obtained in this study should be taken as a minimum value which is expected to change as information specific to Manitoba grasslands becomes available.
Among all the estimated values of various ecosystem services, besides the commercial (market-based) values, carbon sequestration is an important ecosystem service (Figure 4). About a third of the total value of Manitoba grasslands is through production of forages and related goods. Under most expected conditions, the ecosystem service most important for this ecosystem is carbon sequestration. At this time, 42% of total value is credited to this service. The third most important ecosystem service for the Manitoba grassland is from waste treatment.
Figure 4.
Distribution of total economic value of Manitoba grassland by type of ecosystem service
4. Discussion
This study set out to provide a strategy for estimating the economic value of goods and services from Manitoba grasslands by utilizing market and non-market based approaches. Assigning value to goods and services such as perennial forage production and carbon sequestration that are traded in the open market is a matter of identifying prevailing market values. The market value of goods and services such as forage production will depend on the quality of the goods and services. The value of pasture, for example, should take into account season, pasture plant species, and pasture management since such factors will influence pasture quality. For hay, quality characteristics including nutrient content (protein and energy) as well as organoleptic characteristics, such as color, mold, and dust, to assign value would lead to a more objective price determination. Such a pricing system would give a range in prices for forage production. The strategy of assigning value based on forage quality was not employed in the current study due to inadequate information. Carbon sequestration is influenced by location of the grasslands [28] and by management practices that are imposed on the grasslands [10]. Carbon sequestration estimates reported in these studies were not measured directly and the differences in estimates among studies suggest a need for direct carbon sequestration measurements in grasslands.
Benefit transfer was used to valuate non-market goods and services in Manitoba grasslands. Challenges in applying benefit transfer analysis are mainly related to difficulties in identifying and selecting suitable studies for comparison, in combining data and in transferring data [40, 41]. It is also important to note that most studies are not designed with the aim of transferring [40, 41]. A more complex approach, which we did not use in this study, is to use meta-analysis to systematically analyze the impact of a study on estimated values [26]. The use of the benefit transfer method is not universally accepted and has been questioned. In most cases, the original studies will have valued small changes in specific and localized components of individual ecosystems, which makes it incorrect to extrapolate value estimates obtained from these localized scenarios to a much larger scale [26]. Benefit transfer has also been criticized as being dirty, quick and ugly [42]. Some economists do not consider benefit transfer as a methodology, but simply consider it as transfer of estimates from one location to other location [25]. Others (43) consider the transfer of valuations from one ecological and social context to another as dangerous because ecosystem values are highly dependent on location. Until more appropriate methods are utilized to value ecosystem goods and services, benefit transfer will likely remain the method of choice.
Genetic, medicinal, and ornamental resources, water supply and cultural services, such as cultural and artistic information, and spiritual and historic information were not included in the valuation of Manitoba grasslands due to lack of information. Such goods and services tend to be site-specific and values obtained within the region of interest, in this case, prairie grasslands, would be more appropriate. Since no valuation studies for these goods and services were identified, primary data collection would be the only method to collect such information. Techniques that can be utilized to value these goods and services have been suggested [27]. A market-based valuation (direct market pricing) is appropriate to value genetic, medicinal, and ornamental resources, water supply, and nursery function although other techniques such as factor income, replacement cost, and contingent valuation can also be applied [27]. For cultural services, techniques such as contingent valuation, travel cost, and hedonic pricing are important [27]. With growing emphasis on valuation of grassland goods and services, there is a need to conduct specific studies that will provide values for such goods and services. Such information will further improve the value of grasslands, thus further emphasizing the importance of maintaining productive grasslands.
5. Conclusion
Grasslands have a multi-functional role, providing food for herbivores as well as other goods and services such as carbon sequestration, nature conservation, and recreation. The goods and services provided by grasslands have direct and indirect monetary value. This study was conducted to a) provide a strategy for assessing the economic value of goods and services from grasslands, b) identify variables that influence the value of grassland goods and services, and c) identify gaps in knowledge which require more information to improve the valuation process. The study was conducted in three stages. Firstly, information regarding grasslands in the Province of Manitoba, Canada was collected based on grass type (native, naturalized or tame/seeded), land use (hay, pasture and other) and ownership (private, crown and non-governmental organizations). This was followed by identification of goods and services that could be expected from these grasslands. The identified goods and services were then valuated. Market prices were utilized to value grassland goods and services where transactions occur in the marketplace while the benefit transfer method was used to infer monetary values of those goods and services that are not typically sold through the marketplace. Sensitivity analysis was performed to account for market price fluctuation or uncertainties in benefit transfer. The total economic value of Manitoba grasslands was derived by summing economic values of goods and services for which supporting data was available.
Although the study identified 21 goods and services provided by Manitoba grasslands, only perennial forage production, carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, water regulation, waste treatment, soil erosion control, soil formation, recreation, and wildlife habitat were included in the valuation. Genetic, medicinal, and ornamental resources, water supply, nursery function, biological value, and cultural services, while important, could not be assigned monetary value due to lack of data. The total economic value of Manitoba grasslands was estimated to be approximately $1,436 million/yr ($630 ha/yr), with a range of $1,203 million/yr ($527 ha/yr) to $1,880 million/yr ($810 ha/yr). The two most highly valued goods and services in Manitoba grasslands were perennial forage production and carbon sequestration. Multidisciplinary research, focusing on economic valuation of non-market goods and services will provide more relevant transfer values than those obtained from other ecosystems and will greatly improve estimates of grassland value.
This study shows that goods and services in complex ecosystems such as temperate grasslands can be valued using market and non-market based valuation methods. Improvements in market-based valuation can be accomplished by local research that will more precisely quantify goods and services such as carbon sequestration and assess forage value based on forage quality. The major challenge in valuation of grasslands lies in the development and use of methods to improve valuation of non-market goods and services. While benefit transfer, as utilized in this study, gives estimates of the value of non-market goods and services, local grassland research will be required to ground truth benefit transfer values. The limited number of studies reporting values of non-market goods and services in North America made use of benefit transfer in the current study somewhat complex. This study could not access information on the value of goods and services such as genetic, medicinal, and ornamental resources, water supply, and cultural services, which will be required for a complete valuation of grasslands. Ultimately, the valuation of grasslands will require economic values of goods and services obtained directly from grasslands. In this respect, investment into multidisciplinary research focusing on the economic valuation of grassland goods and services will provide more relevant transfer values than those obtained from other ecosystems and will greatly improve grassland valuation.
Acknowledgments
This study was funded by Beef Cattle Research Council (BCRC), Manitoba Beef Producers, Canada Manitoba Agri-food Research and Development Initiative (ARDI), MITACS, GreenCover, and Manitoba Rural Adaptation Council (MRAC). The authors would like to extend sincere appreciation to Bill Gardner (MAFRI), Glen Friesen (MAFRI), Don Flaten (University of Manitoba), Rick Andrews (Ducks Unlimited), and Wybo Vanderschuit (Riding Mountain National Park) for sharing their insights on Manitoba grasslands.
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Carbon sequestration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"Table 8.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2. Non-market-based valuation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.3. Total value of Manitoba grasslands",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Abler D. Multifunctionality in agriculture: evaluating the degree of jointness, policy implications. In Organization for Economic Cooperation. Multifunctionality in Agriculture: Evaluating the degree of Jointness, Policy Implications. Paris. 2008.'},{id:"B2",body:'Woodward RT, Wui, Y. The economic value of wetlands services: a meta-analysis. 2001;37:257-270.'},{id:"B3",body:'Alcamo J. [et al.]. Ecosystems and human wellbeing. A report of the conceptual framework working group of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Washington, DC: Island Press. 2003.'},{id:"B4",body:'Edward-Jones G. Davies B. 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Sandoval and Diego Balza",authors:[{id:"81600",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"L",surname:"Vásquez",fullName:"Carlos Vásquez",slug:"carlos-vasquez"},{id:"172855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yelitza",middleName:null,surname:"Colmenarez",fullName:"Yelitza Colmenarez",slug:"yelitza-colmenarez"},{id:"172856",title:"Dr.",name:"Neicy",middleName:null,surname:"Valera",fullName:"Neicy Valera",slug:"neicy-valera"},{id:"172857",title:"MSc.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Morales",fullName:"José Morales",slug:"jose-morales"},{id:"173078",title:"MSc.",name:"María Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Sandoval",fullName:"María Fernanda Sandoval",slug:"maria-fernanda-sandoval"},{id:"173079",title:"Prof.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Balza",fullName:"Diego Balza",slug:"diego-balza"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"66501",title:"Reactive Distillation: Modeling, Simulation, and Optimization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85433",slug:"reactive-distillation-modeling-simulation-and-optimization",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
\n
1.1 Reactive distillation (RD)
\n
Chemical engineering deals with the conversion of raw material into products via a chemical unit process or unit operations. Manufacturing of various chemicals like esters, ethers, cumene, petroleum processing unit, etc. required a reactor followed by separator such as a distillation unit to separate the required product from other constituents on the basis of relative volatility [1]. There are various constraints on this type of processing like more space required for the installation of the unit, higher cost, more energy input requirement, and reduced selectivity. Specifically the conversion limits for reversible reactions are difficult to overcome toward highest purity of product because once the equilibrium is achieved in the system, no more reactant will be converted into products. In view of all these constraints, reactive distillation emerged as a novel technique of process intensification in which reaction and separation of product take place simultaneously in a single column [2].
\n
In the case of reactive distillation, total capital cost is reduced due to two combined process steps held in the single unit. This kind of integration is also beneficial in reducing pump cost and other instrumentation cost. The saving in total energy cost is due to exothermic nature of many chemical reactions which in turn are beneficial in providing heat for separation of components simultaneously [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. The schematic diagram of reactive distillation column is shown in Figure 1.
\n
Figure 1.
Schematic diagram of reactive distillation column (RDC).
\n
\n
\n
\n
2. Industrial application of reactive distillation
\n
Reactive distillation, which uses heterogeneous catalysts known as catalytic distillation, was firstly considered for RD [11], but it then remained uninvestigated and lacked research interests until the 1980s. However in 1980, with the advent of reactive distillation technology, Eastman Company tentatively carried out synthesis of high-purity methyl acetate. Later on RD was categorized as hybrid and non-hybrid columns [12, 13]. Hybrid RD is used to describe columns, which have separate reactive and separation sections, while the reaction takes place in the whole non-hybrid RD column.
\n
After the success story of Eastman Company, several European countries and universities joined forces to work on a development strategy for reactive distillation process under the umbrella of Brite Euram project. Sulzer Chemtech has developed special structured catalytic packing for reactive distillation columns [14]. RD is an important method for many chemical syntheses which require recovery of chemicals such as recovery of acetic acid. RD uses cation-exchange resin for many liquid-phase homogeneous catalyst reactions such as butyl acetate synthesis and helps in separating catalyst during downstream processing. The investigation of many such reactions is reported [15, 16, 17]. Transesterification for synthesis and characterization of biodiesel from different raw material such as palm oil, mustard oil, etc. has been proposed but still not commercialized using various homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts. However, hydrodesulfurization of light oil fractions has been carried out commercially for diesel deep hydrodesulfurization.
\n
CDTECH, the major commercial process technology provider, licensed up to now over 200 commercial-scale processes. Sulzer reports the commercial application of reactive distillation as synthesis of ethyl, methyl, and butyl acetate, hydrolysis of methyl acetate, synthesis of methylal, removal of methanol from formaldehyde, and formation of fatty acid esters. Commercial reactive distillation application with Katapak licensed from Sulzer is tabulated in Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Process
\n
Industrial location
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Synthesis of acetates
\n
Europe
\n
\n
\n
Hydrolysis of methyl acetate
\n
Europe and Asia
\n
\n
\n
Synthesis of methylal
\n
Europe and Asia
\n
\n
\n
Removal of methanol from formaldehyde
\n
Europe
\n
\n
\n
Fatty acid ester
\n
Asia
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Commercial application of reactive distillation.
\n
\n
\n
3. Industrial perspective of reactive distillation
\n
Reactive distillation (RD) is a hybrid combination of reaction and separation in a single vessel. The first patent for this process route was out in the 1920s, but little was carried out till 1980 by the Eastman Company who synthesized methyl acetate for the first time using this technique. The following reactions have shown potential for reactive distillation:
\n
\n
3.1 Esterification
\n
In esterification reaction, alcohol and acid react to form an ester. Esters are chemical compounds having pleasant fruity odor.
The main application of esters is in the synthesis of artificial flavor and essence and solvent for oil, gum, fat, and resins. They are also used as plasticizers. Esterification is the oldest reaction carried out in a reactive distillation column. For example, in conventional methyl acetate production, the yield of methyl acetate is low because of low boiling azeotrope formation. This constraint is removed in RD and almost pure methyl acetate can be collected. Fatty acid esters are natural chemicals used, among other things in cosmetics; plastics and surfactants were also reported to be synthesized in reactive distillation.
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Transesterification
\n
Transesterification reaction in general can be represented as the reaction between triglyceride and alcohol to produce alkyl esters and glycerol. The best example is a synthesis of biodiesel using transesterification. Commercially, no industrial unit has been reported on synthesis of biodiesel in RD, but the literature shows that pilot-scale synthesis is possible. This process occurs by reacting the vegetable oil with alcohol in the presence of an alkaline or acidic catalyst.\n
\n
Heterogeneous catalysts are more effective from an economical point of view for biodiesel production. Sometimes transesterification can be a beneficial alternative to hydrolysis as it does not involve formation of water, and moreover, it brings out the value added through formation of another ester.
\n
\n
\n
3.3 Etherification
\n
Etherification refers to the synthesis of ethers from alcohol and acid. Ethers are an indispensable part of the fuel industry as, like the properties of alcohol, ether also enhances the octane value of fuel when added in appropriate proportion. Several model reactions via RD such as MTBE, ETBE, and TAME have been studied since last two decades. These fuel oxygenates are formed by reaction of isobutylene with alcohol to give ether and water. However, another alternative is to react tert-amyl alcohol (TAA) with corresponding lower alcohol such as methanol or ethanol.
Transfer of alkyl group from one molecule to another is known as alkylation. Cumene and ethyl benzene are some examples which are synthesized using alkylation process. In this process alkanes, which are a part of paraffin compounds, are reacted with an aromatic compound which results in production of a high-quality fuel substitutes like cumene. These compounds are added to gasoline as a blend to improve its octane number, reduce the engine problems like gum deposits on oxidation, etc. High aviation fuel blends are produced using an alkylation process whose octane number is denoted by a performance number having a value of greater than 100. The catalytic alkylation method uses aluminum chloride and hydrochloric acid as catalyst to initiate the reaction between benzene and propylene.
\n
\n
\n
3.5 Aldol condensation
\n
In an aldol condensation, an enolate ion reacts with a carbonyl compound to form a β-hydroxyaldehyde or β-hydroxyketone, followed by a dehydration to give a conjugated enone. By using reactive distillation (RD), one can improve the selectivity toward the intermediate or final product depending on the type of catalyst used and by continuously removing the desired product from the reaction zone. \n
\n
\n
\n
3.6 Dehydration
\n
Dehydration reaction simply means removal of water. This process is employed generally for glycerol to obtain acetol. This reaction is usually carried into the presence of various metallic catalysts like alumina, magnesium, ruthenium, nickel, platinum, palladium, copper, Raney nickel, etc. Single-stage and two-stage reactive distillation techniques are being employed, and special care is being taken to regenerate these catalysts as they are classified as precious and non-precious catalysts.
\n
\n
\n
3.7 Acetylation
\n
Various processes thereby produce a by-product which is of other important industrial use. Like in the case of biodiesel manufacturing using methanol, we get a secondary by-product called glycerol. It is a very good raw material for the process called acetylating as in this process, especially when carried out in reactive distillation column, it is reported that about 99% conversion of glycerol into triacetin is observed. This triacetin acts as an additive in compression engine fuels and reduced the knocking in the engine.
\n
\n
\n
3.8 Isomerization
\n
Isomerization is a process in which one molecule is transformed into another molecule which has exactly the same atom, but they have different arrangements. A-isophorone and b-isophorone in spite of being isomers can be very well separated by reactive distillation as there is a large difference in their volatilities.
\n
\n
\n
3.9 Oligomerization
\n
Oligomerization is a chemical process that converts monomers to macromolecular complexes through a finite degree of polymerization. Oligomer esters and acid were hydrolyzed using RD technology, and the results were consistent with industrial literature.
\n
\n
\n
3.10 Product purity
\n
Product purity is an ultimate customer requirement. If these are not fulfilled or low-quality product is supplied to the customer, the expectation of the customer will not be fulfilled. For this reason, quality parameters need to be defined. These parameters are differing in different cases. For example, few quality indexes like physical and chemical characteristics of the product, medicinal effects, toxicity, and shelf life are required to be given in the case of pharmaceutical products. Quality indexes such as taste, nutritional properties, texture, etc. are important in the case of food products. Similarly for products from chemical processes, final composition or product purity as quality index is required.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Importance of product purity in chemical engineering
\n
Synthesis of various chemicals usually is carried out in a reactor which may or may not be followed by separator. Either the case may be choice of design variable is very important. The market value of overhead product or the bottom product relies on its purity. Also the need of any further treatment for enhancing the purity relies on the initial product composition. In view of this, the degree of freedom for the column should be zero; that means the number of variables should be the same or equal to the number of equations involved in modeling. For example for a distillation column, if a designer specifies reflux ratio or boil up ratio and a distillate rate, then there will be corresponding unique set of distillate and bottom composition with respect to a fixed feed flow rate.
\n
\n
\n
5. Product purity in reactive distillation
\n
Variability in the product purity is due to various factors including variable flow rate, reboiler heat duty, reflux rate, and temperature inside the column. These parameters can be controlled using various control techniques to meet final product specification requirement as per the market demand both for large market and small market.
\n
Various control techniques are available which can be suitably applied to get continuous controlled final product composition. Detailed process knowledge helps in control of such a nonlinear process. The control performance also affects plant processing rates and utility usage. Process control engineering helps in designing control loop system which helps in the control of multivariable system and the systems involved multiple inputs and multiple outputs.
\n
\n
5.1 Steps to achieve quality specifications
\n
\n
5.1.1 Fixing product specifications
\n
A specification is the minimum requirement according to which a producer or service provider makes and delivers the product and service to the customer.
\n
\n
\n
5.1.2 Deciding on the method of manufacture
\n
Design and implementation of method of manufacture in actual plant condition permit to make product in the quickest and easiest way of manufacturing. These also require preparing manufacturing instructions, sequence of operations, and other procedures.
\n
\n
\n
5.1.3 Providing the necessary machines, plant, tooling, and other equipment
\n
Everything that is required for manufacture must be selected, taking care that all the elements are capable of achieving the standard of quality demanded.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
6. Benefits
\n
Benefits of reactive distillation include:
Increased speed of operation
Lower costs—reduced equipment use, reduced energy use, and handling being easy
Less waste and fewer by-products
Improved product quality—reducing opportunity for degradation because of less heat requirement
\n
\n
\n
7. Modeling of heterogeneous catalyzed packed RDC
\n
Modeling of RD column involves basic concept of distillation column carrying out reaction in a reactive zone in between the rectifying zone and stripping zone [18, 19, 20, 21]. Thus modeling can be represented by various balances for different zones of reactive distillation column. Non-equilibrium modeling was carried out for heterogeneous catalyzed packed RDC using first principle approach. The schematic view of heterogeneous packed RDC is shown in Figure 2.
\n
Figure 2.
Schematic diagram of packed RDC.
\n
The basic assumptions for this model are as follows:
Constant relative volatility of the components
Constant liquid hold up in reactive zone, reboiler, and condenser
Assuming reactive zone to be a single stage
Negligible vapor holdup
Thorough mixing of vapor and liquid
\n
\n
7.1 Component material balance
\n
Figure 3 gives flow of vapor and liquid over a plate/tray. As per the reaction of two reactants producing two products, component material balance for various sections of the column can be written as follows:
7. Due to exothermic reaction, the heat of reaction vaporizes some liquid in reactive section. Therefore, the vapor rate increases in the reactive trays, and the liquid rate decreases down through the reactive trays.
where Vpi−1 is vapor entering the plate p, ypi−1 is the mole fraction of component i, and Pv is vapor added to the column, but these are leaving the column through condenser; therefore negative sign is considered, Vp is the vapor leaving the plate p, and nipv is gain of species i due to transport, i.e., mass transfer rates. It is given as.
\n
\n\n\nn\nipv\n\n=\n∫\n\nN\nipv\n\n\ndp\n\nE10
\n
where Nip is molar flux of species i at particular point in the two-phase dispersion.
where Lpi+1 is liquid entering the plate p, xpi+1 is the mole fraction of component i, PLp is liquid added to the column, Lp is the liquid leaving the plate p, and nipl is loss of species i due to transport, i.e., mass transfer rates. It is given as.
\n
\n\n\nn\nipl\n\n=\n∫\n\nN\nipl\n\n\ndp\n\nE12
\n
where Nipl is molar flux of species i at particular point in the two-phase dispersion. Since there is no accumulation at phase interphase, it follows.
The experimental synthesis of methyl acetate esterification was performed in pilot-scale heterogeneous catalytic packed RDC shown in Figure 4. The characteristics of packed RDC are given in Table 2 and temperature data is given in Table 3. From the observations we conclude that the temperature of the reactive zone, from stage 3 to stage 6, lies between 50 and 70°C, which is an ideal condition for production of methyl acetate catalytic esterification reaction. The temperature of stripping zone lies between 50 and 59°C. Temperature of rectifying section lies between 30 and 45°C.
\n
Figure 4.
Pilot-scale reactive distillation column.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Contents
\n
Characteristics and conditions
\n
\n\n\n
\n
No. of stages
\n
10 including reboiler and condenser
\n
\n
\n
Rectifying section
\n
7–8
\n
\n
\n
Reactive section
\n
3–6
\n
\n
\n
Stripping section
\n
1–2
\n
\n
\n
Packing used
\n
HYFLUX
\n
\n
\n
Catalyst
\n
Amberlyst-15 (Acidic ion-exchange)
\n
\n
\n
Catalyst granularity
\n
10–100 μm
\n
\n
\n
Average particle diameter (m)
\n
7.4 × 10−4
\n
\n
\n
Apparent density (g/cm3)
\n
0.99
\n
\n
\n
Macro porosity of catalyst
\n
0.32
\n
\n
\n
Condenser type
\n
Total condenser
\n
\n
\n
Feed
\n
Methanol
\n
Acetic acid
\n
\n
\n
\n
Feed stage
Feed temperature
Feed pressure
Feed flow rate (L/min)
\n
\n
3 50°C Atmospheric 0.03
\n
6 50°C Atmospheric 0.03
\n
\n
\n
Reflux ratio
\n
5
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Characteristics of packed reactive distillation column.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Time (min)
\n
Temperature profile (°C)
\n
Pressure (mmHg)
\n
Reboiler temp (°C)
\n
\n
\n
T1
\n
T2
\n
T3
\n
T4
\n
T5
\n
T6
\n
T7
\n
T8
\n
P1
\n
P8
\n
\n\n\n
\n
10
\n
53
\n
52
\n
42
\n
43
\n
41
\n
36
\n
33
\n
22
\n
108
\n
280
\n
66
\n
\n
\n
20
\n
52
\n
56
\n
49
\n
53
\n
51
\n
50
\n
42
\n
27
\n
138
\n
293
\n
66
\n
\n
\n
30
\n
55
\n
57
\n
52
\n
55
\n
55
\n
51
\n
41
\n
30
\n
115
\n
270
\n
70
\n
\n
\n
40
\n
56
\n
56
\n
54
\n
55
\n
61
\n
52
\n
42
\n
40
\n
115
\n
270
\n
70
\n
\n
\n
50
\n
57
\n
55
\n
52
\n
56
\n
61
\n
52
\n
44
\n
41
\n
117
\n
272
\n
69
\n
\n
\n
60
\n
56
\n
59
\n
55
\n
57
\n
68
\n
54
\n
43
\n
40
\n
138
\n
270
\n
72
\n
\n
\n
70
\n
57
\n
58
\n
55
\n
56
\n
65
\n
52
\n
44
\n
40
\n
114
\n
273
\n
70
\n
\n
\n
80
\n
58
\n
59
\n
56
\n
60
\n
64
\n
56
\n
45
\n
40
\n
115
\n
249
\n
66.4
\n
\n
\n
90
\n
58
\n
59
\n
57
\n
60
\n
56
\n
57
\n
40
\n
41
\n
115
\n
249
\n
68
\n
\n
\n
100
\n
56
\n
59
\n
55
\n
57
\n
60
\n
51
\n
44
\n
40
\n
169
\n
300
\n
70
\n
\n
\n
110
\n
56
\n
55
\n
51
\n
55
\n
60
\n
48
\n
42
\n
40
\n
163
\n
295
\n
72
\n
\n
\n
120
\n
56
\n
55
\n
51
\n
55
\n
60
\n
49
\n
43
\n
40
\n
163
\n
294
\n
72
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Experimental results of methyl acetate synthesis.
\n
We have set the reboiler temperature at 70°C which is close to boiling point of methanol. However it varies as the reaction proceeds. The composition of methyl acetate obtained experimentally is 96%. The pressure of the top stage varies between 108 and 163 mmHg and that of reboiler varies between 249 and 300 mmHg.
\n
It is obvious that the product composition continuously increases with respect to time and as soon as concentration of reactants decreases, the composition also decreases. For continuous process, continuous supply of reactants is required to maintain the product composition. The variation of composition with time is shown in Figure 5.
\n
Figure 5.
Variation in product composition WRT time.
\n
\n
\n
\n
9. Simulation and optimization
\n
Simulation and optimization are the act of obtaining the best result under given circumstances. Optimization can be defined as the process of finding the conditions that give the maximum or minimum value of a function. Process optimization is the discipline of adjusting a process so as to optimize some specified set of parameters without violating some constraints. The chemical industry has undergone significant changes during the past 25 years due to the increased cost of energy, increasingly stringent environmental regulations, and global competition in product pricing and quality. One of the most important engineering tools for addressing these issues is optimization. Modifications in plant design and operating procedures have been implemented to reduce costs and meet constraints, with an emphasis on improving efficiency and increasing profitability. Optimal operating conditions can be implemented via increased automation at the process, plant, and company levels, often called computer-integrated manufacturing. Computers and associated software make the necessary computations feasible and cost-effective [22, 23, 24, 25].
\n
\n
9.1 Steady-state simulation and optimization
\n
Steady-state simulation of methyl acetate esterification was carried out using Aspen Plus simulator. Radfrac module, NRTL property method, and other operating conditions such as feed condition, feed location, operating pressure, column configuration including number of stages and reaction stage, type of condenser, type of reboiler, and feed flow rate of the components used are specified in Aspen Plus environment. The specification and other results are included in Table 4. The simulation flow sheet is shown in Figure 6. The product purity is attaining a highest value at the top stage. The composition profile of the column is shown in Figure 7. As shown in figure, the maximum composition of product methyl acetate obtained is 95.4%. The amount of methanol and acetic acid is much lower at the top of the column; this indicates the complete consumption of reactants and formation of product.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameters
\n
Values
\n
\n\n\n
\n
No. of stages Reactive stage Rectifying stage Stripping stage
\n
10, including reboiler and condenser 3–6 (reactive zone) 2–3 7–9
\n
\n
\n
Input condition
\n
Methanol
\n
Acetic acid
\n
\n
\n
Temperature Flow rate
\n
50°C 0.03 L/min
\n
70°C 0.05 L/min
\n
\n
\n
Reboiler heat duty
\n
0.2 kW
\n
\n
\n
Reflux ratio
\n
5
\n
\n
\n
Condenser temperature
\n
57.40°C
\n
\n
\n
Distillate rate
\n
10.56 mole/hr
\n
\n
\n
Reflux rate
\n
52.81 mole/hr
\n
\n
\n
Reboiler temperature
\n
62.66°C
\n
\n
\n
Bottom rate
\n
86.12 mole/hr
\n
\n
\n
Boil up rate
\n
23.62 mole/hr
\n
\n
\n
Boil up Ratio
\n
0.274
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Input condition and result of RDC.
\n
Figure 6.
Flow sheet of methyl acetate RDC.
\n
Figure 7.
Composition profile of methyl acetate RDC.
\n
The temperature profile of the column is shown in Figure 8. As shown in figure, we can clearly observe that the temperature of the reactive section is higher than the other section; this is because of the exothermic nature of the esterification reaction. Also, temperature of reboiler is higher than the temperature at condenser. As it can be observed from the figure, the condenser temperature which is 57.4°C is lower than reboiler temperature which is 62.7°C. The temperature of the reactive zone is varied between 61.3 and 77.8°C, making it compatible to the exothermic nature of the esterification reaction. The maximum temperature of the condenser during experiment was 58°C, and the temperature of the condenser obtained from Aspen Plus was 57.4°C, which shows good agreement between experimental and simulation results.
\n
Figure 8.
Temperature profile of methyl acetate RDC.
\n
\n
\n
9.2 Sensitivity analysis of methyl acetate RDC
\n
Reactive distillation exhibits multiple steady-state conditions throughout the operation. This is known as multiplicity of the process. There are two types of multiplicity; one is known as input multiplicity, and the other is known as output multiplicity. This is the condition in which column gives same output for the different sets of process condition. In this paper, we have studied input multiplicity, in which we obtained same output for different input conditions. To analyze the situation, we have performed sensitivity analysis in Aspen Plus simulator.
\n
For sensitivity analysis, we have first chosen molar flow of methyl acetate on the basis of heat duties whose lower and upper bounds are fixed as 1 and 3 kW, respectively. For the second case, we have calculated mass fraction of methyl acetate by setting the molar flow of acetic acid in feed in the range of 0.01–0.08 L/min. In the third case, we have calculated distillate flow rate by varying feed flow rate in the range of 0.01–0.08 L/min to calculate the distillate-to-feed ratio (D/F). Similarly we have also calculated bottom-to-feed ratio (B/F). The result curves are shown in Figures 9 and 10, respectively. A shown in Figure 9, we can observe that the flow rate of methyl acetate is increasing as heat duty is increasing and found the maximum flow rate to be 0.927 lbmol/hr. at heat duty of 6820 Btu/hr. Similarly, we can observe that in Figure 10, the variation in flow rate of acetic acid is observed WRT mole fraction of product methyl acetate. The maximum product fraction is observed as 95.2% at flow rate of 0.0872 cuft/hr. The effect of change in distillate-to-feed Ratio (D/F) and change in bottom-to-feed (B/F) ratio on composition was also observed. It was found that optimized distillate-to-feed (D/F) ratio obtained 0.6275 and optimized bottom-to-feed (B/F) ratio obtained 0.4238 to get maximum product purity.
\n
Figure 9.
Sensitivity analysis based on reboiler heat duty.
\n
Figure 10.
Sensitivity analysis based on acid flow rate.
\n
\n
\n
9.3 Optimization of methyl acetate RDC
\n
Model analysis tool under Aspen Plus simulation facilitates optimization of the reactive distillation column. In this analysis we defined mass fraction of methyl acetate as objective on the basis of standard volumetric flow rate of acetic acid to obtain the minimum product composition that can be achieved at the top of the column. Heat duty was defined as constraint with fixed values between 1 and 3 kW as lower and upper limits, respectively. After the optimization, we obtained 26.99% as the minimum composition of methyl acetate and 2 kW as the required optimized heat duty.
\n
The summary of optimization and sensitivity results obtained from Aspen Plus simulation is included in Table 5. The optimized value of reboiler heat duty obtained was 2 kW, and optimized reflux ratio obtained was 4.69. These values are close to the experimental values which again show good agreement between experimental and simulation studies. The optimized flow rate of methyl acetate obtained using reboiler heat duty as manipulated variable is 0.093 lbmol/hr., and optimized product fraction obtained using standard volumetric flow rate of acetic acid is 0.96. The sensitivity result curve for optimized flow rate and composition of methyl acetate is shown in Figure 11, and sensitivity result curve for variation in column temperature based on reflux flow is shown in Figure 12.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Row
\n
Case I Variation in reboiler heat duty Btu/hr
\n
Optimized flow rate of methyl acetate lbmol/hr
\n
Case II Variation in volumetric flow rate of acetic acid, ft3/hr
\n
Optimized product composition
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
3412.14
\n
0.0549
\n
0.0211
\n
0.4808
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
4170.39
\n
0.0637
\n
0.0376
\n
0.6776
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
4928.64
\n
0.0723
\n
0.05414
\n
0.8070
\n
\n
\n
4
\n
5686.90
\n
0.0807
\n
0.07062
\n
0.9011
\n
\n
\n
5
\n
6445.15
\n
0.0888
\n
0.08710
\n
0.9522
\n
\n
\n
6
\n
6824.28
\n
0.0926
\n
0.10358
\n
0.9596
\n
\n
\n
7
\n
7203.41
\n
0.0920
\n
0.10594
\n
0.9604
\n
\n
\n
8
\n
7961.66
\n
0.0904
\n
0.12006
\n
0.9643
\n
\n
\n
9
\n
8719.91
\n
0.0902
\n
0.13655
\n
0.9676
\n
\n
\n
10
\n
9478.17
\n
0.0900
\n
0.15303
\n
0.9700
\n
\n
\n
11
\n
10236.42
\n
0.0893
\n
0.16951
\n
0.9719
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Summary of the sensitivity and optimization results.
\n
Figure 11.
Sensitivity curve for optimized flow rate and composition.
\n
Figure 12.
Sensitivity curve for column temperature based on reflux ratio.
\n
\n
\n
\n
10. Conclusion
\n
This chapter gives details of reactive distillation as effective unit for various synthesis and manufacturing. The detailed case study envisaged to produce methyl acetate using methanol and acetic acid in a pilot plant reactive distillation column. The operating conditions were maintained as feed temperature of 50°C, column pressure of 1 atmosphere, feed rate of 0.03 L/min, and initial reboiler temperature of 70°C. The experiment yielded high purity of methyl acetate. We have succeeded in obtaining 95% purity of methyl acetate. The experimentation was then followed by simulations so as to contrast the results. The Aspen Plus simulation gives methyl acetate purity of 91.1%. This was followed by validation of results using sensitivity and optimization analysis. The optimized value of reflux was obtained as 4.69 and required reboiler duty 2 kW. The sensitivity analysis registered distillation-to-feed (D/F) ratio as 0.6275 and bottom-to-feed (B/F) ratio 0.4235 to obtain maximum product purity. These encouraging results establish a good agreement between experimental and simulation studies.
\n
\n
\n
Nomenclature
\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv\nj\n\n\n\n\n\n
stoichiometric coefficient
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nR\n\nn\n,\nj\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
reaction rate on nth stage
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nM\nn\n\n\n\n\n\n
liquid holdup on nth stage
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk\nFn\n\n\n\n\n\n
forward reaction rate on nth stage
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk\nBn\n\n\n\n\n\n
backward reaction rate on nth stage
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx\n\nn\n,\nj\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
liquid composition on nth stage
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nV\nn\n\n\n\n\n\n
flow rate of vapor on nth stage
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nL\nn\n\n\n\n\n\n
flow rate of liquid on nth stage
\n\n\n\n\n\n\nλ\n\n\n\n\n
heat of reaction
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n∆\n\nH\nv\n\n\n\n\n\n
net heat of vaporization
\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNT\n\n\n\n\n
total number of stages
\n\n\n\n\n\n\nD\n\n\n\n\n
distillate flow rate
\n\n\n\n\n\n\nB\n\n\n\n\n
bottoms flow rate
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\ny\n\nn\n,\nj\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
vapor composition on nth stage
\n\n\n\n\n\n\nRR\n\n\n\n\n
reflux ratio
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nF\nn\n\n\n\n\n\n
feed flow rate on nth stage
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nz\n\nn\n,\nj\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
feed composition on nth stage
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nP\nj\nS\n\n\n\n\n\n
pure component vapor pressure
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nT\nn\n\n\n\n\n\n
temperature at nth stage
\n\n\n\nP\n\n
total pressure
\n\n\n\n
\n\n',keywords:"modeling, reactive distillation, optimization, simulation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66501.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66501.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66501",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66501",totalDownloads:1652,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 6th 2018",dateReviewed:"February 25th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 1st 2019",datePublished:"December 4th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Chemical process industries deal with production which further utilizes reaction followed by separation of the reaction mixtures. Reactive distillation is a new technique of combination of both reaction and separation in a single unit beneficial for equilibrium-limited reactions and also cost-effective. This makes it a highly complex process because many parameters involved in both reaction and separation are interactive in nature. In this chapter, modeling, simulation, and optimization of reactive distillation are presented. Methyl acetate production via reactive distillation is chosen as a case study. The results are compared for both experimental and simulation studies. The synthesis of methyl acetate was carried out in a packed RDC by catalytic esterification using acetic acid and methanol as reactants in a pilot-scale experimental setup. A strong acidic ion exchange catalyst, Amberlyst-15, was used to enhance the rate of heterogeneous esterification reaction. The result obtained was observed with change in various variables including the reflux ratio (RR), distillate-to-feed (D/F) ratio, and bottom-to-feed (B/F) ratio with respect to product composition. The optimization and sensitivity analysis was carried out using Aspen Plus process simulation software.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66501",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66501",signatures:"Vandana Sakhre",book:{id:"8256",title:"Distillation",subtitle:"Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",fullTitle:"Distillation - Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",slug:"distillation-modelling-simulation-and-optimization",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Vilmar Steffen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8256.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"189035",title:"Dr.",name:"Vilmar",middleName:null,surname:"Steffen",slug:"vilmar-steffen",fullName:"Vilmar Steffen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"216887",title:"Dr.",name:"Vandana",middleName:null,surname:"Sakhre",fullName:"Vandana Sakhre",slug:"vandana-sakhre",email:"vssakhre@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Reactive distillation (RD)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Industrial application of reactive distillation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Industrial perspective of reactive distillation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1 Esterification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.2 Transesterification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.3 Etherification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.4 Alkylation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.5 Aldol condensation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.6 Dehydration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.7 Acetylation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.8 Isomerization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.9 Oligomerization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.10 Product purity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. Importance of product purity in chemical engineering",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Product purity in reactive distillation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.1 Steps to achieve quality specifications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"5.1.1 Fixing product specifications",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"5.1.2 Deciding on the method of manufacture",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"5.1.3 Providing the necessary machines, plant, tooling, and other equipment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21",title:"6. Benefits",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"7. Modeling of heterogeneous catalyzed packed RDC",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"7.1 Component material balance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24",title:"8. Case study of methyl acetate synthesis in RDC",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"8.1 Pilot-scale experimental results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26",title:"9. Simulation and optimization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"9.1 Steady-state simulation and optimization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"9.2 Sensitivity analysis of methyl acetate RDC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"9.3 Optimization of methyl acetate RDC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30",title:"10. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_31",title:"Nomenclature",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Agreda VH, Partin LR. Reactive distillation process for the production of methyl acetate. US Patent; 1984. Publication number-US4435595A'},{id:"B2",body:'Ciric AR, Gu D. Synthesis of non-equilibrium reactive distillation processes by MINLP optimization. AIChe Journal, Process System Engineering. 1994;40:1479-1487'},{id:"B3",body:'Dohert MF, Buzad G. New tool for design of kinetically controlled reactive distillation columns for ternary mixtures. Computers and Chemical Engineering. 1995;19:395-408'},{id:"B4",body:'Miniotti M, Doherty MF. Design for simultaneous reaction and liquid liquid extraction. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research. 1998;37:4748-4755'},{id:"B5",body:'Subawalla H, Fair JR. Design guidelines for solid-catalyzed reactive distillation systems. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research. 1999;38(10):3696-3709'},{id:"B6",body:'Schenk MA, Gani R, Bogle D, Pistikopoulos EN. A hybrid modeling approach for separation systems involving distillation, Chemical Engineering Research and Design Part A. 1999;77:519-534'},{id:"B7",body:'Cardoso MF, Salcedo RL. Optimization of reactive distillation processes with simulated annealing. Chemical Engineering Science. 2000;55:5059-5078'},{id:"B8",body:'Taylor R, Krishna R. Reactive distillation: Status and future directions. In: Modeling of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Reactive Distillation Processes; Chapter 9; Reactive Distillation: Status and Future Directions, Wiley Online. 2002;215-240'},{id:"B9",body:'Almeida CP, Swinkels PLJ. Designing reactive distillation processes: Present and future. Computers & Chemical Engineering;28(10):1997-2020'},{id:"B10",body:'Harmsem GJ. Reactive distillation: The front-runner of industrial process intensification: A full review of commercial applications, research, scale-up, design and operation. Chemical Engineering and Processing. 2007;46:774-780'},{id:"B11",body:'Luo H-P, Xiao W-D. A reactive distillation process for a cascade and azeotropic reaction system: Carbonylation of ethanol with dimethyl carbonate. Chemical Engineering Science. 2001;56:403-410'},{id:"B12",body:'Güttinger TE, Morari M. Predicting multiple steady states in equilibrium reactive distillation. 1. Analysis of nonhybrid systems. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research. 1999;38:1633'},{id:"B13",body:'Güttinger TE, Morari M. Predicting multiple steady states in equilibrium reactive distillation. 2. Analysis of hybrid systems. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research. 1999;38:1649'},{id:"B14",body:'Bessling B, Lohning JM, Ohligschlager A, Schembecker G, Sundamacher K. Chemical Engineering Technology. 1998;21(5):393-400'},{id:"B15",body:'Hanika J, Kolena J, Smejkal Q. Butyl acetate via reactive distillation-modeling and experiment. Chemical Engineering Science. 1999;54(21):5205-5209'},{id:"B16",body:'Hui T, Zhixian H, Ting Q, Xiaoda W, Yangxiang WU. Reactive distillation for production of n-butyl acetate: Experiment and simulation. Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering. 2012;20(5):980-987'},{id:"B17",body:'Singh H, Mahajani SM, Gudi RD, Gangadwala J, Kienle A. Production of butyl acetate by catalytic distillation: A theoretical and experimental studies. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research. 2005;44:3042-3052'},{id:"B18",body:'Katariya AM, Kamath RS, Moudgalaya KM, Mahajani SM. Non equilibrium stage modeling and nonlinear dynamic effects in the synthesis of TAME by reactive distillation. Computers and Chemical Engineering. 2008;32:2243-2255'},{id:"B19",body:'Kiss AA, Singh P, Strein CJG. A systematic approach towards applicability of reactive distillation. In: 21st European symposium on Computer Aided Process Engineering; 2011. pp. 191-195'},{id:"B20",body:'Bhatt K, Patel NM. Generalized modeling and simulation of reactive distillation: Esterification. Advances in Applied Science Research. 2012;3:1346-1352'},{id:"B21",body:'Hounge EO. Reactive Distillation of Biodiesel: Modelling and Optimal Operation. 2013. A thesis submitted to Norwegian University of Science and Technology'},{id:"B22",body:'Lei Z, Yi C, Yang B. Design, optimization, and control of reactive distillation column for the synthesis of tert-amyl ethyl ether. Chemical Engineering Research and Design. 2013;91:819-830'},{id:"B23",body:'González-Rugerio CA, Fuhrmeister R, Sudhoff D, Pilarczyk J, Górak A. Optimal design of catalytic distillation columns: A case study on synthesis of TAEE. Chemical Engineering Research and Design. 2014;92:391-404'},{id:"B24",body:'Giwa A. Empirical modelling and optimization of PAME reactive distillation process using Minitab. International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research. 2015;6:538-548'},{id:"B25",body:'Seferlis P, Grievink J. Optimal design and sensitivity analysis of a reactive distillation units using collocation models. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 2001;40:1673-1685'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Vandana Sakhre",address:"vandana.sakhre@manipaldubai.com",affiliation:'
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering and IT, Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Dubai, UAE
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8256",title:"Distillation",subtitle:"Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",fullTitle:"Distillation - Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",slug:"distillation-modelling-simulation-and-optimization",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Vilmar Steffen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8256.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"189035",title:"Dr.",name:"Vilmar",middleName:null,surname:"Steffen",slug:"vilmar-steffen",fullName:"Vilmar Steffen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"64418",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshinori",middleName:null,surname:"Misawa",email:"misawa@yskf.co.jp",fullName:"Yoshinori Misawa",slug:"yoshinori-misawa",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Molecular Design of Multivalent Glycosides Bearing GlcNAc, (GlcNAc)2 and LacNAc - Analysis of Cross-linking Activities with WGA and ECA Lectins",slug:"molecular-design-of-multivalent-glycosides-bearing-glcnac-glcnac-2-and-lacnac-analysis-of-cross-link",abstract:null,signatures:"Makoto Ogata, Yoshinori Misawa and Taichi Usui",authors:[{id:"31882",title:"Dr.",name:"Makoto",surname:"Ogata",fullName:"Makoto Ogata",slug:"makoto-ogata",email:"dmogata@ipc.shizuoka.ac.jp"},{id:"31884",title:"Prof.",name:"Taichi",surname:"Usui",fullName:"Taichi Usui",slug:"taichi-usui",email:"usui@ipc.shizuoka.ac.jp"},{id:"64418",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshinori",surname:"Misawa",fullName:"Yoshinori Misawa",slug:"yoshinori-misawa",email:"misawa@yskf.co.jp"}],book:{title:"Biosensors",slug:"biosensors-emerging-materials-and-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24687/images/system/24687.jpg",biography:"Toonika Rinken is a senior researcher of environmental chemistry and is leading a biosensor development lab at the Institute\nof Chemistry at the University of Tartu, Estonia. She received\nher PhD degree in chemistry in 2000 from the same university\nfor her studies on modeling and calibration of biosensors. She\nhas also pursued and completed professional self-improvement\nin Uppsala (Sweden) and Gröningen (the Netherlands). Dr.\nRinken’s research focuses on the design and development of biosensing systems for\nautomatic monitoring, and the study of signal rising, modeling, and calibration of\nbiosensor-based analytical systems.",institutionString:"University of Tartu",institution:{name:"University of Tartu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Estonia"}}},{id:"26472",title:"Prof.",name:"Björn",surname:"Öbrink",slug:"bjorn-obrink",fullName:"Björn Öbrink",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"26477",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristmundur",surname:"Sigmundsson",slug:"kristmundur-sigmundsson",fullName:"Kristmundur Sigmundsson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"26478",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicole",surname:"Beauchemin",slug:"nicole-beauchemin",fullName:"Nicole Beauchemin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"26479",title:"Dr.",name:"Johan",surname:"Lengqvist",slug:"johan-lengqvist",fullName:"Johan Lengqvist",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"27588",title:"Dr.",name:"Cedric",surname:"Volcke",slug:"cedric-volcke",fullName:"Cedric Volcke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"1996-2001: Studied Physics at the University of Namur (FUNDP)\n\n2001-2006: PhD in Physics at the University of Namur. \nProject: study of biological materials and biomaterials by scanning tunneling (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM)\n\n2007-2009 : Postdoctoral researcher at the Biomedical diagnostics Institute - Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland.\nProject: Surface modification of polymeric platforms for biosensors applications\n\n2009-2010 : FNRS postdoctoral researcher at the University of Namur.\nProject: Development of new biosensors and adapted reading processes.\n\n2011 : PAI postdoctoral researcher at the University of Louvain (UCLouvain).\nProject: Structural and Electronic Characterisation of Thin Films of Semi-conducting Organic Liquid\nCrystals",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Université Catholique de Louvain",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}},{id:"31882",title:"Dr.",name:"Makoto",surname:"Ogata",slug:"makoto-ogata",fullName:"Makoto Ogata",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"31884",title:"Prof.",name:"Taichi",surname:"Usui",slug:"taichi-usui",fullName:"Taichi Usui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"33937",title:"MSc.",name:"Kairi",surname:"Kivirand",slug:"kairi-kivirand",fullName:"Kairi Kivirand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33937/images/system/33937.png",biography:null,institutionString:"University of Tartu",institution:null},{id:"66501",title:"Mr",name:"Priit",surname:"Rinken",slug:"priit-rinken",fullName:"Priit Rinken",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"WIS-cost",title:"What Does It Cost?",intro:"
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Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\n\t
Wellcome Trust
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National Institute of Health (NIH)
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Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK)
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\n\t
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German Research Foundation (DFG)
\n\t
Max Planck Institute
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Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
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Australian Research Council (ARC)
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