\r\n\tThe objective of the proposed book is to give a multi-perspective view on role of autophagy in injury, infection and cancer diseases. The book chapters aim to elucidate autophagy pathways in sustaining the host defense mechanisms, adaptive homeostasis as well as in remodeling and regeneration events that are essential for recuperation of the affected tissues. A specific subject for discussion will be up-regulation and/or impairment of autophagy and crinophagy in phagocytes/granulocytes and adult stem cells.
\r\n
\r\n\tRationale: \r\n\tThe cell/tissue responses to acute stress, trauma/injury or pathogens are mediated by expression and release of plethora of paracrine and endocrine effectors including DAMPs, PAMPs and inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, defensins, and reactive intermediate species. These effectors drive the integrative interactome constituted by hubs of the acute phase response modules, the inflammatory response modules, the module of the adaptive homeostatic response in the damaged parenchymal cells, vascular cells, immunocompetent cells and emerging stem cells. Among these defense mechanisms is autophagy – the lysosomal pathway for processing of compromised cell constituents and/or bacterial and viral pathogens. In this light, explication of the role of autophagy in cellular pathology may arouse R&D of new modalities for management of devastating diseases such as injury, acute infections or cancer.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3daed6048bc8ff8368c4279558f109d7",bookSignature:"Dr. Nikolai Gorbunov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7997.jpg",keywords:"Autophagy-related Genes, Autophagy-related Proteins, Organelle Network, Signaling Mechanisms and Modulators, Cell Damage, Tissue Damage, PAMP and DAMP, Inflammasome, Autophagy Evasion, Cancer Stem Cells, Cancer Target Therapy, Disease",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 23rd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 14th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 13th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 2nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 1st 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",middleName:null,surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180960/images/system/180960.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gorbunov obtained his Ph.D. degree in Biology from the Russian Academy Sciences. Then, he was a recipient of the NRC NAS (http://sites.nationalacademies.org/pga/rap/) and the Department of Energy fellowship awards to pursue postdoctoral training in translational science at the University of Pittsburgh and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (https://www.emsl.pnl.gov/emslweb Washington, USA). His translational research area has encompassed molecular pathology of trauma and countermeasures against acute radiation injury that was explored at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (http://wrair-www.army.mil) and the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences. His research interests are the disease-specific mechanisms driving alterations and defense responses in organelles, cells and tissues constituting biological barriers. With this perspective, the main objectives of his research are : i) to define the key components and pathways which regulate adaptive homeostasis and sustain intrinsic resistance to the harmful exposures and mediate recovery from the produced stress, cytotoxicity and damage; and (ii) to employ the acquired knowledge for advancement of injury-specific therapeutic modalities.",institutionString:"Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5295",title:"Autophagy in Current Trends in Cellular Physiology and Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e16382542f283b73017bdb366aff66ad",slug:"autophagy-in-current-trends-in-cellular-physiology-and-pathology",bookSignature:"Nikolai V. Gorbunov and Marion Schneider",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5295.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6207",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",subtitle:"Pathobiology, Advanced Diagnostics and Acute Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b39555959a8969f3d06634703afd3231",slug:"traumatic-brain-injury-pathobiology-advanced-diagnostics-and-acute-management",bookSignature:"Nikolai V. Gorbunov and Joseph B. Long",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6207.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"38731",title:"Review of the Biological and Health Effects of Aflatoxins on Body Organs and Body Systems",doi:"10.5772/51201",slug:"review-of-the-biological-and-health-effects-of-aflatoxins-on-body-organs-and-body-systems",body:'\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Aflatoxins are a group of naturally occurring carcinogens that are known to contaminate different human and animal food stuffs. Aflatoxins are poisonous by-products from soil-borne fungus Aspergillus, which is responsible for the decomposition of plant materials [1-9]. The occurrence of aflatoxins foods and food products vary with geographic location, agricultural and agronomic practices. The susceptibility of food product to fungal attack occurs during pre-harvest, transportation, storage, and processing of the foods [1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 10]. The problem of aflatoxin contamination of the food products is a common problem in tropical and subtropical regions of the world especially in the developing countries such as the sub-Saharan countries with poor practices and where the environmental conditions of warm temperatures and humidity favors the growth fungi [1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 10]. The various food products contaminated with aflatoxins include cereals like maize, sorghum, pearl millet, rice and wheat; oilseeds such as groundnut, soybean, sunflower and cotton; spices like chillies, black pepper, coriander, turmeric and zinger; tree nuts such as almonds, pistachio, walnuts and coconut; and milk and milk products [11]. The aflatoxins were initially isolated and identified as the causative agent in Turkey X disease that caused necrosis of the liver in 1960 and over 100,000 turkeys died in England and USA and the death was attributed to the consumption of a mould-contaminated peanut meal [2, 6, 9, 12, 13]. Very high concentrations of aflatoxins are most often found in nutritive seeds such as maize, nuts and cereal grains in Africa and rice in China and Southeast Asia [2, 6, 9, 12-14].
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. flavus, A. arachidicola, A. bombycis, A. minisclerotigenes, A. nomius, A. ochraceoroseus, A. parasiticus, A. pseudotamarii, A. rambellii, Emericella venezuelensis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxin B2 (AFB2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. arachidicola, A. flavus, A. minisclerotigenes, A. nomius, A. parasiticus\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxin B2a (AFB2a)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. flavus\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. flavus, A. parasiticus; metabolite of aflatoxin B1 in humans and animals and comes from a mother\'s milk
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxin M2 (AFM2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Metabolite of aflatoxin B2 in milk of cattle fed on contaminated foods
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxin M2A (AFM2A)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Metabolite of AFM2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxicol (AFL)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. flavus, metabolite of AFB1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. arachidicola, A. flavus, A. minisclerotigenes, A. nomius, A. Parasiticus\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxin G2 (AFG2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. arachidicola, A. flavus, A. minisclerotigenes, A. nomius, A. parasiticus\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxin G2A (AFG2A)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Metabolite of AFG2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxin GM1 (AFG1)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. flavus\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxin GM2 (AFGM2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Metabolite of AFG2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AFGM2A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Metabolite of AFGM2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxin B3 (AFB3)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAspergillus\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t species not defined
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Parasiticol (P)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. flavus\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatrem
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. flavus, A. minisclerotigenes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aspertoxin
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. flavus\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxin Q1 (AFQ1)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Major metabolite of AFB1 in in vitro liver preparations of other higher vertebrates
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Summary of the major aflatoxins produced by the Aspergillus species of Moulds
\n\t\t\t
Aflatoxins are a group of approximately 20 related fungal metabolites produced primarily by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus [15-18]. Aflatoxins belongs to a group of difuranocoumarins that are classified into two broad groups according to their chemical structure and they include the difurocoumarocyclopentenone series (AFB1, AFB2, AFB2A, AFM1, AFM2, AFM2A and aflatoxicol) and the difurocoumarolactone series (AFG1, AFG2, AFG2A, AFGM1, AFGM2, AFGM2A and AFB3) [15-19], (Table 1 and figure 1).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 1.
Structures of the major aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, M2, B2A and G2A (Adopted from Reddy, 2012)[16]
\n\t\t\t
The four major naturally known aflatoxins produced by the Aspergillus species of mold include AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 where the “B” and “G” refer to the blue and green fluorescent colors produced under UV light on thin layer chromatography plates, while the subscript numbers 1 and 2 indicate major and minor compounds, respectively. Whereas the B designation of aflatoxins B1 and B2 result from the exhibition of blue fluorescence under UV-light, while the G designation refers to the yellow-green fluorescence of the relevant structures under UV-light [2, 6, 9, 12, 13]. The metabolic products of aflatoxins, M1 and M2 were first isolated from milk of lactating animals fed on Moldy grains contaminated with aflatoxin hence, the M designation [2, 4]. These toxins have closely similar structures (Figure 1) and form a unique group of highly oxygenated, naturally occurring heterocyclic compounds. Aflatoxins B2 and G2 were established as the dihydroxy derivatives of B1 and G1, respectively. Whereas, aflatoxin M1 is 4-hydroxy aflatoxin B1 and aflatoxin M2 is 4-dihydroxy aflatoxin B2. Of the four major aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2), G2 occurs in high quantities though less toxic while AFB1 is the most toxic of all the aflatoxin. The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies AFB1 as a class 1 carcinogen [4, 6, 9, 18]. The aflatoxins display potency of toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity in the order of AFB1> AFG1> AFB2> AFG2 [15-19]. The extent of toxicity depends on the organ affected especially the liver. The lethal toxicity of aflatoxin B1 varies in different animals from extremely susceptible (Sheep, Rat, Dog) to resistant species (Monkey, Chicken, Mouse). However, there are no toxicity in humans though epidemiological data from studies in Africa, South Africa, South East Asia and India implicate aflatoxins in the incidence of liver cancer especially the hepatobiliary carcinoma and death of children due to malnutrition, kwashiorkor and marasmus [20, 21]. Aflatoxins have been associated with various diseases like aflatoxicosis and other health problems in humans, livestock and domestic animals globally.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and mechanisms of action of aflatoxins
\n\t\t\t
Aflatoxins are highly liposoluble compounds and are readily absorbed from the site of exposure usually through the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory tract into blood stream [22, 23]. Human and animals get exposed to aflatoxins by two major routes (a) direct ingestion of aflatoxin-contaminated foods or ingestion of aflatoxins carried over from feed into milk and milk products like cheese and powdered milk as well as other animal tissues mainly as AFM1 [22](b) by inhalation of dust particles of aflatoxins especially AFB1 in contaminated foods in industries and factories [24]. After entering the body, the aflatoxins are absorbed across the cell membranes where they reach the blood circulation. They are distributed in blood to different tissues and to the liver, the main organ of metabolism of xenobiotics. Aflatoxins are mainly metabolized by the liver to a reactive epoxide intermediate or hydroxylated to become the less harmful aflatoxin M1 [25, 26]. In humans and susceptible animal species, aflatoxins especially AFB1 are metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP450) microsomal enzymes to aflatoxin-8,9-epoxide, a reactive form that binds to DNA and to albumin in the blood serum, forming adducts and hence causing DNA damage [25, 26]. Various CYP450 enzymes isoforms occur in the liver and they metabolize aflatoxin into a reactive oxygen species (aflatoxin-8,9-epoxide), which may then bind to proteins and cause acute toxicity (aflatoxicosis) or to DNA and induce liver cancer [25, 26]. The predominant human CYP450 isoforms involved in human metabolism of AFB1 are CYP3A4 and CYP1A2. Both enzymes catalyze the biotransformation of AFB1 to the highly reactive exo-8,9-epoxide of AFB1[27]. CYP 1A2 is also capable of catalyzing the epoxidation of AFB1 to yield a high proportion of endo-epoxide and hydroxylation of AFB1 to form aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), which is a poor substrate for epoxidation [27] and less potent than AFB1 [28]. This is generally considered as the major detoxification metabolic pathway for aflatoxins. The CYP3A4 is the major CYP450 enzyme responsible for activation of AFB1 into the epoxide form and also form AFQ1, a less toxic detoxification metabolite. The CYP3A5 metabolizes AFB1 mainly to the exo-epoxide and some AFQ1 [29]. However, polymorphism studies with CYP3A5 have indicated that, this enzyme isoform is not expressed by most people especially in Africans [28]. Studies in Gambian children showed that aflatoxin cross the placenta and transported to the fetus and the new born where they can cause detrimental effects [28]. The CYP3A7 is a major CYP450 enzyme isoform in human fetal liver and metabolizes AFB1 to the 8, 9- epoxide that may cause fetal defects to the developing fetus [30].
\n\t\t\t
The epoxidation of AFB1 to the exo-8, 9-epoxide is a critical step in the genotoxic pathway of this carcinogen. The binding of AFB1 to DNA and DNA adduction by AFB1 exo-8,9 epoxide has been reported to cause a functional changes of DNA conformation [31].The epoxide is highly unstable and binds with high affinity to guanine bases in DNA to form afltoxin-N7-guanine [32]. The aflatoxin-N7-guanine has been shown to be capable of forming guanine (purine) to thymine (pyrimidine) transversion mutations in DNA and hence affecting the p53 suppressor gene in the cell cycle [33, 34]. The p53 gene is important in preventing cell cycle progression when there are DNA mutations, or signaling apoptosis. The mutations have been reported to affect some base pair locations more than others especially in the third base of codon 249 of the p53 gene in the region corresponding to the DNA binding domain of the corresponding protein [13, 34]and this appears to be more susceptible to aflatoxin-mediated mutations than nearby bases [35]. AFB1 induces the transversion of base G to base T in the third position of codon 249 and similar mutations have been observed in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in high AFB1 contaminated food in regions in East Asia and Africa [34, 36, 37].
\n\t\t\t
Epoxide hydrolase and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) are both involved in hepatic detoxification of activated AFB1, but the GST-catalyzed conjugation of glutathione to AFB1-8,9-epoxides is thought to play the most important role in preventing epoxide binding to target macromolecules like DNA and various cell proteins [38]. Glutathione pathway is reported to play a vital role in the detoxification of AFB1 [39, 40]. The AFB1 8,9 exo and endoepoxides are conjugated by glutathione to form AFB-mercapturate and the reaction is catalyzed by glutathione S-transferase (GST) [39, 40]. The glutathione-aflatoxin conjugate is transported from the cells with an ATP-dependent multidrug-resistance protein through an accelerated process [39]. Despite a preference for conjugating the more mutagenic AFB1 exo-epoxide isomer, the relatively low capacity for GST-catalyzed detoxification of bio-activated AFB1 in lung may be an important factor in the susceptibility of the lung to AFB1 toxicity [4, 8, 41].The exo and endo epoxide can also be converted non-enzymatically to AFB1-8,9-dihydrodiol which in turn can slowly undergo a base-catalysed ring opening reaction to a dialdehyde phenolate ion [27]. AFB1 dialdehyde can form Schiff bases with lysine residues in serum albumin forming aflatoxin-albumin complex [42]. Also the aflatoxin dialdehyde are reduced to a dialcohol in a NADPH-dependent catalyzed reaction by aflatoxin aldehyde reductase (AFAR) [43]. However the guanine alkylation by aflatoxin B1 produces exo-8,9-epoxide which is the reactive form and a carcinogen to the liver and the reaction is more than 2000 times more efficient in DNA than in aqueous solution [44], (Figure 2).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Aflatoxin disease pathways in humans (Adopted from Wu, 2010; Wu, 2011)[10, 26]
\n\t\t\t
Figure 3.
Various check points that can be damaged by binding of aflatoxins and AF-8,9-epoxide causing the deregulation of the cell cycle; P –prophase, M-Metaphase, A- Anaphase, T- Telophase, S- Synthetic DNA phase, G1 and G2 – Gaps (growth phase) [47-49]
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Effect of aflatoxins on mitochondrial DNA
\n\t\t\t\t
The reactive aflatoxin-8,9-epoxide preferentially binds to mitochondrial DNA (mitDNA) during hepatocarcinogenesis as compared to nuclear DNA that hinder ATP production and FAD/NAD-linked enzymatic functions and this causes the disruption of mitochondrial functions in the various parts of the body that require production of energy in the form of ATP [45]. Aflatoxin damage to mitochondria can lead to mitochondrial diseases and may be responsible for aging mechanisms [45]. It is reported that certain mitochondrial diseases result from the ability of the nucleus to detect energetic deficits in its area. The nucleus attempts to compensate for the ATP shortages by triggering the replication of any nearby mitochondria but unfortunately, the response promotes replication of the very mitochondria that are causing the local energy deficit hence aggravating the problem [46]. The AFB1 also binds to DNA and cause structural DNA alterations that lead to gene mutations as well as changes in the length of the telomeres and the check points in the cell cycle [47-49]. The binding of AFB1 to DNA at the guanine base in liver cells corrupt the genetic code that regulates cell growth, thereby leading to formation of tumors ([45-49]. The damage to mitDNA is caused by adduction and mutations of mitochondrial membranes leading to increased cell death (apoptosis) as well as disruption of energy production (production of ATP) [46, 49, 50]. The reactive aflatoxin-8, 9-epoxide can affect the mitotic (M) phase, growth process (G1 and G2 phase) and DNA synthesis (S phase) in the cell cycle by disrupting the various check points that regulate the cell cycle development and proliferation leading to deregulation of the cell and hence cancer development [47-49], (Figure 3).
\n\t\t\t\t
However in resistant rodents, their mitDNA is protected from aflatoxins from DNA adducts that effect mitochondrial transcription and translation [46-49]. The mycotoxin alters energy-linked functions of ADP phosphorylation and FAD- and NAD-linked oxidizing substrates and α-ketoglutarate-succinate cytochrome reductases [46-49].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.2. Effect of aflatoxins on mitochondrial structure
\n\t\t\t\t
AFB causes ultrastuctural changes in mitochondria [46-49]and also induces mitochondrial directed apoptosis thus reducing their function [20, 29, 48-51]. Also the aflatoxins may affect the telomere length and the various check point in the cell cycle causing further damage to the regulatory processes of the cell cycle [51]. Also the extent of aflatoxin binding to DNA and its damage, the level of different proteins changes from cell cycle and apoptotic pathways such as c-Myc, p53, pRb, Ras, protein kinase A (PKA), protein kinase C (PKC), Bcl-2, NF-kB, CDK, cyclins and CKI contribute to the life or death decision making process that may contribute to the deregulation of the cell proliferation leading to cancer development [34, 48, 49](Figure 3).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.3. Role of glutathione in detoxification of aflatoxins and their metabolites
\n\t\t\t\t
However like in hepatic detoxification of aflatoxins and other chemicals, GSH act as antioxidant and has many functions in membrane maintenance and stability as well as in reducing oxidative stress factors and the high reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced from the process of lipid peroxidation [38-41, 46, 52-56]. The increased depletion of GSH leads to abnormally high levels of ROS found in cells affected by aflatoxin due to uncoupling of metabolic processes resulting from the lack of GSH for GSH-peroxidase catalysis of O2 to H2O2 leading to lipid peroxidation and compromised cell membranes. Its reduction further enhances the damage to critical cellular components (DNA, lipids, proteins) by the 8,9 epoxides. However the most serious adverse effects of the AFB1-8,9-epoxide metabolite is that it reacts with amino acids in DNA and forms an adduct [38-41, 46, 52-55]. The adduct are fairly resistant to DNA repair processes and this causes gene mutation that leads to liver cancers especially the hepatocellular carcinomas [38-41, 46, 52-55].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.4. The role of cytoplasmic reductase in detoxification of AFB1\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Also in the hepatocytes, AFB1 are converted to other different classes of metabolites by cytoplasmic reductase such as aflatoxicol and by microsomal mixed-function oxidase system to form AFM1, AGFQ1, AFP1 and AFB1 -epoxide (the most toxic and carcinogenic derivative) and these metabolites may be deposited in various body tissues as well as in edible animal products [38-41, 46, 52-55]. These metabolites other than the AFB1 are less toxic and are conjugated with other molecules that enhance their rapid elimination from the body [22]. The metabolite AFQ1 has very little cancer-causing potential and they are usually excreted in urine with little effect on the body.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.5. Effect of aflatoxins on protein synthesis
\n\t\t\t\t
The aflatoxin binds and interferes with enzymes and substrates that are needed in the initiation, transcription and translation processes involved in protein synthesis. They interacts of with purines and purine nucleosides and impair the process of protein synthesis by forming adducts with DNA, RNA and proteins [57]. Aflatoxin also inhibits RNA synthesis by interacting with the DNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity and thus causes degranulation of endoplasmic reticulum. Also the reduction in protein content in body tissues like in skeletal muscle, heart, liver and kidney could be due to increased liver and kidney necrosis [58]. AFB1 is a potent mutagenic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, and immunosuppressive and all these may interfere with normal process of protein synthesis as well as inhibition of several metabolic systems thus causing damages to various organs especially the liver, kidney and heart [59, 60].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t2.6. Role of aflatoxins in cancer\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxins especially AFB1, AFG1 and AFM1 are the most toxic, naturally occurring carcinogens known with AFB1 the most hepatocarcinogenic compound, causing various cancers of the liver and other body organs in humans and animals [4, 14, 45, 61]. Aflatoxin’s cancer-causing potential is due to its ability to produce altered forms of DNA adducts. The primary disease associated with aflatoxin intake is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC, or liver cancer). This disease is the third-leading cause of cancer death globally [4, 45, 61], with about 550,000–600,000 new cases each year. The incidence of liver cancer has been consistently higher in men than in women with a sex ratio ranging from 2 to 3 in most countries [9]. Eighty-three percent of these cancer deaths occur in East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa [62-64]. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common cancers worldwide with extremely poor prognosis. The majority of cases occur in south-east Asia and sub-Saharan Africa where the major risk factors of chronic infection with hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV and HCV) as well as dietary exposure to aflatoxins are a problem [9, 25, 61, 65]. Aflatoxin B1, the most commonly occurring and potent of the aflatoxins is associated with a specific AGG to AGT amino acid transversion mutation at codon 249 of the p53 gene in human HCC, providing mechanistic support to a causal link between exposure and disease [25, 26, 66, 67]. Liver cancer has an increasing incidence that parallels the rise in chronic hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis C (HCV) infection [25, 67, 68]. Chronic infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) can progress to advanced liver disease, including cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a form of primary liver cancer [25, 61, 67, 68]. HCC is the third leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide [69]. The data show that individuals positive for the hepatitis B virus and exposed to aflatoxin in the diet are about 60 times of risk for developing hepato-biliary carcinoma or liver cancer [26, 66, 67] especially in poor developing countries worldwide [67]. Reports have shown that a number of interactions exist between HBV and aflatoxins in development of hepatocellular carcinoma in humans. They may include the fixation of AFB1-induced mutations in the presence of liver regeneration and hyperplasia induced by chronic HBV infection, the predisposition of HBV-infected hepatocytes to aflatoxin induced DNA damage, an increase in susceptibility to chronic HBV infection in aflatoxin exposed individuals and oxidative stress exacerbated by co-exposure to aflatoxins and chronic hepatitis infection [61](Figure 4).
\n\t\t\t\t
In humans, epidemiological studies in Africa, Southeast Asia, USA and other countries of the west where there is a high incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma, have revealed an association between cancer incidence and the aflatoxin content of the diet [5, 6, 70]. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a major risk factor in the pathogenesis of liver cancer in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa [71]. Aflatoxin B1 is a potent liver carcinogen in a variety of experimental animals. It causes liver tumours in mice, rats, fish, marmosets, tree shrews and monkeys following administration by various routes. Types of cancers described in research animals include hepatocellular carcinoma (rats) colon and kidney (rats), cholangiocellular cancer (hamsters), lung adenomas (mice), and osteogenic sarcoma, adenocarcinoma of the gall bladder and carcinoma of the pancreas (monkeys) [5, 6, 12, 70].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Health effects of aflatoxins on human and animals (Aflatoxicosis)
\n\t\t\t
Aflatoxicosis is a condition caused by aflatoxins in both humans and animals. It occurs in two general forms (1) the acute primary aflatoxicosisis produced when moderate to high levels of aflatoxins are consumed. Specific acute episodes of disease may include hemorrhage, acute liver damage, edema, alteration in digestion, absorption and/or metabolism of nutrients, and possibly death [5, 6, 12, 69, 70]. Acute dietary exposure to AFB1 has been implicated in epidemics of acute hepatic injury [13, 72]. Evidence of acute aflatoxicosis in humans has been reported worldwide especially in the third world countries like Taiwan, Uganda, India, Kenya and many others [7]. (2) The chronic primary aflatoxicosis results from ingestion of low to moderate levels of aflatoxins (USAID, 2012). The effects are usually subclinical and difficult to recognize. Some of the common symptoms are impaired food conversion and slower rates of growth with or without the production of an overt aflatoxin syndrome [9]. The chronic forms of aflatoxicosis include (1) teratogenic effects associated with congenital malformations (2) mutagenic effects where aflatoxins cause changes (mutations) in the genetic code, altering DNA and these changes can be chromosomal breaks, rearrangement of chromosome pieces, gain or loss of entire chromosomes, or changes within a gene (3) the carcinogenic effect in which the carcinogenic mechanisms have been identified such as the genotoxic effect where the electrophilic carcinogens alter genes through interaction with DNA and thus becoming a potential for DNA damage and the genotoxic carcinogens that are sometimes effective after a single exposure, can act in a cumulative manner, or act with other genotoxic carcinogens which affect the same organs [50, 60]. Chronic effects of aflatoxin has been reported to impair the normal body immune function by either by reducing phagocytic activity or reduce T cell number and function as observed immunological suppression in animal model. Aflatoxins have also been reported to interfere with nutrition in a dose response relationship between exposure to aflatoxin and rate of growth in infants and children [4, 9, 20, 50, 60]. Aflatoxins also causes nutrient modification like vitamin A or D in animal models and thus making them unavailable for the normal body physiology and hence leads to nutritional deficiencies [7, 20].
\n\t\t\t
The contamination of foods and feeds with aflatoxin can cause serious consequences in human and animal health. It is estimated that more than 5 billion people in developing countries worldwide are at risk of chronic aflatoxin exposure due to consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated foods and of these more than 4 billion people develop aflatoxin related liver cancer especially the hepatocellular carcinoma [64, 69, 73, 74]. Aflatoxin exposure is mainly a problem in poor and developing countries with poor regulatory authorities in food processing and storage as well as with high levels of malnutrition. Aflatoxins have also been linked with kwashiorkor and marasmus in most of the sub-Saharan countries in children [20]. Many people in these countries experience chronic aflatoxicosis associated with long-term exposure to low to moderate levels of aflatoxin in the food supply chain. AFB1, AFB2 and AFM have been detected in liver, gall bladder, spleen, heart, muscle and kidney [75]. Aflatoxin B1 exposure results in both steatosis and accumulation of fat and necrosis or cell death of liver cells. The amount of aflatoxins consumed contributes to the mutagenic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, and immunosuppressive health effects in the body. The adverse effect of aflatoxins in humans ranges from acute hepatic toxicity to chronic disease such as liver cancer, haemorrhages, oedema, and even immediate death. Prolonged consumption of aflatoxins has also been reported to cause impaired immune function and malnutrition and stunted growth in children and a number of disabilities and death [7, 76, 77]. Human studies have reported that aflatoxins cause an increase in circulating alpha tumor necrosing factor, suggesting that these mycotoxins are also immunotoxic in humans. Due to the aflatoxin body immunosuppressant, it has been associated with HIV and tuberculosis [66, 67](Figure 2). Aflatoxins also pose a threat to developing fetuses and they are transferred from mother to infant in breast milk. Aflatoxins have been reported to be associated with a Reye-like Syndrome in Thailand, New Zealand, Czechoslovakia, the United States, Malaysia, Venezuela, and Europe [4, 50, 78].
\n\t\t\t
All species of animals are susceptible to aflatoxicosis and the susceptibility of individual animals to aflatoxicosis varies considerably depending on dose, duration of exposure, species, age, sex and nutrition. AFB1, AFB2 and AFM have been detected in liver, gall bladder, spleen, heart, muscle and kidney of growing swine when protein and protein-free portions of the diet were separately fed [75]. Chronic exposure of aflatoxins to animals causes immunosuppression and also interferes with protein metabolism and multiple micronutrients that are critical to health due to adduct formation. These adduct are responsible for mutations, cancer, immunosuppression, lung injury and birth defects [46]. In animals, the aflatoxins cause liver damage, decreased milk production, reduced reproductively and suppressed immunity in animals consuming low dietary concentrations. The aflatoxicosis syndrome in animals may also be characterized by vomiting, abdominal pain, pulmonary oedema, convulsions, coma, and death with cerebral edema and fatty involvement of the liver, kidneys, and heart. In dairy and beef cattle, the signs of acute toxicosis include anorexia, depression, dramatic drop in milk production, weight loss, lethargy, gastrointestinal dysfunctions such as ascitis, icterus, tenesmus, abdominal pain, bloody diarrhoea, decreased feed intake and efficiency; weight loss, jaundice, abortion, hepatoencephalopathy, blindness, walking in circles, ear twitching, frothy mouth, photosensitization, bleeding and death [4, 6, 22, 79]. In poultry, beside inappetance, weight loss, decreased egg production, leg and bone problems, poor pigmentation, fatty liver, kidney dysfunction, bruising and death, suppression to natural immunity and susceptibility to parasitic, bacterial and viral infections can occur [6, 22], (Figure 4).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 4.
Aflatoxin disease pathways in humans (Adopted from Wu, 2010; USAID, 2012; WHO, 2011; Wu and Tritscher, 2011) [7, 26, 80]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Biological effect of aflatoxins on the body organs and body systems
\n\t\t\t
Aflatoxins have been reported to affect the various body organs like the liver, kidneys, lungs, brain, testes and many endocrine and exocrine organs, the heart, skeletal muscles and the different body systems.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.1. Role of aflatoxins in hepatic injury and other body organs and tissues
\n\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxins have been reported to cause liver cirrhosis as well as liver cancers [4, 6, 7, 26, 80]. Hepatic injury can be acute or chronic form caused by a variety of toxic agents like aflatoxins, chemicals and drugs, trauma and infectious agents [2, 4, 6, 7, 26, 61, 76, 80, 81]. The reduced level of total protein is indicative of the toxic effect of AFB1 to the liver due to the failure in synthesis of the proteins and kidney in which aflatoxins are known to impair protein biosynthesis by forming adducts with DNA, RNA and proteins, inhibits RNA synthesis, DNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity and causes degranulation of endoplasmic reticulum [58-60]. Acute hepatic injury due to aflatoxin causes a rise in serum enzymes including aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, glutamate dehyrogenase, gamma-glutamyltransferase and alkaline phosphatase and bilirubin that reflect liver damage as well as other biochemical changes such as proteinura, ketonuria, glycosuria and hematuria [4, 5, 40]. The other frequently used liver enzymes are the alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and Gamma-glutamyltransferase and gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT and GGTP) that indicate obstruction to the biliary system, either within the liver or in the larger bile channels outside the liver [9, 45, 61]. The presence of jaundice and neurological disorders due to brain damage leading to hepatic encephalopathy are associated with liver failure. Chronic liver failure leads to accumulation of metabolites in circulation such as ammonia and fatty acids that eventually lead to brain damage and hence hepatic encephalopathy [40, 82]. The liver failure makes it unable to detoxify ammonia, the product of protein and amino acid metabolism leading to hyperammonemia that may cross the blood brain barrier leading to increased synthesis of glutamate neurotransmitters henceleading to cytotoxicity of the brain cells and hence the hepatic encephalopathy [82-84]. AFB1 has been reported to cause pallor discoloration of liver and enlargement of liver and kidneys, congestion of liver parenchyma, cytoplasmic vaculation or fatty change of hepatocytes, necrosis of hepatocytes and newly formed bile ducts, mononuclear and heterophilic cell infiltration are reported in aflatoxin fed broiler chicks [85]. It is also reported that there is a decrease in protein content in skeletal muscle, heart, liver and kidney in aflatoxin-fed animals due to the AFB1’s potent mutagenic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, immunosuppressive and its ability to inhibits several metabolic systems such as protein synthesis thus leading to liver, kidney and heart damage [58-60]. In chicken, the activity of serum or plasma enzymes like the sorbitol dehydrogenase, glutamic dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase were reported to be increased in aflatoxicated chickens [22].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.2. Effect of aflatoxins on the central nervous system
\n\t\t\t\t
In the brain or central nervous system, the neurons have a high metabolic rate but little capacity for anaerobic metabolism and subsequently, inadequate oxygen flow to the brain kills the neuronal brain cells within minutes. Some compounds damage neurons or neurotoxic and thus inhibit their function. Mycotoxins especially aflatoxins and its metabolites and other products such as the reactive oxygen species (ROS) like the AFB-8,9-epoxides may interfere with the normal functioning of the nerve cells by forming DNA adducts, protein adducts, oxidative stress factors, mitochondrial directed apoptosis of the nerve cells as well as inhibiting their synthesis of protein, RNA and DNA [40, 44, 47, 50, 52, 54]. Aflatoxins also cause abnormalities in mitochondrial DNA, structure and function, including defective oxidative phosphorylation in the brain cells [29, 49, 50, 54]. The oxidative stress may result in damage to critical cellular macromolecules such as DNA, lipids and proteins. Cellular fatty acids are readily oxidized by ROS to produce lipid peroxyl radicals which can subsequently propagate into MDA that may interact with cellular DNA to cause DNA-MDA adduct that may affect energy production in the brain [29, 49, 50, 54]. The role of ROS has been postulated in the development of aging and chronic degenerative diseases, inflammatory diseases and brain cancers [52]. Aflatoxins may also deplete the myelin sheath of the nerves, an important substance that covers the nerves and hence become exposed to insults. Mycotoxins especially aflatoxins have been reported to be toxic to various aspects of brain chemistry and their function [4, 50, 82]. AFB1 also alters the levels of various biogenic amines (neurotransmitters) and their precursors in rat and mouse brains. Acute AFB1 treatment in experimental animals has been reported to cause a decrease in regional brain acetylcholinesterase enzymes that may affect the cognitive functions as well as memory and learning of the individual while chronic exposure increases adenohypophyseal acetylcholinesterase [24]. Aflatoxin causes a decrease in dopamine, serotonin and alterations in the levels of the precursor’s tyrosine and tryptophan [86-88]. Deficiencies in these neurotransmitter lead to neurological symptoms such as neurocognitive decline and alteration of sleep cycle and symptoms of brain damage like dullness, restlessness, muscle tremor, convulsions, loss of memory, epilepsy, idiocy, loss of muscle coordination, and abnormal sensations [89, 90]. AFB1 has also been reported to increase the central and peripheral nervous system Na+/K+-ATPase, β-glucuronidase and β-galactosidase while inhibiting the Mg2+-ATPse in experimental animals and this also is important in the normal functioning of the glutamate neurotransmitter and their NMDA receptors [24, 53, 91-93]. The liver failure makes it unable to detoxify ammonia, the product of protein and amino acid metabolism leading to hyperammonemia that may cross the blood brain barrier leading to increased synthesis of glutamate neurotransmitters hence leading to cytotoxicity of the brain cells and hence the hepatic encephalopathy [82-84]. Toxic encephalopathy was originally described in children with Reye’s syndrome associated with consumption of Aflatoxin B1 and/or salicylates [78] and subsequently in cases of aflatoxicosis in canines and Chinese children were reported [94]. Aflatoxins also have been linked to Reye\'s syndrome that is characterized by symptoms of encephalopathy and fatty degeneration of the viscera. It is a pediatric disease characterized by cerebral edema and neuronal degeneration. Toxic encephalopathy due to aflatoxins involves multiple symptoms like loss of balance, recent memory decline, headaches, lightheadedness, spaciness/disorientation, insomnia, loss of coordination [4, 18, 50, 82]. Aflatoxins have been reported to be associated with a Reye-like Syndrome in Thailand, New Zealand, Czechoslovakia, the United States, Malaysia, Venezuela and Europe [4, 9, 24, 50, 78]. Aflatoxins especially AFB1 have been reported to cause tumors in both the central and peripheral nervous system and several nonepithelial neurogenic tumors like the schwannomas, gliomas, meningiomas and granular cell tumors have been reported [24].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.3. Effect of aflatoxins on the gastrointestinal tract (GIT)
\n\t\t\t\t
The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is the main route of entry of aflatoxins as a result of consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated foods especially AFB1. It is also the main route of excretion aflatoxin metabolites from the bile. The aflatoxins, metabolites and AF-8,9-epoxides have been reported to cause intestinal tumors especially the human colon cancers like colon carcinomas and similar results have been reported in experimental animals [24]. Aflatoxins have also been reported to cause serious acute effects on the GIT [95]. Aflatoxins have been implicated as potential factors in the increased incidence of human gastrointestinal and hepatic neoplasms in Africa, Philippines and China [22]. Aflatoxins have been reported to cause digestive system effects such as diarrhea, vomiting, intestinal hemorrhage, and liver necrosis and fibrosis [89]. Aflatoxins have been reported also to damage the integrity of the pancreas. In domestic animals, aflatoxins cause changes in the GIT physiology especially decreased rumen motility and function in cows [24]. In birds, aflatoxins interfere with intestinal morphology, sialic acid production and apparent digestible energy [96].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.4. Effect of aflatoxins on the respiratory system
\n\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxins have reported to have serious acute effects on the respiratory systems [95].The respiratory tract is the only organ system with vital functional elements in constant and direct contact with the environment [97]. Many people working in food industries as their occupational setting get exposed to aflatoxins especially AFB1 when they inhale aflatoxin-contaminated dusts like during grain shelling and processing and have been reported to have a higher incidences of upper respiratory tract and lung cancers [24, 95]. In experimental animals, AFB1 was reported to induce 100% pulmonary adenomas. In the respiratory tract, aflatoxins may also be converted to active metabolites like in the nasal mucosa [23]. It is also reported that the intranasal administration of AFB1 lead to formation of tissue-bound metabolites in subtentacular cells, bowman\'s glands and in neuronal cells in the olfactory mucosa but there is no evidence that AFB1 may induce tumours in olfactory bulbs [98]. Epoxide hydrolase and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) are both involved in hepatic detoxification of activated AFB1 but the GST-catalyzed conjugation of glutathione to AFB1-8,9-epoxides is thought to play more important role in preventing epoxide binding to target macromolecules [23, 89, 99]. However, the low capacity for GST-catalyzed detoxification of bio-activated AFB1 in lung may be an important factor in the susceptibility of the lung to AFB1 toxicity ([41]. Nose-only inhalation exposure of rats to AFB1 aerosols suppressed alveolar macrophage (AM). Intratracheal administration of AFB1 also suppressed the release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha from AMs and impaired systemic innate and acquired immune defenses as well as suppression of peritoneal macrophage phagocytosis and the primary splenic antibody response thus leading to suppression of respiratory tract defenses system [99].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.5. Effect of aflatoxins on the cardiovascular system, blood and blood cells
\n\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxins have reported to have serious acute effects on the cardiovascular systems including vascular fragility and hemorrhaging in tissues [58, 89, 95] as well as heart damage and teratogenic effects [59, 60]. It is reported that there is a decrease in protein content of the muscles of these tissues and organs as well as inhibition of their metabolic processes attributable by the aflatoxin consumption of contaminated foods [59, 60].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.6. Effect of aflatoxins on the blood and blood cells
\n\t\t\t\t
The aflatoxins and its metabolites as well as the generated reactive oxygen species(ROS) has been reported to have a deleterious effects on the bone and blood cells as well as induction of cancers on the hemopoietic system in bone marrow and lymphoid organs where blood, blood cells and blood components are produced [52]. The blood system can be damaged by agents that affect blood cell production (bone marrow), the components of blood (platelets, red blood cells, and white blood cells), or the oxygen-carrying capacity of red blood cells or impair blood clotting and their poor growth rates. Oxidative damage by the AFB1 on human lymphocytes has been reported [100] and significant declines in both the proportion of peripheral blood lymphocytes and in the percentages of ANAE-positive peripheral blood lymphocytes (T-lymphocytes) in a dose dependent manner has been observed [101]. Aflatoxins have been linked to anemia in pregnancy [7, 102] and alterations in erythrocytes during induced chronic aflatoxicosis in rabbit also have been reported [103, 104]. Aflatoxin causes hematopietic suppression and anemia, decrease in total erythrocytes, packed-cell volume and hemoglobin [16] as well as toxicity to red blood cells [103]. Aflatoxin is known to produce hemolytic anemia by decreasing the circulating mature erythrocytes [104]and consequently the spleen appear congested because of an unusually high concentration of inorganic iron and debris from the circulation [103, 104]. In birds, AFB1 is reported to causes hematological changes [105]. Aflatoxicosis has been reported to cause lymphocytopenia and monocytopenia and increased percentage of neutrophil counts [106]. In cattle, aflatoxins are reported to cause blood coagulation defects that may involve impairment of prothrombin, factors VII and X and possibly factor IX and similar effects are reported in dogs [5]. Generally aflatoxins have been reported to depress growth and alter many aspects of humoral and cellular immunity and thus affecting the hematological parameters [101, 107].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.7. Effect of aflatoxins on the urinary system
\n\t\t\t\t
The kidney is susceptible to many toxic agents due to the high amount of blood it receives and about 20-25% of blood that flows in at rest coupled with the large amounts of circulating toxicants that reach the kidneys [89]. The kidneys also have high oxygen and nutrient requirements because of their workload and therefore filters one-third of the blood reaching them and reabsorb 98-99% of the salt and water. Different parts of the nephrone are exposed to aflatoxins especially the AFB1 and its metabolites leading to nephrotoxicity before it is excreted in the urine [24, 58]. The aflatoxin induced reduction in protein content has been reported to be due to increased necrosis of the kidney [58-60, 90]. AFB1 has been reported to cause kidney tumors in experimental animals and a mixture of AFB and AFG was observed to cause renal and hepatic tumors in 80% of hamsters [24]. There were also renal lesions with features of megalocytosis in the proximal renal tubules. In Africa, birds exposed to AFB1 were reported to develop fatty and hemorrhagic kidney syndrome, thickening of the glomerular basement membrane, abnormal development of glomerular epithelial cells and degenerative changes in renal tubular cells, congestion and parenchyma hemorrhage [24, 85]. In other animals, there was a reduction in the glomerular filtration rate, glucose reabsorption and tubular transport of electrolytes and organic anions, reduced activities of renal glutamate-oxaloacetate and pyruvate transaminases and alkaline phosphatase in rats attributed to by the aflatoxins and their metabolites as well as the generated ROS. There was induced aggregation and loss of chromatin, mitochondrial degeneration and loss of microvilli induced by AFB1 in cultured kidney cell lines [24, 85].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.8. Effect of aflatoxins on the endocrine system
\n\t\t\t\t
Aflatoxin especially AFB has been reported to interfere with the functioning of the various endocrine gland by disrupting the enzymes and their substrates that are responsible for the synthesis of the various hormones. Aflatoxins and their metabolites as well as the generated ROS have been reported to cause various cancers in different endocrine glands like pituitary gland, granulosa cell tumors of the ovary and adenomas and adenocarcinomas of the adrenal gland, kidneys, thyroid gland, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands and endocrine pancreas [4, 90, 108]. The plasma testosterone and luteinizing hormone (LH) concentrations have been reported to reduce in aflatoxin-fed birds [90]. In laboratory animals, aflatoxin causes delayed maturation of both males and females [4, 22, 90, 109]. Aflatoxicosis in white leghorn males chicken decreased feed consumption, body weight, testes weight and semen volume (Sharlin et al., 1980) and decreased plasma testosterone values [22].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.9. Effect of aflatoxins on the reproductive system
\n\t\t\t\t
In humans exposed to chronic aflatoxin-contaminated foods, it has been reported that higher concentrations of aflatoxins occur in the semen of infertile men [3]. It is also associated with low birth weight, a risk factor for jaundice in infants as well as presence of AFM in maternal breast milk where it can cause deleterious effect in the newborns [102]. In Nigeria, about 37% of the infertile men had aflatoxin in their blood and semen hence contributing to the incidence of infertility in Nigerians [110]. Experimental results indicate that certain agents like aflatoxins can interfere with the reproductive capabilities of sexes, causing sterility, infertility, and abnormal sperm, low sperm count, and/or affect hormone activity in animals. Aflatoxins have been reported to disrupt the reproductive system in both male and female animals after ingestion of aflatoxin-contaminated foods. Aflatoxins also cause pathological alterations in the form of coagulative necrosis especially in the growing and mature follicles and decrease in number and size of graffian and growing follicles with increased number of atretic follicles and small areas of degenerative changes in experimental animals [111]. AFB1 has been reported to have a deleterious effect on the reproductive capacity of laboratory and domestic female animals where they cause reductions in ovarian and uterine sizes, increases fetal resorption, implantation loss and intra-uterine death in the aflatoxin exposed female rats [111]. They also cause a reduction in the primary spermatocytes and spermatids [112] and affect the morphology of the sperm cells produced [113]. Stillbirths were reported in the 15th to the 18th days of pregnancy in rats [108]. The levels of plasma testosterone, plasma 5a-DHT and absolute and relative testes weights were reported in experimental animals of aflatoxin-treated males remained low in all age groups and a delay in the onset of sexual maturation during aflatoxicosis [114]. In cows, aflatoxins affected the reproductive system by causing abortion, the birth of weak, deformed calves, reduced fertility due to reduced vitamin A levels [109]. The teratogenic effects of AFB1 were described as enlarged eye sockets and enlarged liver of embryos [60]. In poultry, AFB1 cause a reduction in semen volume, testes weight, spermatocrit and plasma testosterone as well as a reduction in egg output [24].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5. Effect of aflatoxins on the immune system
\n\t\t\t
Chronic consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated foods has been reported to cause immunosuppression in both humans and animals worldwide [7, 89]. In human, aflatoxins affect both the cellular and humoral immune responses where they alter immunological parameters in participants with high AFB1 levels resulting in impairments in cellular immunity hence decreasing the host resistance to infections [115-117]. Aflatoxin exposure has been shown to cause immune suppression, particularly in cell-mediated responses [115-117]. Chronic exposures of the individual to aflatoxins depress the phagocytic efficiency of the phagocytes and the delayed hypersensitivity reactions in birds [24]. Aflatoxins also deplete the cell populations of the thymus; reduce the bone marrow and the red and white blood cells count, macrophage numbers and the phagocytic activity of the cells [24]. It also depresses the T-cell-dependent functions of splenic lymphocytes in mice. The natural killer cell function of the peripheral blood lymphocytes are also affected by aflatoxins especially AFB1 [24]. A reduction in the leukocyte immunophenotypes in peripheral blood, CD4+ T cell proliferative response, CD4+ T and CD8+ T cell cytokine profiles and monocyte phagocytic activity were reported. Children in developing countries appear to be naturally exposed to aflatoxin through their diet at levels that compromise the immune system. In general, the proportion of childhood growth stunting is directly correlated with the proportion of the population living below the national poverty line and is inversely correlated with gross domestic product per capita [7, 45]. As is the case with liver cancer, childhood stunting is prominent in regions such as Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, where aflatoxin exposure through consuming contaminated food is common [7, 45]. It has been reported that the immunosuppression and nutritional effects of chronic aflatoxin exposure may be linked to the high prevalence of HIV in Southern Africa [7, 74, 118, 119]. The CD4 proteins that have been weakened by aflatoxin exposure have been reported to correlate positively with HIV infection [116]. Also high aflatoxin levels have been reported to increase risk of developing tuberculosis in HIV positive individuals. Persons who are exposed to aflatoxin and are HIV positive have decreased plasma vitamin A and vitamin E in the blood, although there was no interaction detected between aflatoxin and HIV infection [120]. HIV infection is likely to increase aflatoxin exposure by two possible routes: (1) HIV infection decreases the levels of antioxidant nutrients that promote the detoxification of aflatoxin, or (2) the high degree of co-infection of HIV-infected people with hepatitis B also increases the biological exposure to aflatoxin [7, 118, 119]. Aflatoxin induce immunosuppression and increases susceptibility of toxicated birds and animals to bacterial, viral and parasitic infections [58]. It also affects the lymphoid follicles of caecum thus depleting the lymphocytes that may contribute to the observed immunosuppression [117]. Aflatoxin decreases the concentrations of immunoglobulins IgM, IgG and IgA in birds as well as decrease complement activity in chickens [22, 121]. The low dose of AFB1 slightly decrease both mRNA and protein levels of lymphocytic IL-2, IFNγ and it preferentially affects macrophage functions as well as IL-1α, IL-6 and TNF production by these cells [121, 122]. Aflatoxin suppression of the immune system therefore subjects the individual to high risk of susceptible to infectious diseases like parasitic, bacterial and viral infections [123].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6. Conclusion
\n\t\t\t
Chronic consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated foods is a common problem in both humans and animals worldwide especially in poor developing nations of south East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa where there is poor food harvesting, processing and storage of food and food products thus allowing the growth of mold on them. Aflatoxins, their metabolites, the aflatoxin-8,9-epoxide and the generated ROS causes deleterious effects on the various body organs and body systems including the development of cancers especially the liver cancer mainly due to AFB1 exposure. Aflatoxins are also responsible for the suppression of both the humoral and cell-mediated immunity and thus making individuals susceptible to infectious diseases. Aflatoxins also responsible for the malabsorption of various nutrients thus leading to nutritional deficiencies, impaired immune function, malnutrition and stunted growth and hence the development of kwashiorkor and marasmus in infants. Aflatoxins also can affect almost all the different body systems and hence the health of the affected individuals especially in poor developing nations of south East Asia and sub-saharan Africa where there is poor food harvesting, processing and storage thus allowing the growth of mold on them.
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/38731.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/38731.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/38731",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/38731",totalDownloads:7968,totalViews:2800,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:62,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"March 2nd 2012",dateReviewed:"July 1st 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 23rd 2013",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/38731",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/38731",book:{slug:"aflatoxins-recent-advances-and-future-prospects"},signatures:"Godfrey S. Bbosa, David Kitya, A. Lubega, Jasper Ogwal-Okeng, William W. Anokbonggo and David B. Kyegombe",authors:[{id:"152453",title:"Dr.",name:"S. Godfrey",middleName:null,surname:"Bbosa",fullName:"S. Godfrey Bbosa",slug:"s.-godfrey-bbosa",email:"godfossa@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and mechanisms of action of aflatoxins",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Effect of aflatoxins on mitochondrial DNA",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Effect of aflatoxins on mitochondrial structure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Role of glutathione in detoxification of aflatoxins and their metabolites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. The role of cytoplasmic reductase in detoxification of AFB1\n\t\t\t\t",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Effect of aflatoxins on protein synthesis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"\n\t\t\t\t\t2.6. Role of aflatoxins in cancer\n\t\t\t\t",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Health effects of aflatoxins on human and animals (Aflatoxicosis)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Biological effect of aflatoxins on the body organs and body systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.1. Role of aflatoxins in hepatic injury and other body organs and tissues",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2. Effect of aflatoxins on the central nervous system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.3. Effect of aflatoxins on the gastrointestinal tract (GIT)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.4. Effect of aflatoxins on the respiratory system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.5. Effect of aflatoxins on the cardiovascular system, blood and blood cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.6. Effect of aflatoxins on the blood and blood cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.7. Effect of aflatoxins on the urinary system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.8. Effect of aflatoxins on the endocrine system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.9. Effect of aflatoxins on the reproductive system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. Effect of aflatoxins on the immune system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBankole\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAdebanjo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tReview of mycotoxins in food in West Africa: current situation and possibilities of controlling it.\n\t\t\t\t\tAfrican Journal of Biotechnology\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t9\n\t\t\t\t\t254\n\t\t\t\t\t263\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBennett\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKlich\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tMycotoxins.\n\t\t\t\t\tClinical Microbiology Reviews\n\t\t\t\t\t16\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t497\n\t\t\t\t\t516\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGupta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxins\n\t\t\t\t\tOchratoxins and Citrinins. Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology\n\t\t\t\t\t55\n\t\t\t\t\t753\n\t\t\t\t\t761\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B4",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tINCHEM\n\t\t\t\t\tPrinciples of evaluating chemical effects on the aged population: International Programme on chemical Safety- Environmental Health Criteria 144 World Health Orgnization, Geneva,1993\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc144.htm\n\t\t\t\t\t(Accessed on 19th June 2012)\n\t\t\t\t\t1993\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B5",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxins\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. L. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tNational Library of Medicine. Hazardous Substance Data Base.\n\t\t\t\t\tToxnet (National Data Network)\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThrasher\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxicosis in animals.\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxins and Health\n\t\t\t\t\twww.alphaboostjuice.com/AFLATOXICOSIS_IN_ANIMALS.pdf\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B7",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tUSAID\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin: A Synthesis of the Research in Health, Agriculture and Trade.\n\t\t\t\t\t Feed the Future: The Office of Regional Economic Integration USAID East Africa Regional Mission Nairobi, Kenya\n\t\t\t\t\twww.eastafrica.usaid.gov/…esearch_in_Health_Agriculture_and_Trade/pdf\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\t10\n\t\t\t\t\t15\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B8",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhitlow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.W.W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHagler\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiaz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tmycotoxinsin in feeds.\n\t\t\t\t\tFeedstuffs\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://fdsmagissues.feedstuffs.com/fds/Reference_2010 13_MycotoxinsinFeeds.pdf\n\t\t\t\t\t74\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B9",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tWHO\n\t\t\t\t\tHazardous Chemicals in Humans and Environmental Health: International Programme on Chemical safety, Geneva, Switzerland.\n\t\t\t\t\tWorld Health Organisation\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_PCS_00.1.pdf\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\t7\n\t\t\t\t\t9\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B10",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t The Health economics of aflatoxins: Global burden of disease Aflacontrol Working Paper 4 FebruaryInternational Food Policy Research Institute. 2033 K Street, NW Washington, DC 20006-1002 USA\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t16\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B11",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLopez\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin B1 in human serum: Aflatoxin B1 content in patients with hepatic diseases.\n\t\t\t\t\tMedicina (Buenos Aires)\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\t313\n\t\t\t\t\t316\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B12",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOtsuki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWilson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSewadeh\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tA Race to the Top?\n\t\t\t\t\tA Case Study of Food Safety Standards and African Exports. Development Research Group (DECRG), World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 USA. 1424_wps 2563.pdf\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B13",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSudakin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tDietary aflatoxin exposure and chemoprevention of cancer: A clinical review.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Toxicology and Clinical Toxicology\n\t\t\t\t\t41\n\t\t\t\t\t195\n\t\t\t\t\t204\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B14",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKitya\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBbosa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMulogo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009Aflatoxin levels in common foods of South Western Uganda: a risk factor to hepatocellular carcinoma. European Journal of Cancer Care. 10.1111/j.1365-2354.2009.01087.x\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B15",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCortés\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tIdentification and quantification of aflatoxins and aflatoxicol from poultry feed and their recovery poultry litter \n\t\t\t\t\tPoultry Science\n\t\t\t\t\t89\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t993\n\t\t\t\t\t1001\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B16",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tReddy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. V.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWaliyar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tProperties of aflatoxin and its producing fungi.\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxins\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.icrisat.org/aflatoxin/aflatoxin.asp\n\t\t\t\t\t(Accessed on 8th June 2012)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B17",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSmith\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSivewright-Henderson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tMycotoxins and animal foods.\n\t\t\t\t\tCRC Press\n\t\t\t\t\t978-0-84934-904-1\n\t\t\t\t\t614\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThrasher\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCrawley\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Biontaminants and Complexity of Damp Indoor Spacs: More than Meets the Eyes\n\t\t\t\t\tToxicology and Industrial Health\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://drthrasher.org/page63.html\n\t\t\t\t\t(Accessed on 10th June 2012)\n\t\t\t\t\t25\n\t\t\t\t\t583\n\t\t\t\t\t616\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSalhab\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1977\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxicol M1: A new metabolite of aflatoxicol.\n\t\t\t\t\tXenobiotica\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://toxicology.usu.edu/endnote/Aflatoxicol-new-metabolic.pdf\n\t\t\t\t\t401\n\t\t\t\t\t408\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tPeraica, M., et al., Toxic effects of mycotoxins in humans.\n\t\t\t\t\tBulletin of the World Health Organization.\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://whqlibdoc.who.int/bulletin/1999/9 bulletin_1999_77%289%29_754-766.pdf\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\t754\n\t\t\t\t\t766\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B21",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThomas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tToxicity of aflatoxins from selected consumables in Lagos (Nigeria).\n\t\t\t\t\tElectronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t1111\n\t\t\t\t\t1116\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAgag\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB. I.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tMycotoxins in foods and feeds : Aflatoxins.\n\t\t\t\t\tAssociation of Universal Bullettin of Environmental Research\n\t\t\t\t\t7\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t173\n\t\t\t\t\t191\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLarsson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTjalve\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tIntranasal instillation of Aflatoxin B1 in rats: Bioactivation in the nasal mucosa and neuronal transport to the olfactory bulb.\n\t\t\t\t\tToxicological Science\n\t\t\t\t\t55\n\t\t\t\t\t383\n\t\t\t\t\t391\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B24",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCoulombe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJr \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1994\n\t\t\t\t\tNonhepatic disposition and effects of aflatoxin B1.\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Toxicology of Aflatoxins: Human Health, Veterinary and Agricultural significance.\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://toxicology.usu.edu/endnote/Nonhepatic-disposition.pdf.\n\t\t\t\t\t89\n\t\t\t\t\t101\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWild\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMontesano\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tA model of interaction: Aflatoxins and hepatitis viruses in liver cancer aetiology and prevention.\n\t\t\t\t\tCancer Letters\n\t\t\t\t\t286\n\t\t\t\t\t22\n\t\t\t\t\t28\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B26",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKhlangwiset\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tHealth economic impacts and cost-effectiveness of aflatoxin reduction strategies in Africa: Case studies in biocontrol and postharvest interventions.\n\t\t\t\t\t Food Additives & Contaminants\n\t\t\t\t\t27\n\t\t\t\t\t496\n\t\t\t\t\t509\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B27",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGuengerich\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tActivation and detoxication of aflatoxin B1.\n\t\t\t\t\tMutatation Research\n\t\t\t\t\t402\n\t\t\t\t\t121\n\t\t\t\t\t128\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B28",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWild\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTurner\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tThe toxicology of aflatoxins as a basis for public health decisions.\n\t\t\t\t\tMutagenesis\n\t\t\t\t\t17\n\t\t\t\t\t471\n\t\t\t\t\t481\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B29",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tStructure-function relationships of human liver cytochromes 450A: aflatoxin B1 metabolism as a probe.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiochemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t37\n\t\t\t\t\t12536\n\t\t\t\t\t12545\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B30",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKitada\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tMutagenic activation of aflatoxin B1 by 450HFLa in human fetal livers.\n\t\t\t\t\tMutation Research\n\t\t\t\t\t227\n\t\t\t\t\t53\n\t\t\t\t\t58\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B31",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRaney\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHarris\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStone\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1993\n\t\t\t\t\tDNA conformation mediates aflatoxin B1-DNA binding and the formation of guanine N7 adducts by aflatoxin B1 8,9-exo-epoxide.\n\t\t\t\t\tChemical Research in Toxicology\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t64\n\t\t\t\t\t68\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B32",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tGuengerich, F.P., Forging the links between metabolism and carcinogenesis.Mutation Research, 2001\n\t\t\t\t\t195\n\t\t\t\t\t209\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B33",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBailey\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tMutational properties of the primary aflatoxin B1-DNA adduct.\n\t\t\t\t\tProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA.\n\t\t\t\t\t93\n\t\t\t\t\t1535\n\t\t\t\t\t1539\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B34",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1993\n\t\t\t\t\tAberrations of 53 gene in human hepatocellular carcinoma from China.\n\t\t\t\t\tCarcinogenesis\n\t\t\t\t\t14\n\t\t\t\t\t169\n\t\t\t\t\t173\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B35",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAguilar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHussain\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCerutti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1993\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin B1 induces the transversion of G-->T in codon 249 of the 53 tumor suppressor gene in human hepatocytes.\n\t\t\t\t\tPNAS\n\t\t\t\t\t90\n\t\t\t\t\t18\n\t\t\t\t\t8586\n\t\t\t\t\t90\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B36",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGerbes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCaselmann\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1993\n\t\t\t\t\tPoint mutations of the 53 gene, human hepatocellular carcinoma and aflatoxins.\n\t\t\t\t\t Journal of Hepatology\n\t\t\t\t\t19\n\t\t\t\t\t312\n\t\t\t\t\t315\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B37",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMace\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin B1-induced DNA adduct formation and 53 mutations in CYP450-expressing human liver cell lines.\n\t\t\t\t\tCarcinogenesis\n\t\t\t\t\t18\n\t\t\t\t\t1291\n\t\t\t\t\t1297\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B38",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSherratt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHayes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tGlutathione S-transferase.\n\t\t\t\t\tEnzyme systems that m,etabolise drugs and other xenobiotics\n\t\t\t\t\t9\n\t\t\t\t\t320\n\t\t\t\t\t351\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B39",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFarombi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. O.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNwaokeafor\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tAnti-oxidant mechanisms of kolaviron: studies on serum lipoprotein oxidation, metal chelation and oxidative membrane damage in rats.\n\t\t\t\t\tClininical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology\n\t\t\t\t\t32\n\t\t\t\t\t667\n\t\t\t\t\t674\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B40",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJohnson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tConjugation of highly reactive aflatoxin B1 exo-8,9-epoxide catalyzed by rat and human glutathione transferases: estimation of kinetic parameters.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiochemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t36\n\t\t\t\t\t3056\n\t\t\t\t\t3060\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B41",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStewart\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSerabjit-Singh\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMassey\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tGlutathione S-transferase-catalyzed conjugation of bioactivated aflatoxin B1 in rabbit lung and liver.\n\t\t\t\t\tToxicology and Applied Pharmacology\n\t\t\t\t\t140\n\t\t\t\t\t499\n\t\t\t\t\t507\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B42",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSabbioni\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1991\n\t\t\t\t\tWild, Identification of an aflatoxin G1-serum albumin adduct and its relevance to the measurement of human exposure to aflatoxins.\n\t\t\t\t\tCarcinogenesis\n\t\t\t\t\t12\n\t\t\t\t\t97\n\t\t\t\t\t103\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B43",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKnight\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tcDNA cloning, expression and activity of a second human aflatoxin B1 metabolizing member of the aldo-keto reductase superfamily, AKR7A3.\n\t\t\t\t\tCarcinogenesis\n\t\t\t\t\t20\n\t\t\t\t\t1215\n\t\t\t\t\t1223\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B44",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBrown\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tInherent Stereospecificity in the Reaction of Aflatoxin B1 8,9-Epoxide with Deoxyguanosine and Efficiency of DNA Catalysis.\n\t\t\t\t\tChemical Research in Toxicology\n\t\t\t\t\t22\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t913\n\t\t\t\t\t917\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B45",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tWHO\n\t\t\t\t\tWorld Health Statistics\n\t\t\t\t\tWorld Health Organisation, Geneva\n\t\t\t\t\tRetrieved from\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS08_Full.pdf.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B46",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWallace\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tMitochondrial DNA in aging and disease.\n\t\t\t\t\tScientific American\n\t\t\t\t\t40\n\t\t\t\t\t47\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B47",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEzekiel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tStudies on Dietary Aflatoxin-induced Genotoxicity using two In vivo bioassays.\n\t\t\t\t\tArchives of Applied Science Research\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t97\n\t\t\t\t\t106\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B48",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJacotot\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFerri\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKroemer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tApoptosis and cell cycle: distinct checkpoints with overlapping upstream control.\n\t\t\t\t\tPathological Biology (Paris)\n\t\t\t\t\t48\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t271\n\t\t\t\t\t279\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B49",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVermeulen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBerneman\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBockstaele\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. R. V.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tCell cycle and apoptosis.\n\t\t\t\t\tCell proliferation\n\t\t\t\t\t36\n\t\t\t\t\t165\n\t\t\t\t\t175\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B50",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThrasher\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCrawley\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tNeurotoxicity of Mycotoxins\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.drthrasher.org/page189.html\n\t\t\t\t\t(Accessed on 10th June 2012)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B51",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHornsby\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tSenescence: As an Anticancer Mechanism\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Clinical Oncology\n\t\t\t\t\t25\n\t\t\t\t\t14\n\t\t\t\t\t1852\n\t\t\t\t\t1857\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B52",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHalliwell\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tOxidative stress and cancer: have we moved forward?\n\t\t\t\t\tBiochemistry Journal\n\t\t\t\t\t401\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t11\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B53",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSchubert\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPiasecki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tOxidative Glutamate Toxicity Can Be a Component of the Excitotoxicity Cascade.\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Journal of Neuroscience\n\t\t\t\t\t21\n\t\t\t\t\t9\n\t\t\t\t\t7455\n\t\t\t\t\t7462\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B54",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVerma\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin Cause DNA Damage.\n\t\t\t\t\tInternational Journal of Human Genetics\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t231\n\t\t\t\t\t236\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B55",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tExpression of cytochrome 450 and other biotrnasormation genes in fetal and adult human nasal mucosa.\n\t\t\t\t\tDrug Metabolism and Disposition\n\t\t\t\t\t33\n\t\t\t\t\t1423\n\t\t\t\t\t1428\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B56",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLiu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tEffect of salvia miltiorrhiza on aflatoxin B1-induced oxidative stress in cultured rat hepatocytes.\n\t\t\t\t\tFree Radical Research\n\t\t\t\t\t31\n\t\t\t\t\t559\n\t\t\t\t\t568\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B57",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tClifford\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. I.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRees\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1967\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Interaction of Afiatoxins with Purines and Purine Nucleosides\n\t\t\t\t\tBiochemistry Journal\n\t\t\t\t\t103\n\t\t\t\t\t467\n\t\t\t\t\t471\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B58",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSharma\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tAmeliorative Effects of Curcuma Longa and Curcumin on Aflatoxin B1 Induced Serological and Biochemical Changes In Kidney of Male Mice.\n\t\t\t\t\tAsian Journal of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Research\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t338\n\t\t\t\t\t351\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B59",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMohammed\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMetwally\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tAntiaflatoxicogenic activities of some aqeous plant extracts against AFB1 induced Renal and Cardiac damage.\n\t\t\t\t\t Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t16\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B60",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWangikar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tTeratogenic effects in rabbits of simultaneous exposure to ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B1 with special reference to microscopic effects.\n\t\t\t\t\tToxicology\n\t\t\t\t\t215\n\t\t\t\t\t37\n\t\t\t\t\t47\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B61",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBeckingham\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tABC of liver, pancreas and gall bladder.\n\t\t\t\t\tBritish Medical Journal\n\t\t\t\t\thttp//www.portal-en.tbzmed.ac.ir/CmsModules/Teacher/Download.aspx?/pdf\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t49\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B62",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKirk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBah\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMontesano\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tMolecular epidemiology of human liver cancer: Insights into etiology, pathogenesis and prevention from The Gambia. \n\t\t\t\t\tCarcinogenesis\n\t\t\t\t\t27\n\t\t\t\t\t2070\n\t\t\t\t\t2082\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B63",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tParkin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tGlobal Cancer Statistics.\n\t\t\t\t\tA Cancer Journal for Clinicians\n\t\t\t\t\t55\n\t\t\t\t\t74\n\t\t\t\t\t108\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B64",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStrosnider\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tWorkgroup Report: Public Health Strategies for Reducing Aflatoxin Exposure in Developing Countries.\n\t\t\t\t\tEnvironmental Health Perspectives\n\t\t\t\t\t114\n\t\t\t\t\t1989\n\t\t\t\t\t1903\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B65",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDeng\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin sufferer and 53 gene mutation in hepatocellular carcinoma.\n\t\t\t\t\tWorld Journal of Gastroenterology\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t28\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B66",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGroopman\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKensler\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWild\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tProtective Interventions to Prevent Aflatoxin-Induced Carcinogenesis in Developing Countries.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnnual Review of Public Health\n\t\t\t\t\t29\n\t\t\t\t\t187\n\t\t\t\t\t203\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B67",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLiu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tGlobal Burden of Aflatoxin-Induced Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Risk Assessment.\n\t\t\t\t\tEnvironmental Health Perspectives\n\t\t\t\t\t118\n\t\t\t\t\t818\n\t\t\t\t\t824\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B68",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHenry\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBosch\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBower\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tMycotoxins and food safety.\n\t\t\t\t\tAdvances in Experimental Medicine and Biology\n\t\t\t\t\t504\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t229\n\t\t\t\t\t233\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B69",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLiu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tPopulation attributable risk of aflatoxin-related liver cancer: Systematic review and meta-analysis.\n\t\t\t\t\tEuropean Journal of Cancer\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B70",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tIARC\n\t\t\t\t\tMonographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to man.Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer\n\t\t\t\t\t1972\n\t\t\t\t\tPresent Multivolume work\n\t\t\t\t\tS7\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B71",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tScholl\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tQuantitative Analysis and Chronic Dosimetry of the Aflatoxin B1 Plasma Albumin Adduct Lys-AFB1 in Rats by Isotope Dilution Mass Spectrometry.\n\t\t\t\t\tChemical Research in Toxicology\n\t\t\t\t\t19\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t44\n\t\t\t\t\t49\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B72",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFarombi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. O.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin contamination of foods in developing countries: Implications for hepatocellular carcinoma and chemopreventive strategies: Review.\n\t\t\t\t\tAfrican Journal of Biotechnology\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t001\n\t\t\t\t\t014\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B73",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShephard\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tRisk assessment of aflatoxins in food in Africa.\n\t\t\t\t\tFood Additives & Contaminants: Part A: Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment\n\t\t\t\t\t25\n\t\t\t\t\t10\n\t\t\t\t\t1246\n\t\t\t\t\t1256\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B74",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWilliams\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tHuman aflatoxicosis in developing countries: a review of toxicology, exposure, potential health consequences, and interventions.\n\t\t\t\t\tAmerican Journal Clinical Nutrition\n\t\t\t\t\t80\n\t\t\t\t\t1106\n\t\t\t\t\t1122\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B75",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMurthy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. R. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1975\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin B1, B2 and M were detected in liver, gall bladder, spleen, heart, muscle and kidney of growing swine when protein and protein-free portions of the diet were separately fed.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Animal Science\n\t\t\t\t\t41\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t1339\n\t\t\t\t\t1347\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B76",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBarrett\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tLiver Cancer and Aflatoxin: New Information from the Kenyan Outbreak.\n\t\t\t\t\tEnvironmental Health Perspectives\n\t\t\t\t\t113\n\t\t\t\t\t12\n\t\t\t\t\tA 837\n\t\t\t\t\tA838\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B77",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGong\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHounsa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEgal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tPostweaning exposure to aflatoxin results in impaired child growth: a longitudinal study in Benin, West Africa.\n\t\t\t\t\tEnvironmental Health Perspective\n\t\t\t\t\t112\n\t\t\t\t\t1334\n\t\t\t\t\t1338\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B78",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDvorakova\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1977\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin and encephalopathy with fatty degeneration of viscera (Reye).\n\t\t\t\t\tAnnals of Nutrition Aliment\n\t\t\t\t\t31\n\t\t\t\t\t977\n\t\t\t\t\t989\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B79",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFapohunda\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. O.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tEnzyme-related aflatoxin production in vital organs of rats fed with Aspergillus species- inoculated rat chow.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Biology and Environmental Science\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t41\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B80",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTritscher\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxins a global public health problem: Aflatoxins- health impact, Jan 2011.\n\t\t\t\t\tWorld Health Organization\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.agriskmanagementforum.org/farmd/sites/agriskmanagementforum.org/files/WHO-Aflatoxin-public health issue.pdf\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t18\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B81",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBommakanti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWaliyar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tImportance of aflatoxis in human and livestock health. \n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.icrisat.org/aflatoxin/health.asp\n\t\t\t\t\t(Accessed on 8th June 2012)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B82",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tButterworth\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tComplications of cirrhosis. III. Hepatic encephalopathy.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Hepatology\n\t\t\t\t\t32\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t171\n\t\t\t\t\t180\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B83",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBémeur\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDesjardins\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tButterworth\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tRole of Nutrition in the Management of Hepatic Encephalopathy in End-Stage Liver Failure: Review Article.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Nutrition and Metabolism\n\t\t\t\t\tdoi:10.1155/2010/489823:\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t12\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B84",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCauli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tBrain Aquaporin 4 in Hyperammonemia.\n\t\t\t\t\t Medicina Universitaria\n\t\t\t\t\t12\n\t\t\t\t\t46\n\t\t\t\t\t47\n\t\t\t\t\t53\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B85",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHussain\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKhan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. Z.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.u\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHassan.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tProduction of aflatoxins from Aspergillus flavus and Acute aflatoxicosis in young broiler chicks.\n\t\t\t\t\tPakistan Journal of Agricutlural Sciences\n\t\t\t\t\t45\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t95\n\t\t\t\t\t102\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B86",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tColumre\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSharma\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1985\n\t\t\t\t\tEffect of repeated exposure of aflatoxin B1 on brain biogenic amines and metabolites in the rat.\n\t\t\t\t\tToxicology and Applied Pharmacology\n\t\t\t\t\t80\n\t\t\t\t\t496\n\t\t\t\t\t501\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B87",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJayasekra\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1989\n\t\t\t\t\tAlteration of biogenic amines in mouse brain regions by alkylating agents. I. Effects of aflatoxin B1 on brain monoamines concentrations and activities of metablozing enzymes.\n\t\t\t\t\tArchives Environmental Contamination and Toxicology\n\t\t\t\t\t18\n\t\t\t\t\t396\n\t\t\t\t\t403\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B88",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWeekley\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1989\n\t\t\t\t\tDifferential changes in rat brain tryptophan, serotonin and tyrosine levels following acute aflatoxins B1 treatment.\n\t\t\t\t\tToxicology Letter\n\t\t\t\t\t47\n\t\t\t\t\t173\n\t\t\t\t\t177\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B89",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHarriet\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tIs indoor mold contamination a threat to health?\n\t\t\t\t\t Journal of Environmental Health\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://130.88.242.202/medicine/Aspergillus/articlesoverflow/12971049.pdf\n\t\t\t\t\t62\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t0022-0892\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B90",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLakkawar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChattopadhyay\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJohri\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tExperimental aflatoxin B1 toxicosis in young rabbits- A clinical and patho-anatomical study.\n\t\t\t\t\tSlovenian Veterinary Research\n\t\t\t\t\t41\n\t\t\t\t\t73\n\t\t\t\t\t81\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B91",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArundine\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTymianski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tMolecular mechanisms of glutamate-dependent neurodegeneration in ischemia and traumatic brain injury.\n\t\t\t\t\tCellular and Molecular Life Sciences\n\t\t\t\t\t61\n\t\t\t\t\t657\n\t\t\t\t\t668\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B92",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFacci\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLeon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSkaper\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1990\n\t\t\t\t\tExcitatory amino acid neurotoxicity in cultured retinal neurons: involvement of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and non-NMDA receptors and effect of ganglioside GM1.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Neuroscience Research\n\t\t\t\t\t27\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t202\n\t\t\t\t\t210\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B93",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFerreira\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDuarte\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCarvalho\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tCa2+ influx through glutamate receptor-associated channels in retina cells correlates with neuronal cell death\n\t\t\t\t\tEuropean Journal of Pharmacology\n\t\t\t\t\t302\n\t\t\t\t\t1-3\n\t\t\t\t\t153\n\t\t\t\t\t162\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B94",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLye\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1995\n\t\t\t\t\tAn outbreak of acute hepatic encephalopathy due to severe aflatoxicosis in Malaysia.\n\t\t\t\t\tAmerican Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene\n\t\t\t\t\t53\n\t\t\t\t\t68\n\t\t\t\t\t72\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B95",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGursoy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tChanges in spontaneous contractions of rat ileum by aflatoxin in vitro.\n\t\t\t\t\tFood Chemistry and Toxicology\n\t\t\t\t\t46\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t2124\n\t\t\t\t\t2127\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B96",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tApplegate\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tEffect of aflatoxin culture on intestinal function and nutrient loss in laying hens\n\t\t\t\t\tPoultry Science\n\t\t\t\t\t88\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t1235\n\t\t\t\t\t1241\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B97",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKussak\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAndersson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAndersson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1995\n\t\t\t\t\tDetermination of aflatoxins in airborne dust from feed factories by automated immunoaffinity column clean-up and liquid chromatography\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Chromatography A.\n\t\t\t\t\t708\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t55\n\t\t\t\t\t60\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B98",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMézes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tMycotoxins and other contaminants in rabbit feeds. 9th World Rabbit Congress- June 10-13, 2008- Verona- Italy.\n\t\t\t\t\tNutrition and Digestive Physiology\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://world-rabbit-science.com/WRSA-Proceedings/Congress-2008-Verona/Papers/N2-Mezes.pdf\n\t\t\t\t\t491\n\t\t\t\t\t505\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B99",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJakab\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1994\n\t\t\t\t\tRespiratory aflatoxicosis: suppression of pulmonary and systemic host defenses in rats and mice.\n\t\t\t\t\tToxicology and Applied Pharmacology\n\t\t\t\t\t125\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t198\n\t\t\t\t\t205\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B100",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAmstad\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1984\n\t\t\t\t\tEvidence for membrane-mediated chromosomal damage by aflatoxin B1 in human lymphocytes\n\t\t\t\t\tCarcinogenesis\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t719\n\t\t\t\t\t723\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B101",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTuzcu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tEffects of Aflatoxin on the Proportions of Peripheral Blood Leukocytes and Alpha-Naphtyl Acetate Esterase (ANAE) Positive Lymphocytes in the Mouse.\n\t\t\t\t\tKafkas Univ Vet Fak Derg\n\t\t\t\t\t16\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t337\n\t\t\t\t\t341\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B102",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShuaib\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. M. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tAssociation between Anemia and Aflatoxin B1 Biomarker Levels among Pregnant Women in Kumasi, Ghana\n\t\t\t\t\tAmerican Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene\n\t\t\t\t\t83\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t1077\n\t\t\t\t\t1083\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B103",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVerma\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRaval\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1991\n\t\t\t\t\tCytotoxicity of aflatoxin on red blood corpuscles.\n\t\t\t\t\tBulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology\n\t\t\t\t\t47\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t428\n\t\t\t\t\t432\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B104",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVerma\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRaval\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1992\n\t\t\t\t\tAlterations in erythrocytes during induced chronic aflatoxicosis in rabbits.\n\t\t\t\t\t Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, . 49\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t861\n\t\t\t\t\t865\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B105",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDietert\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1983\n\t\t\t\t\tHematological Toxicology following Embryonic Exposure to Aflatoxin-B1\n\t\t\t\t\tExperimental Biology and Medicine\n\t\t\t\t\t173\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t481\n\t\t\t\t\t485\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B106",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD°onmez\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tResearch ArticleEffects of Aflatoxin on Some Haematological Parameters and Protective Effectiveness of Esterified Glucomannan in Merino Rams.\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Scientific World Journal\n\t\t\t\t\t10.1100/2012/342468:\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B107",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tChanges in performance, blood parameters, humoral and cellular immune responses in weanling piglets exposed to low doses of aflatoxin1.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal Animal Science\n\t\t\t\t\t80\n\t\t\t\t\t1250\n\t\t\t\t\t1257\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B108",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGoerttler\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1980\n\t\t\t\t\tEffects of Aflatoxin B1 on Pregnant Inbred Sprague-Dawley Rats and Their F1 Generation.\n\t\t\t\t\tA Contribution to Transplacental Carcinogenesis 1, 2, 3 JNCI Journal of the Natational Cancer Institute\n\t\t\t\t\t64\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t1349\n\t\t\t\t\t1354\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B109",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tAAFRD,\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tMoldy Feed and Reproductive Failure in Cows.\n\t\t\t\t\tAlberta Agricultural, Food and Rural Development (AAFRD).\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex849/$file/666-5 .pdf?\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B110",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUriah\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIbeh\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOluwafemi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tA Study on the Impact of Aflatoxin on Human Reproduction.\n\t\t\t\t\tLaboratory Report. African Journal of Reproductive Health / La Revue Africaine de la Santé Reproductive\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t106\n\t\t\t\t\t110\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B111",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl -Azab\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tStudy of aflatoxin B1 as a risk factor that impair the reproductive performance in females- Egypt.\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Internet Journal of Toxicology\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.ispub.com:80/journal/the-internet-journal-of-toxicology/1 study-of-aflatoxin-b1-as-a-risk-factor-that-impair-the-reproductive-performance-in-females-egypt.html\n\t\t\t\t\t(Accessed on 10th June 2012)\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B112",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHasanzadeh\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRezazadeh\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tEffects of aflatoxin B1 on the growth processes of spermatogenic cell series in adult male rats\n\t\t\t\t\tComparative Clinical Pathology\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00580-012-1445-2\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B113",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFapohunda\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. O.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin-mediated Sperm and Blood Cell Abnormalities in Mice Fed with Contaminated Corn.\n\t\t\t\t\tMycobiology\n\t\t\t\t\t36\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t255\n\t\t\t\t\t259\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B114",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tClarke\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDoerr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOttinger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1987\n\t\t\t\t\tAge-Related Changes in Testicular Development and Reproductive Endocrinology Associated with Aflatoxicosis in the Male Chicken.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiology of Reproduction\n\t\t\t\t\t36\n\t\t\t\t\t117\n\t\t\t\t\t124\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B115",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJiang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin B1 albumin adduct levels and cellular immune status\n\t\t\t\t\tGhanaians International Immunology\n\t\t\t\t\t17\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t807\n\t\t\t\t\t814\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B116",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJiang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tAflatoxin-related immune dysfunction in health and in human immunodeficiency virus disease.\n\t\t\t\t\t Clinical Developmental Immunology\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t12\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B117",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSahoo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChattopadhyay\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSikdar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tImmunosuppressive effects of induced aflatoxicosis in rabbits\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Applied Animal Research\n\t\t\t\t\t9\n\t\t\t\t\t17\n\t\t\t\t\t26\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B118",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWilliams\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tConnecting the Dots: Logical and Statistical Connections between Aflatoxin Exposure and HIV/AIDS.\n\t\t\t\t\tPeanut Collaborative Research Support Program\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B119",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWilliams\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tHIV and hepatocellular and esophageal carcinomas related to consumption of mycotoxin-prone foods in Sub-Saharan Africa.\n\t\t\t\t\tAmerican Society for Nutrition\n\t\t\t\t\t92\n\t\t\t\t\t154\n\t\t\t\t\t160\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B120",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAyodele\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. O.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tAssociation between exposure to aflatoxin and status of HIV-infected adults in Ghana.\n\t\t\t\t\tUniversity of Alabama at Birmingham\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B121",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiambrone\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1978\n\t\t\t\t\tEffect of aflatoxin on the humoral and cell-mediated immune systems of the chicken.\n\t\t\t\t\tAmerican Journal of Veterinary Research\n\t\t\t\t\t39\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t305\n\t\t\t\t\t308\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B122",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDugyala\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSharma\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tThe effect of aflatoxin B1 on cytokine mrna and corresponding protein levels in peritoneal macrophages and splenic lymphocytes\n\t\t\t\t\tInternational Journal of Immunopharmacology\n\t\t\t\t\t18\n\t\t\t\t\t10\n\t\t\t\t\t599\n\t\t\t\t\t608\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B123",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFernández\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tEffect of aflatoxin on performance, hematology, and clinical immunology in lambs.\n\t\t\t\t\tCanadian Journal of Veterinary Research\n\t\t\t\t\t64\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t53\n\t\t\t\t\t58\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Godfrey S. Bbosa",address:"godfossa@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Makerere University College of Health sciences, Kampala, Uganda
Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Makerere University College of Health sciences, Kampala, Uganda
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"William W. Anokbonggo",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Makerere University College of Health sciences, Kampala, Uganda
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"David B. Kyegombe",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Kampala International University, School of Health Sciences, Ishaka Campus, Busyenyi, Uganda
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"3109",title:"Aflatoxins",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Future Prospects",fullTitle:"Aflatoxins - Recent Advances and Future Prospects",slug:"aflatoxins-recent-advances-and-future-prospects",publishedDate:"January 23rd 2013",bookSignature:"Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3109.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"48251",title:"Prof.",name:"Mehdi",middleName:null,surname:"Razzaghi-Abyaneh",slug:"mehdi-razzaghi-abyaneh",fullName:"Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"41479",title:"Development of Maize Host Resistance to Aflatoxigenic Fungi",slug:"development-of-maize-host-resistance-to-aflatoxigenic-fungi",totalDownloads:1803,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Robert L. Brown, Deepak Bhatnagar, Thomas E. Cleveland, Zhi-Yuan Chen and Abebe Menkir",authors:[{id:"46479",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:"Lawrence",surname:"Brown",fullName:"Robert Brown",slug:"robert-brown"},{id:"136752",title:"Prof.",name:"Abebe",middleName:null,surname:"Menkir",fullName:"Abebe Menkir",slug:"abebe-menkir"},{id:"136753",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhi-Yuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Zhi-Yuan Chen",slug:"zhi-yuan-chen"}]},{id:"37417",title:"Terrestrial Bacteria from Agricultural Soils: Versatile Weapons against Aflatoxigenic Fungi",slug:"terrestrial-bacteria-from-agricultural-soils-versatile-weapons-against-aflatoxigenic-fungi",totalDownloads:3866,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Masoomeh Shams-Ghahfarokhi, Sanaz Kalantari and Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh",authors:[{id:"48251",title:"Prof.",name:"Mehdi",middleName:null,surname:"Razzaghi-Abyaneh",fullName:"Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh",slug:"mehdi-razzaghi-abyaneh"},{id:"152511",title:"Prof.",name:"Masoomeh",middleName:null,surname:"Shams-Ghahfarokhi",fullName:"Masoomeh Shams-Ghahfarokhi",slug:"masoomeh-shams-ghahfarokhi"},{id:"152512",title:"MSc.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kalantari",fullName:"Sanaz Kalantari",slug:"sanaz-kalantari"}]},{id:"38211",title:"A New Approach in Aflatoxin Management in Africa: Targeting Aflatoxin/Sterigmatocystin Biosynthesis in Aspergillus Species by RNA Silencing Technique",slug:"a-new-approach-in-aflatoxin-management-in-africa-targeting-aflatoxin-sterigmatocystin-biosynthesis-i",totalDownloads:2389,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Amos Emitati Alakonya and Ethel Oranga Monda",authors:[{id:"152475",title:"PhD.",name:"Amos",middleName:null,surname:"Alakonya",fullName:"Amos Alakonya",slug:"amos-alakonya"},{id:"164845",title:"Dr.",name:"Ethel",middleName:null,surname:"Monda",fullName:"Ethel Monda",slug:"ethel-monda"}]},{id:"38298",title:"Recent Trends in Microbiological Decontamination of Aflatoxins in Foodstuffs",slug:"recent-trends-in-microbiological-decontamination-of-aflatoxins-in-foodstuffs",totalDownloads:2352,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Carlos Augusto Fernandes Oliveira, Fernanda Bovo, Carlos Humberto Corassin, Alessandra Vincenzi Jager and Kasa Ravindranadha Reddy",authors:[{id:"47858",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",fullName:"Carlos Oliveira",slug:"carlos-oliveira"},{id:"64484",title:"Dr.",name:"K.R.N.",middleName:null,surname:"Reddy",fullName:"K.R.N. Reddy",slug:"k.r.n.-reddy"},{id:"95696",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Jager",fullName:"Alessandra Jager",slug:"alessandra-jager"},{id:"153484",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Corassin",fullName:"Carlos Corassin",slug:"carlos-corassin"},{id:"153485",title:"MSc.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Bovo",fullName:"Fernanda Bovo",slug:"fernanda-bovo"}]},{id:"37697",title:"Novel Methods for Preventing and Controlling Aflatoxins in Food: A Worldwide Daily Challenge",slug:"novel-methods-for-preventing-and-controlling-aflatoxins-in-food-a-worldwide-daily-challenge",totalDownloads:2842,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Eva Guadalupe Lizárraga-Paulín, Susana Patricia Miranda-Castro, Ernesto Moreno-Martínez, Irineo Torres-Pacheco and Alma Virginia Lara-Sagahón",authors:[{id:"65830",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva Guadalupe",middleName:"Guadalupe",surname:"Lizarraga-Paulin",fullName:"Eva Guadalupe Lizarraga-Paulin",slug:"eva-guadalupe-lizarraga-paulin"},{id:"65831",title:"Dr.",name:"Irineo",middleName:null,surname:"Torres-Pacheco",fullName:"Irineo Torres-Pacheco",slug:"irineo-torres-pacheco"},{id:"65833",title:"Prof.",name:"Susana",middleName:"Patricia",surname:"Miranda-Castro",fullName:"Susana Miranda-Castro",slug:"susana-miranda-castro"},{id:"95444",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernesto",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-Martinez",fullName:"Ernesto Moreno-Martinez",slug:"ernesto-moreno-martinez"},{id:"161686",title:"Dr.",name:"Alma Virginia",middleName:null,surname:"Lara-Sagahón",fullName:"Alma Virginia Lara-Sagahón",slug:"alma-virginia-lara-sagahon"}]},{id:"39676",title:"Recent Advances for Control, Counteraction and Amelioration of Potential Aflatoxins in Animal Feeds",slug:"recent-advances-for-control-counteraction-and-amelioration-of-potential-aflatoxins-in-animal-feeds",totalDownloads:3142,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"N.K.S. Gowda, H.V.L.N. Swamy and P. Mahajan",authors:[{id:"152376",title:"Dr.",name:"N K S",middleName:null,surname:"Gowda",fullName:"N K S Gowda",slug:"n-k-s-gowda"}]},{id:"38172",title:"Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Food",slug:"occurrence-of-aflatoxins-in-food",totalDownloads:4471,totalCrossrefCites:8,signatures:"Ayhan Filazi and Ufuk Tansel Sireli",authors:[{id:"152542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayhan",middleName:null,surname:"Filazi",fullName:"Ayhan Filazi",slug:"ayhan-filazi"},{id:"152550",title:"Prof.",name:"Ufuk",middleName:"Tansel",surname:"Sireli",fullName:"Ufuk Sireli",slug:"ufuk-sireli"}]},{id:"42067",title:"Aflatoxins Importance on Animal Nutrition",slug:"aflatoxins-importance-on-animal-nutrition",totalDownloads:4192,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Vivian Feddern, Giniani C. Dors, Fernando de C. Tavernari, Helenice Mazzuco, Anildo Cunha, Everton L. Krabbe and Gerson N. Scheuermann",authors:[{id:"60264",title:"Dr.",name:"Giniani Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Dors",fullName:"Giniani Carla Dors",slug:"giniani-carla-dors"},{id:"69256",title:"MSc.",name:"Anildo",middleName:null,surname:"Cunha Jr.",fullName:"Anildo Cunha Jr.",slug:"anildo-cunha-jr."},{id:"87219",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian",middleName:null,surname:"Feddern",fullName:"Vivian Feddern",slug:"vivian-feddern"},{id:"153655",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Tavernari",fullName:"Fernando Tavernari",slug:"fernando-tavernari"},{id:"153656",title:"Dr.",name:"Everton",middleName:null,surname:"Krabbe",fullName:"Everton Krabbe",slug:"everton-krabbe"},{id:"153657",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerson N.",middleName:null,surname:"Scheuermann",fullName:"Gerson N. Scheuermann",slug:"gerson-n.-scheuermann"}]},{id:"39958",title:"Aflatoxin in Fish Flour from the Amazon Region",slug:"aflatoxin-in-fish-flour-from-the-amazon-region",totalDownloads:1716,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ariane M. Kluczkovski and Augusto Kluczkovski Junior",authors:[{id:"152562",title:"Prof.",name:"Ariane",middleName:null,surname:"Pacheco",fullName:"Ariane Pacheco",slug:"ariane-pacheco"}]},{id:"41760",title:"Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw and Pasteurized Goat Milk in Thailand",slug:"occurrence-of-aflatoxin-m1-in-raw-and-pasteurized-goat-milk-in-thailand",totalDownloads:2092,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Suthep Ruangwises, Piyawat Saipan and Nongluck Ruangwises",authors:[{id:"152770",title:"Dr.",name:"Suthep",middleName:null,surname:"Ruangwises",fullName:"Suthep Ruangwises",slug:"suthep-ruangwises"}]},{id:"38531",title:"Synergistic Interaction Between Aflatoxin and Hepatitis B Virus in Hepatocarcinogenesis",slug:"synergistic-interaction-between-aflatoxin-and-hepatitis-b-virus-in-hepatocarcinogenesis",totalDownloads:1430,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Michael C. Kew",authors:[{id:"153026",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Kew",fullName:"Michael Kew",slug:"michael-kew"}]},{id:"38731",title:"Review of the Biological and Health Effects of Aflatoxins on Body Organs and Body Systems",slug:"review-of-the-biological-and-health-effects-of-aflatoxins-on-body-organs-and-body-systems",totalDownloads:7968,totalCrossrefCites:10,signatures:"Godfrey S. Bbosa, David Kitya, A. Lubega, Jasper Ogwal-Okeng, William W. Anokbonggo and David B. Kyegombe",authors:[{id:"152453",title:"Dr.",name:"S. Godfrey",middleName:null,surname:"Bbosa",fullName:"S. Godfrey Bbosa",slug:"s.-godfrey-bbosa"}]},{id:"41614",title:"The Significance of Glutathione Conjugation in Aflatoxin Metabolism",slug:"the-significance-of-glutathione-conjugation-in-aflatoxin-metabolism",totalDownloads:2570,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Tahereh Ziglari and Abdolamir Allameh",authors:[{id:"61432",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdolamir",middleName:null,surname:"Allameh",fullName:"Abdolamir Allameh",slug:"abdolamir-allameh"},{id:"152952",title:"Dr.",name:"Tahereh",middleName:null,surname:"Ziglari",fullName:"Tahereh Ziglari",slug:"tahereh-ziglari"}]},{id:"38728",title:"Characteristics of Mycotoxin Analysis Tools for Tomorrow",slug:"characteristics-of-mycotoxin-analysis-tools-for-tomorrow",totalDownloads:2338,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Luis Miguel Contreras-Medina, Alejandro Espinosa-Calderon, Carlos Duarte-Galvan, Arturo Alfonso Fernandez-Jaramillo, Rafael Francisco Muñoz-Huerta, Jesus Roberto Millan-Almaraz, Ramon Gerardo Guevara-Gonzalez and Irineo Torres-Pacheco",authors:[{id:"110677",title:"MSc.",name:"Luis Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras-Medina",fullName:"Luis Miguel Contreras-Medina",slug:"luis-miguel-contreras-medina"},{id:"153681",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Duarte-Galván",fullName:"Carlos Duarte-Galván",slug:"carlos-duarte-galvan"},{id:"153682",title:"MSc.",name:"Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández-Jaramillo",fullName:"Arturo Fernández-Jaramillo",slug:"arturo-fernandez-jaramillo"},{id:"153683",title:"MSc.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Huerta",fullName:"Rafael Muñoz-Huerta",slug:"rafael-munoz-huerta"},{id:"153684",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Millán-Almaraz",fullName:"Jesús Roberto Millán-Almaraz",slug:"jesus-roberto-millan-almaraz"}]},{id:"40108",title:"Lateral Flow Immunoassays for Aflatoxins B and G and for Aflatoxin M1",slug:"lateral-flow-immunoassays-for-aflatoxins-b-and-g-and-for-aflatoxin-m1",totalDownloads:3112,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Laura Anfossi, Claudio Baggiani, Cristina Giovannoli and Gianfranco Giraudi",authors:[{id:"48947",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Anfossi",fullName:"Laura Anfossi",slug:"laura-anfossi"},{id:"59928",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Baggiani",fullName:"Claudio Baggiani",slug:"claudio-baggiani"},{id:"59929",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Giovannoli",fullName:"Cristina Giovannoli",slug:"cristina-giovannoli"},{id:"59930",title:"Prof.",name:"Gianfranco",middleName:null,surname:"Giraudi",fullName:"Gianfranco Giraudi",slug:"gianfranco-giraudi"}]},{id:"39957",title:"Aflatoxins: Risk, Exposure and Remediation",slug:"aflatoxins-risk-exposure-and-remediation",totalDownloads:3455,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Antonello Santini and Alberto Ritieni",authors:[{id:"59199",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonello",middleName:null,surname:"Santini",fullName:"Antonello Santini",slug:"antonello-santini"},{id:"61981",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Ritieni",fullName:"Alberto Ritieni",slug:"alberto-ritieni"}]},{id:"39984",title:"Aflatoxin and Peanut Production Risk and Net Incomes",slug:"aflatoxin-and-peanut-production-risk-and-net-incomes",totalDownloads:1741,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Cynthia Bley N’Dede, Curtis M. Jolly, Davo Simplice Vodouhe and Pauline E. Jolly",authors:[{id:"153585",title:"Prof.",name:"Curtis",middleName:null,surname:"Jolly",fullName:"Curtis Jolly",slug:"curtis-jolly"},{id:"168744",title:"Dr.",name:"Cynthia",middleName:null,surname:"Bley N’Dede",fullName:"Cynthia Bley N’Dede",slug:"cynthia-bley-n'dede"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3801",title:"Pesticides",subtitle:"Toxic Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e0e479dbebe7f25ae49495b3d6d22eb2",slug:"pesticides-toxic-aspects",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3801.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"45980",title:"Efficiency of Pesticide Alternatives in Non-Agricultural Areas",slug:"efficiency-of-pesticide-alternatives-in-non-agricultural-areas",signatures:"Damien A. Devault and Hélène Pascaline",authors:[{id:"162714",title:"Dr.",name:"Damien",middleName:"A.",surname:"Devault",fullName:"Damien Devault",slug:"damien-devault"}]},{id:"46166",title:"Genotoxicity Induced by Ocupational Exposure to Pesticides",slug:"genotoxicity-induced-by-ocupational-exposure-to-pesticides",signatures:"Danieli Benedetti, Fernanda Rabaioli Da Silva, Kátia Kvitko, Simone\nPereira Fernandes and Juliana da Silva",authors:[{id:"169139",title:"Dr.",name:"Danieli",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetti",fullName:"Danieli Benedetti",slug:"danieli-benedetti"},{id:"170191",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"da Silva",fullName:"Fernanda da Silva",slug:"fernanda-da-silva"},{id:"170192",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:null,surname:"Kvitko",fullName:"Katia Kvitko",slug:"katia-kvitko"},{id:"170193",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Da Silva",fullName:"Juliana Da Silva",slug:"juliana-da-silva"},{id:"170194",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandes",fullName:"Simone Fernandes",slug:"simone-fernandes"}]},{id:"46084",title:"Flagship Species Conservation and Introduced Species Invasion : Toxic Aspects Along Loire River (France)",slug:"flagship-species-conservation-and-introduced-species-invasion-toxic-aspects-along-loire-river-france",signatures:"Charles Lemarchand, René Rosoux, Céline Talon and Philippe Berny",authors:[{id:"169138",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Lemarchand",fullName:"Charles Lemarchand",slug:"charles-lemarchand"}]},{id:"46114",title:"Pesticides, the Environment, and Human Health",slug:"pesticides-the-environment-and-human-health",signatures:"Franklin Quarcoo, Conrad Bonsi and Nii Tackie",authors:[{id:"169992",title:"Dr.",name:"Franklin",middleName:"Yao",surname:"Quarcoo",fullName:"Franklin Quarcoo",slug:"franklin-quarcoo"},{id:"169993",title:"Dr.",name:"Nii O.",middleName:null,surname:"Tackie",fullName:"Nii O. Tackie",slug:"nii-o.-tackie"},{id:"170491",title:"Dr.",name:"Conrad",middleName:null,surname:"Bonsi",fullName:"Conrad Bonsi",slug:"conrad-bonsi"}]},{id:"46085",title:"Pesticides and Agricultural Work Environments in Argentina",slug:"pesticides-and-agricultural-work-environments-in-argentina",signatures:"M. Butinof, R. Fernández, M.J. Lantieri, M.I. Stimolo, M. Blanco, A.L.\nMachado, G. Franchini, M. Gieco, M. Portilla, M. Eandi, A. Sastre and\nM.P. Diaz",authors:[{id:"38815",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria del Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Diaz",fullName:"Maria del Pilar Diaz",slug:"maria-del-pilar-diaz"},{id:"39947",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Butinof",fullName:"Mariana Butinof",slug:"mariana-butinof"},{id:"39949",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Stímolo",fullName:"Maria Ines Stímolo",slug:"maria-ines-stimolo"},{id:"170273",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandez",fullName:"Ricardo Antonio Fernandez",slug:"ricardo-antonio-fernandez"},{id:"170274",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Lantieri",fullName:"Maria Josefina Lantieri",slug:"maria-josefina-lantieri"},{id:"170275",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Blanco",fullName:"Marcelo Blanco",slug:"marcelo-blanco"},{id:"170276",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Lia",middleName:null,surname:"Machado",fullName:"Ana Lia Machado",slug:"ana-lia-machado"},{id:"170277",title:"Ph.D.",name:"German",middleName:null,surname:"Franchini",fullName:"German Franchini",slug:"german-franchini"},{id:"170278",title:"Dr.",name:"Marbella",middleName:null,surname:"Gieco",fullName:"Marbella Gieco",slug:"marbella-gieco"},{id:"170279",title:"Dr.",name:"Mar",middleName:null,surname:"Portilla",fullName:"Mar Portilla",slug:"mar-portilla"},{id:"170280",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Eandi",fullName:"Mariana Eandi",slug:"mariana-eandi"}]},{id:"45979",title:"Like a Canary in the Coal Mine: Behavioral Change as an Early Warning Sign of Neurotoxicological Damage",slug:"like-a-canary-in-the-coal-mine-behavioral-change-as-an-early-warning-sign-of-neurotoxicological-dama",signatures:"Kathleen M. Raley-Susman",authors:[{id:"169140",title:"Dr.",name:"Kathleen",middleName:null,surname:"Raley-Susman",fullName:"Kathleen Raley-Susman",slug:"kathleen-raley-susman"}]},{id:"46188",title:"Lethal and Sublethal Effects of Pesticides on Aquatic Organisms: The Case of a Freshwater Shrimp Exposure to Roundup®",slug:"lethal-and-sublethal-effects-of-pesticides-on-aquatic-organisms-the-case-of-a-freshwater-shrimp-expo",signatures:"Paul K. Mensah, Carolyn G. Palmer and Wilhelmine J. Muller",authors:[{id:"169135",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Mensah",fullName:"Paul Mensah",slug:"paul-mensah"}]},{id:"46083",title:"Pesticides: Environmental Impacts and Management Strategies",slug:"pesticides-environmental-impacts-and-management-strategies",signatures:"Harsimran Kaur Gill and Harsh Garg",authors:[{id:"169137",title:"Dr.",name:"Harsh",middleName:null,surname:"Garg",fullName:"Harsh Garg",slug:"harsh-garg"},{id:"169846",title:"Dr.",name:"Harsimran",middleName:null,surname:"Gill",fullName:"Harsimran Gill",slug:"harsimran-gill"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72311",title:"System Designs of Microsatellites: A Review of Two Schools of Thoughts",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92659",slug:"system-designs-of-microsatellites-a-review-of-two-schools-of-thoughts",body:'
1. Introduction
Microsatellite has typical weight between 20 and 170 kg at launch as auxiliary payload. It is initially made as technology experiment and education tools by universities. Nowadays, microsatellite becomes a common space platform for commercials and emerging space nations. The commercial mission is typically Earth observation, data collecting platform (text-based communication), including ships and aircraft tracking. Studies done by Swartout [1] show that between 2009 and 2012, about 8–12 satellites with mass above 50 kg as auxiliary payload were launched yearly. The data also show that the trend seems to be steady. Bunchen and De Pasquale [2] noted that 105 satellites with mass of 11–50 kg were launched between 2000 and 2013.
Surrey Space Technology Limited (SSTL), a subsidiary company under University of Surrey, is one of the companies that initiated the use microsatellite technology as commercial Earth observation satellite platform. It built a constellation of five satellites named Disaster Monitoring Constellation (DMC) in 2003, with payload of 3-band multispectral imager of 30-m resolution, which was intended for wide-swath land coverage imaging. After the first constellations decommissioned, it built the second generation with better resolution (20 m). The first launch of DMC-2 constellation was done in 2009 [3].
Since 2013, Skybox/Skysat has deployed 15 satellites that carry 1-m panchromatic imager and 2-m 4-band multispectral imager [4]. Unlike DMC, which mission objectives are to observe wide areas with nadir pointing scanning mode, it aims to provide frequent repeat very high resolution images using massive numbers of highly maneuverable satellites. Another commercial Earth observation microsatellite constellation mission is prepared by Axelspace. The company planned to have 50 satellites launched starting 2017. The satellite carries imager with 2.5-m panchromatic and 5-m multispectral [5, 6]. Figure 1 shows the configurations of the Skybox and Grus satellites, which show that Skybox uses single lens and parabolic data downlink antenna, while Grus uses two lenses and horn-type data downlink antenna.
Figure 1.
Google Skybox satellite and Axelspace’s Gruz satellite design.
Figure 2.
Mechanical design of KITSAT-3 and STSAT-3.
In addition to Earth observation missions, microsatellite constellation also being built for Low Earth Orbit (LEO) telecommunication mission. OneWeb and Telesat are two companies that will launch hundreds of microsatellites in coming years [7, 8].
The use of microsatellites for commercial purposes means that the technology is mature enough to ensure good return-of-investment. One of the major aspects that contribute to the success of microsatellite technology is its system design. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to provide insight into microsatellite system design. The chapter addresses the question related to limitation in weight and size, and how the satellite designer manages to meet the mission requirements.
Out of many microsatellites developers, two system designs of microsatellites, namely Technical University (TU) Berlin heritage and University of Surrey heritage, are selected for comparison in this chapter, due to their very different design approaches. To be comparable, the choices of microsatellite system to be compared are the ones that manufactured about the same time, so that the technology available is mostly the same. The microsatellites also have to have in-orbit experience, so its design success can be measured. Data mining resulted that the satellite operation year chosen is between 1999 and to date. For TU Berlin system, the choices are DLR-TUBSAT, MAROC-TUBSAT, Indonesian LAPAN-TUBSAT, LAPAN-ORARI, and LAPAN-IPB. Meanwhile, for University of Surrey system, the choices are Korean KITSAT-3, STSat-1 and STSat-3, as well as Turkish BILSAT-1 and RASAT.
This chapter is divided into five sections, with the first section introducing the background and objectives of the chapter. The second section explains how the satellite design samples for the University of Surrey heritage were selected, and what satellite design parameters were used in the comparison. Section 3 displays the satellite design parameters for TU Berlin heritage. Section 4 provides analysis from the comparison of the two-design heritage, in term of parameters noted in the previous two sections. Section 5 summarizes the analysis and provides recommendation for further studies regarding the subject.
2. University of Surrey heritages
University of Surrey is known as one of the pioneers in the design and build of microsatellite in the 1990s. It started launching microsatellite in 1991 with amateur radio missions. To simplify the satellite design, the first microsatellite generation has passive attitude control system, that is, using gravity gradient telescopic boom. The university provided microsatellite development and building capabilities to many emerging space countries, including Thailand, Malaysia, South Korea, Algiers, Turkey, and Nigeria. At the time, such countries started to use remote sensing satellites, mostly from the United States and European, for various land-based applications. Therefore, they required remote sensing payloads to include in their satellite missions. Such mission elevates the design requirements to active attitude control system and higher data rate downlink system.
Thailand’s Mahanakorn University collaborated with the University of Surrey to jointly develop TMSat that was launched in 1998 [9]. TMSat focuses on remote sensing and amateur radio mission. Since Thailand did not continue building its subsequent satellites, TMSat is not selected as satellite design heritage sample in this chapter.
Singapore’s Nanyang Technology University (NTU) collaborated with the University of Surrey to jointly develop satellite subsystem for UoSAT-12. However, the satellite is not a microclass and therefore is not selected as a sample for the University of Surrey’s satellite system design in this chapter. The satellite subsystem from NTU is a communication payload with S-band downlink and L-band uplink, which provides the Internet protocol communication operating at 1 Mbps. Since the experience with the University of Surrey only in subsystem design and development, the subsequent NTU satellite, that is, XSAT, is also not considered as the University of Surrey heritage satellite [10, 11].
South Korean experience with the University of Surrey satellite design is when Satellite Technology Research Center (SaTReC), an institution under Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), jointly built KITSAT-1 and KITSAT-2 and launched it in 1992 and 1993. Both satellites have store-forward communication amateur payload and low-resolution imagers. Since the KITSAT-1 and KITSAT-2 development time does not match with other microsatellite design sample, only the design of KITSAT-3 is used in this chapter. SaTReC then developed STSAT series as its second generation microsatellites. Since STSAT-2 experienced launch failure, only STSAT-1 and STSAT-3 are selected as satellite design samples [12, 13, 14, 15].
Turkey’s experience with the University of Surrey satellite design is when its space research institute, TUBITAK-UZAY (previously named BILTEN TUBITAK-ODTU), jointly developed BILSAT-1. The satellite was part of DMC-1 constellation [16, 17, 18, 19]. After BILSAT-1, the institute then built its second generation microsatellite, RASAT. Therefore, both microsatellites are used as sample for the University of Surrey design heritage [20, 21, 22, 23].
Fifteen satellite bus design parameters are selected for the comparison, including 14 mechatronics component parameters in the satellites’ design. For the University of Surrey satellite heritage, the parameters are tabulated in Tables 1 and 2. Structure design from four of the five microsatellites is shown in Figures 2 and 3. Payload parameters also noted in Tables 1 and 2 to explain the similarity (or differences) in the mission requirements and their impacts to satellite bus parameters. The weight and dimensions are, in additional of drawings, noted in to explain the satellite structure design aspects. The satellite operation years are noted in the tables to show the context of available technology.
KITSAT-3
BILSAT-1
Operation
1999–2003
2003–2006
Bus
Solar panel
3 GaAs (2 deployable) @ 50 × 85 cm, (150 W)
4 GaAs @ 60 × 60 cm (58 W)
Battery
NiCd; 10 V; 8 Ah
NiCd; 28 V; 4 Ah
Reaction wheel/Gyro
3 + 1 Teldix DR01/FO laser
4 SSTL/MEMS
Thruster
—
Pressurized gas + resistojet
Star sensor
1
2 Altair
Sun sensor
2 axis
4 × 2 axis
Horizon sensor
2 axis
Magnetotorquer/meter
3-axis air coils/3-axis fluxgate
3-axis air coils/2 × 3-axis fluxgate
Telemetry, Tracking, and Commanding (TTC)
VHF uplink; UHF downlink
S-band
Data TX
S-band 3.3 Mbps
S-band 8 Mbps
Main computer/link config.
2 × microprocessor/CAN
2 × microprocessor/CAN
Attitude control computer
1
1
Payload data handling
Microprocessor based
FPGA based
GPS
—
SSTL SGR
Payload
3-band imager w/ 570-mm lens
2 × 3-band imager w/150-mm lens
Radiation dose sensor
Pan imager w/300 mm lens
High energy particle sensor
Store and forward communications
Scientific class magnetometer
8-band low resolution imager
CMG
Size (cm)
50 × 60 × 85
60 × 60 × 60
Mass (kg)
110
130
Table 1.
Sample for the University of Surrey microsatellite system design.
STSAT-1
STSAT-3
RASAT
2003–2008
2013–2015
2011–2017
Bus
Solar panel
3 GaAs (2 deployable); 160 W
3 GaAs (2 deployable); 275 W
4 GaAs; 52 W
Battery
NiCd; 14 V; 12 Ah
Li-ion; 20 V; 20 Ah
Li-ion; 28 V; 9 Ah
Reaction wheel/Gyro
4 /FO laser
4 /FO laser
4 /MEMS
Thruster
—
Hall thrust
—
Star sensor
1
2 SaTReC
1
Sun sensor
4 panels +2 cell
Coarse and fine
4 analog
Horizon sensor
—
—
—
Magnetotorquer/meter
3-axis/3-axis fluxgate
3-axis/3-axis
3-axis/2 × 3-axis fluxgate
TTC
S-band
S-band
S-band (primary) and UHF/VHF (emergency)
Data TX
X-band 3.2 Mbps
X-band 10 Mbps
X-band 100 Mbps
Main computer/link config.
Microprocessor/CAN
Leon2-FT (triple redundancy)/CAN and space wire
2 × microprocessor/CAN and space wire
Attitude control computer
1
1 AIU (attitude interface unit)
1
Payload data handling
FPGA based
FPGA based
FPGA based
GPS
1
1
1
Payload
Far UV imaging spectrograph
2× Multiband IR imagers
Pan imager w/840 mm lens
Space physic sensor
Spectrometer
3-band imager w/420 mm lens
Data collection system
Size (cm)
66 × 55 × 83
102 × 103 × 88
70 × 70 × 55.4
Mass (kg)
106
175
95
Table 2.
Sample for the University of Surrey microsatellite heritage system design.
Figure 3.
Mechanical design of BILSAT-1 and RASAT.
As shown in Figures 2 and 3, the University of Surrey heritage satellites use electronic trays for its satellite bus electronics. The aluminum trays also function as load bearing structure, so that the rest of the satellites components, such as reaction wheels and attitude sensors, can be laid out around them. After all components integrated, the solar panels and/or other outside panels that are made of lighter materials can be used to cover the satellites.
3. Technical University of Berlin heritages
Technical University (TU) of Berlin had launched six microsatellites between 1991 and 2007. During such time, the university had provided microsatellite development capacity building to Morocco and Indonesia. However, only Indonesia (Satellite Technology Center) had developed its second generation of microsatellites. Tables 3 and 4 provide samples of microsatellite systems used for the comparison considering the development and operation time of the satellites. The microsatellite parameters from the TU Berlin heritage shown in Table 3 are from DLR-TUBSAT and MAROC-TUBSAT, and in Table 4 are from LAPAN-TUBSAT and two Indonesian built satellites, that is, LAPAN-ORARI and LAPAN-IPB. Additionally, the four satellite structure drawings are presented in Figures 4 and 5 [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29] for the comparison of structural design.
DLR-TUBSAT
MAROC-TUBSAT
Launch
1999–2007
2001–2006
Bus
Solar panel
4 Si @32 × 32 cm, (14 W)
4 Si @32 × 32 cm (14 W)
Battery
NiH2; 10 V; 12 Ah
NiH2; 10 V; 12 Ah
Reaction wheel/Gyro
3 IRE 203/FO laser
3 + 1 IRE 203/FO laser
Thruster
—
—
Star sensor
—
IRE
Sun sensor
4 panels +1 cell
6 single cell
Horizon sensor
—
—
Magnetotorquer/meter
1 axis coil + 1 rod/−
1 axis/3-axis sensor
TTC
2 UHF w/omni antennas
2 UHF w/omni antennas
Data TX
S-band analog
S-band 256 kbps
Main computer/ link config.
32 bit microcontroller/star
32 bit microcontroller/star
Attitude control computer
—
—
Payload handling
Multiplexer
Recorder
GPS
—
—
Payload
B/W video cam. w/16 mm lens
NIR imager w/72 mm lens
B/W video cam. w/50 mm lens
B/W video cam. w/1000 mm lens
Size (cm)
32 × 32 × 32
32 × 34 × 36
Mass (kg)
45
47
Table 3.
Sample for the Technical University of Berlin microsatellite system design.
LAPAN-TUBSAT
LAPAN-ORARI
LAPAN-IPB
2007–2013
2015-now
2016-now
Bus
Solar panel
4 Si @43 × 24 cm, (14 W)
4 GaAs @46 × 26 cm (30 W)
5 GaAs @46 × 26 cm (30 W)
Battery
NiH2; 14 V; 12 Ah
Li-ion; 16 V; 19.5 Ah
Li-ion; 16 V; 36 Ah
Reaction Wheel/Gyro
3 IRE 203/FO Laser
3 + 1 IRE 303/FO Laser
3 + 1 IRE 303/FO Laser
Thruster
—
—
—
Star sensor
Vectronics (VTS)
VTS, IRE
VTS, LAPAN
Sun sensor
4 panels +2 cells
6 single cells
6 single cells
Horizon sensor
—
—
LAPAN (IR camera based)
Pitch sensor
—
—
LAPAN (CCD based)
Coil/magnetometer
3 axis/−
3 axis/VFMS-51
3 axis/fluxgate scientific class
TTC
2 UHF w/ omni antennas
2 UHF w/ omni antennas
2 UHF w/omni antennas
Data TX
S-band analog
S-band 5 Mbps
X-band 105 Mbps
Main computer/link config.
32 bit microcontroller/star
32 bit microcontroller/star
32 bit microcontroller/star
Attitude control computer
—
—
—
Payload handling
Multiplexer
Digital and analog switcher + recorder
FPGA based
GPS
—
VGPS-51
VGPS-51
Payload
Color video cam. w/50 mm lens
Color video cam. w/1000 mm lens
4-band imager w/300 mm lens
Color video cam. w/1000 mm lens
4 M pix cam. w/1000 mm lens
4 M pix cam. w/1000 mm lens
AIS (ship monitoring system)
AIS (ship monitoring system)
APRS (amateur text message)
Amateur voice repeater
Size (cm)
45 × 27.5 × 45
47 × 38 × 50
50 × 57.4 × 42.4
Mass (kg)
54.7
74
115
Table 4.
Sample for the Technical University of Berlin microsatellite heritage system design.
Figure 4.
Mechanical design of DLR-TUBSAT and MAROC-TUBSAT.
Figure 5.
Mechanical design of LAPAN-TUBSAT and LAPAN-IPB.
The author should describe the key differences among the four structure designs presented in Figures 4 and 5.
As shown in Figures 4 and 5, for the TU Berlin satellite heritage, the components are laid out in boxes. For DLR-TUBSAT and Maroc-TUBSAT, they are modular boxes (ACS, payload, power, etc.). Meanwhile, in LAPAN’s satellite series, the boxes are integrated in lower and upper compartments of the same structure. The boxes were made from aluminum plates and therefore function as load bearing structure. The solar panels are directly attached to the outer part of the boxes.
4. Analysis
4.1 Power generation and storage
Tables 1 and 2 show that the Korean satellites have employed deployable solar panel (which is also shown in Figure 1), since the mission required high power and used direct energy transfer (DET) mode. Such approach is very much different than those used by KITSAT-1 and KITSAT-2, which have body-mounted solar panels. On the other hand, Turkish satellites use body-mounted solar panels and therefore do not have the requirement of one side of the satellite always facing the sun for battery charging.
Tables 3 and 4 show that all TU Berlin heritage use body-mounted solar panels. It uses Si panels for its first three satellites, then opted to higher capacity GaAs panels in LAPAN-ORARI and LAPAN-IPB. Generally, the power budget for the University of Surrey heritage satellites is higher than the TU Berlin heritage, even in the ones with body-mounted solar panels. As shown in Figure 5, in LAPAN-IPB, one of the sides has two 46 × 26 cm solar panels. The side is projected to be Sun pointing most of the time.
Battery chosen to be used in the early University of Surrey heritage satellite design is NiCd, while in TU Berlin’s satellite design is NiH2. NiCd batteries require charging controller mechanism ensuring that the battery is completely drained before being charged. This is because partial charging can induce memory effect, which can decrease the battery capacity to its last partial charge state. For NiH2 batteries, they tend to have large packaging due to its cylindrical shape, as shown in DLR-TUBSAT and LAPAN-TUBSAT drawing (Figures 4 and 5), but its charging mechanism is very simple (can do trickle charging). As soon as Li-ion battery technology available, both designs opted out Li-ion battery for its easy handling (no memory effect) and higher power-to-mass ratio.
4.2 Main computer
On the choice of main computer, the University of Surrey heritage uses microprocessor, such as 32-bit PowerPC 603, while the TU Berlin heritage uses microprocessor, such as 32-bit SH series. Advantage of using microcontroller is having shorter booting time, so that it can recover quickly in the event of latch-up and needs to be restarted. The advantage of microprocessor is its ability to handle more complex and parallel jobs. To anticipate any anomaly in the operation, the use of microprocessor is usually done by using redundancy (i.e., a second processor will take over the operation in the event of anomaly). In the University of Surrey satellite design heritage, the electronic components are connected to main computer with dual line of controller area network (CAN). Meanwhile, the TU Berlin satellite design heritage uses star configuration with dedicated line to each component from the main computer, using RS232 or 422.
4.3 Attitude control subsystem
Tables 1 and 2 show that the University of Surrey satellite design heritage uses separate attitude control computer that integrates attitude sensors, including sun and star sensors with all reaction wheels and gyros. This is done so that the attitude control system can work in closed loop all the time. Such approach is necessary for the microsatellite design with deployable solar panels, such as KITSAT-3, STSAT-1, and STSAT-3 since failure of sun pointing could be disastrous for the satellite. As shown in Tables 3 and 4, in the TU Berlin satellite design heritage, none of the satellites have separate attitude control computer. In the design, each reaction wheel-gyro pair directly connected to the main computer, and therefore, closed loop with star and sun sensors can only be done using the main computer resources.
Differences are also found in the attitude control sensor between the University of Surrey design heritage. The Korean microsatellites use fiber-optic gyro, while the Turkish microsatellites use MEMS gyro. Meanwhile, in all TU Berlin microsatellites, fiber-optic gyros are used.
For attitude control actuators, all the selected satellites use reaction wheels and air coils for angular momentum dumping/generation. Figures and data showed that TU Berlin heritage satellites use reaction wheels in 3-axis configuration. For LAPAN-ORARI and LAPAN-IPB satellites, they used redundant wheel at satellite major inertia axis that noted as 3 + 1 as shown in Table 4. For the University of Surrey heritage satellites, only KITSAT-3 uses reaction wheels in 3-axis configuration. The rest of the satellites uses tetrahedral configuration (noted as 4 as shown in Table 1).
The TU Berlin’s attitude control design was chosen to reduce computational burden for filtering out reading noise/jitter in the attitude control sensors. The TU Berlin heritage satellites offer two options for attitude control mode, in addition to regular closed loop, including (1) interactive mode for the satellite with video camera payload, such as DLR-TUBSAT and LAPAN-TUBSAT, and (2) angular momentum management mode for the satellite with line imagers, such as Maroc-TUBSAT and LAPAN-A3. The angular momentum management mode is supported by their structure design, that is, solid aluminum box, which created maximum inertia properties at 1 axis and very little cross-product inertias [30, 31]. Such design has been successfully performed highly stable open-loop angular momentum management operation as published by Utama [31] and Mukhayadi [32].
4.4 Propulsion subsystem
From a selected set of satellite designs shown in Tables 1–4, only BILSAT-1 and STSAT-3 have thrusters. The objective for BILSAT-1 thruster is to maintain the satellite orbit separation in the constellation, so that the image coverage could be optimized. In STSAT-3, the plasma thruster is part of in-orbit qualification process for the low power plasma thruster technology developed by KAIST.
4.5 TTC
For Telemetry and Telecommand, the University of Surrey heritage satellite stopped using low frequency (UHF and VHF) after KITSAT-3. Such usage in RASAT is only in emergency situation. Meanwhile, in the TU Berlin heritage, UHF TTC is still used until LAPAN-IPB. The advantage of using low frequency for TTC is on its omni-directional antenna. Therefore, the satellite can always be contacted by its ground station, regardless of its attitude. The cost of the satellite’s control ground station is also much lower. However, the risk for frequency noise for its operation is also higher.
4.6 Payload
The payload profiles for both satellite design heritages showed that the platforms are suitable for both Earth observation, science, and low data rate communication missions. All of the selected satellites, except Korean STSAT-1, are Earth observation missions, which are considered important by stakeholder of satellite developer in Korea, Turkey, and Indonesia. KITSAT-3, BILSAT-1, RASAT, and LAPAN-IPB are for land cover that can be applied for estimating crop yield. The payload data showed that combining mission is typical for microsatellite applications. The multiband infrared (MIRIS) payload in STSAT-3 is used for Earth and space observation. LAPAN-ORARI has three kinds of missions, including Earth observation, communication, and ship data collecting platform.
4.7 Mission data downlink
The quantity and quality of the payload in Tables 1–4 showed that mission data are increasing with time, which increase the required downlink data rate. For the University of Surrey heritage, the data rate started with 3 Mbps in KITSAT-3 and increased to 100 Mbps in RASAT. For the TU Berlin heritage (the digital transmission cases), the data rate started with 256 kbps in Maroc-TUBSAT and increased to 100 Mbps in LAPAN-IPB. In the early missions, the mission data downlink is transmitted in S-band, and as the data rate requirement increases, the downlink has been shifted to X-band.
4.8 Payload computer
Payload computer is typically separated from satellite main computer, which mainly manage the satellite bus. As the payload data rate increased, the payload processing electronics is also evolved, from microcontroller/microprocessor to FPGA based, which is known to be able provide high computing power with less risk from space radiation as compared to high capacity microprocessor.
4.9 Orbit determination
None of the microsatellite has ranging system. Therefore, in early missions, their orbit determination is mainly depending on NORAD’s data. The use of GPS for Position-Navigation-and-Timing by the University of Surrey heritage satellites started with BILSAT-1, while for the TU Berlin heritage satellites, it started with LAPAN-ORARI. The accuracy of orbit determination becomes crucial in Earth observation mission, as part of the parameters used in satellite image geometric correction.
4.10 System level parameters
Figure 6 shows the weight of each microsatellite sample. It shows that the weight of TU Berlin heritage satellites grows in time. This is due to the increase in mission quantity and complexity, which therefore requires more components in the satellites (bigger batteries, more attitude sensors, larger lens for imager payload, etc.). For the University of Surrey satellites heritage, such pattern is not found. The density of (weight/volume) the satellites is shown in Figure 7, indicating that the TU Berlin heritage satellites are more compact than the University of Surrey heritage satellites. For the University of Surrey satellites heritage, the design uses maximum volumetric envelope for maximizing the solar panel area.
Figure 6.
Microsatellites’ weight versus launch year.
Figure 7.
Microsatellites’ density versus launch year.
5. Conclusions
The chapter has discussed the differences between the University of Surrey design heritage microsatellites and the TU Berlin heritage microsatellites. Five sample satellites from each satellite design heritage are compared, including 15 bus parameters, payload profiles, and satellite weight and volume at launch. From the comparison, it is found that major differences in the satellite bus are in the choice of main computers and their associated link configuration and in the attitude control modes that also affect the design. Another major difference is in the satellites’ structure design, which resulted in much higher density in the TU Berlin heritage satellites than the University Surrey heritage satellites. In the early design, there are differences in the choice of satellite’s batteries. However, as soon as Li-ion batteries became available, both design heritages used such technology. In answering the increasing needs in payload data handling, both design heritage use FPGA-based payload data handling and high downlink data rate in X-band. GPS is also the technology adopted by both design heritages for orbit determination and imager’s ancillary data.
For further studies on the topic, it is suggested that comparison to be done on the power budget of the satellites and on the operation performance parameters of the satellites with similar missions.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to acknowledge the Center for Aerospace Policy Studies of LAPAN for funding this publication and also wishes to thank the book editor for giving substantial advice in writing this chapter.
\n',keywords:"satellite design, system design, microsatellites, TU Berlin, University of Surrey",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72311.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72311.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72311",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72311",totalDownloads:190,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 23rd 2020",dateReviewed:"April 27th 2020",datePrePublished:"May 25th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Microsatellite has been considered as disruptive technologies in satellite engineering. Its development cost and time provide advantages for new kind of Earth observations, telecommunications, and science missions. The increasing trend of microsatellite launches and operations means that the approach was so successful that it could create funding sustainability. Major contributing factors of its success were due to the system design of the microsatellites. This chapter discusses two microsatellite system design approaches, namely Technical University of Berlin heritage and University of Surrey heritage. Both Universities provide approaches for system design and build of microsatellite systems. The design approaches are being compared along with lessons learned. The choices of microsatellites to be compared in this chapter will be those that are manufactured about the same time such that the technology compared is mostly the same and flown in-orbit. The chapter shows that the differences between the two system design approaches are on the choice of main computer and associated link configuration and in the attitude control modes. Another major different is in the satellites’ structure design. For some satellite’s components, incoming technologies have made the design choices from the two schools of thoughts converged.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72311",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72311",signatures:"Triharjanto Robertus",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Tien Manh Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-nguyen",fullName:"Tien Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. University of Surrey heritages",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Technical University of Berlin heritages",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Power generation and storage",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Main computer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Attitude control subsystem",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4 Propulsion subsystem",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5 TTC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.6 Payload",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.7 Mission data downlink",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.8 Payload computer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.9 Orbit determination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.10 System level parameters",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Swartout M. Cheaper by the dozen: The avalanche of rideshares in the 21st century. In: 2013 IEEE Aerospace Conference; Big Sky, MT, USA; 2013'},{id:"B2",body:'Bunchen E. 2014 Nano/Micro-satellite market assessment. In: Proceedings of the 28th AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites. Utah; 2014'},{id:"B3",body:'Kramer HJ. DMC-3. 2016. Available from: https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/d/dmc-3'},{id:"B4",body:'Kramer HJ. SkySat. 2016. Available from: https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/s/skysat'},{id:"B5",body:'Axelspace. GRUS-1: The Next Generation of Earth-Observation Satellites. 2016. Available from: https://www.axelspace.com/en/solution_/grus/'},{id:"B6",body:'Quigley JT. Japanese Startup Raises $15M to Build Satellites that Are the Size of your Air Conditioner. 2015. Available from: https://www.techinasia.com/japan-micro-satellite-startup-axelspace-series-a'},{id:"B7",body:'Henry C. How OneWeb Plans to Make Sure Its First Satellites Aren’t Its Last. 2019. Available from: https://spacenews.com/how-oneweb-plans-to-make-sure-its-first-satellites-arent-its-last/'},{id:"B8",body:'Clark S. Telesat Taps Blue Origin to Launch Broadband Satellite Fleet. 2019. Available from: https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/02/04/telesat-taps-blue-origin-to-launch-broadband-satellite-fleet/'},{id:"B9",body:'Triharjanto R. Strategic environment and implementation of satellite technology acquisition programs. In: ASEAN, Proceeding Seminar Nasional Kajian Kebijakan Penerbangan dan Antariksa; Surabaya, Indonesia; 2018'},{id:"B10",body:'Sun W, Sweeting MN. In-orbit results from UoSAT-12 Earth observation minisatellite mission. In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium of IAA; Berlin; 2-6 April 2001. pp. 79-82. IAA-B3-0305P'},{id:"B11",body:'Fouquet M, Sweeting M. UoSAT-12 Minisatellite for high performance earth observation at low cost. Acta Astronautica. 1997;41(3):173-182'},{id:"B12",body:'Lim JT, Nam MR, Ryu KS, Tahk KM, Rhee SH, Kim KH. Exploring space on a small satellite, STSAT-2: A test bed for new technologies. In: 14th Annual AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites; 2000'},{id:"B13",body:'Kim BJ, Lee HW, Choi SD. Three-axis reaction wheel attitude control system for KITSAT-3 microsatellite. Space Technology. 1997;16(5/6):191-296'},{id:"B14",body:'Park JO, Park HY, Lee DH, Lee JH, Rhee SW. STSat-3 (Science & Technology Satellite-3) satellite missions. In: Proceedings of the 60th IAC (International Astronautical Congress); Daejeon, Korea; 12-16 October 2009. IAC-09.B4.2.6'},{id:"B15",body:'Shin GH, Park HY, Seo JK, Chung TJ, Myung NH. Introduction to micro-satellite STSAT-3 development. In: Proceedings of the 60th IAC (International Astronautical Congress); Daejeon, Korea; 12-16 October 2009. IAC-09.B4.6A.2'},{id:"B16",body:'Gomes LM, Yuksel G, Lappas V, da Silva Curiel A, Bradford A, Ozkaptan C, et al.. BILSAT: Advancing smallsat capabilities. In: AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites; Logan, UT; 11-14 August 2003'},{id:"B17",body:'Bradford A, Yuksel G, Gomes LM, Ozkaptan C, Sweeting M, Orlu U. BILSAT-1: A low-cost, agile, earth observation microsatellite for Turkey. In: Proceedings of 53rd IAC; Houston, TX; 10-19 October 2002. IAC-02-IAA.11.3.02'},{id:"B18",body:'Leloglu UM, Yuksel G, Sweeting MN. BILSAT-1: A case study for the Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd Know-How Transfer and Training Program. In: Proceedings of 53rd IAC; Houston, TX; 10-19 October 2002. IAC-02-P.1.01'},{id:"B19",body:'Yuksel G, Belce O, Urhan H, Gomez L, Bradford A, Bean N, et al. BILSAT-1: First year in orbit-operations and lessons learned. In: Proceedings of AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites; Logan, UT; 9-12 August 2004. SSC04-IX-3'},{id:"B20",body:'Kim EE, Choi YW, Choi W, Kim HG, Park SJ, Yun JH, et al. Integration and testing of optical imaging system for RASAT. In: Proceedings of Recent Advances in Space Technologies (RAST); Istanbul, Turkey; 2007'},{id:"B21",body:'Ontaç S, Dağ S, Gökler MI. Structural finite element analysis of stiffened and honeycomb panels of the RASAT satellite. In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies (RAST 2007); Istanbul, Turkey; 14-16 June 2007'},{id:"B22",body:'Yüksel G, Okan A, Leloğlu UM. First LEO satellite built in Turkey: RASAT. In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies (RAST); Istanbul, Turkey; 14-16 June 2007'},{id:"B23",body:'İsmailoğlu N, Vargün B, Sever R, Okcan B, Karakuş K, Kapucu K, et al. GEZGN-2: Image processing subsystem of RASAT. In: Proceeding 5th International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies (RAST); 2011'},{id:"B24",body:'Schulz S, Renner U. DLR-TUBSAT, A microsatellite for interactive earth observation. In: Proceeding 5th International Symposium Small Satellite Systems and Services; La Baule, France; 2000'},{id:"B25",body:'Renner U, Bleif J, Roemer S. The TUBSAT attitude control system: flight experience with DLR-TUBSAT and MAROC-TUBSAT. In: 4th IAA Symposium; Berlin, Germany; 7-11 April 2003. IAA-B4-1201'},{id:"B26",body:'Roemer S, Renner U. Flight experience with the microsatellite MAROC-TUBSAT. In: 54th IAF Congress; Bremen, Germany; September 29–October 3, 2003; IAC-03-IAA.11.2.07'},{id:"B27",body:'Triharjanto RH, Hasbi W, Widipaminto A, Mukhayadi M, Renner U. LAPAN-TUBSAT: Micro-satellite platform for surveillance & remote sensing. In: Proceedings of the 4S Symposium: Small Satellites, Systems and Services; La Rochelle, France; 2004'},{id:"B28",body:'Saifudin MA, Mukhayadi M. LAPAN-A2 attitude control strategy for equatorial surveillance mission. In: Proceedings of the 9th IAA Symposium on Small Satellites for Earth Observation; Berlin, Germany; 8-12 April 2013. Paper: IAA-B9-1202'},{id:"B29",body:'Triharjanto RH, Hakim PR. Review of satellite technology development in Indonesian Space Agency based on its technical publications in 2012-2016. In: Proceedings of the 68th International Astronautical Congress; Australia; 2017'},{id:"B30",body:'Triharjanto RH. The comparison of LAPAN-A1 and LAPAN-A2 system design: Weight ratios and moment inertias analysis. In: Proceedings 2nd International Seminar of Aerospace Science and Technology; Jakarta, Indonesia; 2014'},{id:"B31",body:'Utama S, Saifudin MA, Mukhayadi M. Momentum biased performance of LAPAN-A3 satellite for multispectral pushbroom imager operation. IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science. 2018;149(1):012062'},{id:"B32",body:'Mukhayadi M, Madina R, Renner U. Attitude control of bias momentum micro satellite using magnetic and gravity gradient torque. In: Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Aerospace Electronics and Remote Sensing Technology; Yogyakarta, Indonesia; 2014. pp. 132-136'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Triharjanto Robertus",address:"robertus.heru@lapan.go.id",affiliation:'
National Institute of Aeronautics and Space, Jakarta, Indonesia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Tien Manh Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-nguyen",fullName:"Tien Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"258523",title:"Ms.",name:"Elnaz",middleName:null,surname:"Saeidi",email:"Elinaz.saeidi@yahoo.com",fullName:"Elnaz Saeidi",slug:"elnaz-saeidi",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"VacA Genotype in Helicobacter pylori",slug:"vaca-genotype-in-em-helicobacter-pylori-em-",abstract:"Helicobacter pylori infection has been recognized as a worldwide problem. H. pylori infection is the most prevalent cause of chronic gastritis and has been related to peptic ulcer disease and gastric cancer. It is considered that H. pylori infects half of the world’s population. Several virulence factors are produced by H. pylori in which each of them is related to an increase in the risk of disease development. The vacuolating cytotoxin (VacA) is one of these virulence factors. The first defined action of VacA was induction of intracellular vacuolation. VacA uses a variation in other effects on target cells, such as disruption of mitochondrial functions, stimulation of apoptosis, and blockade of T-cell proliferation, for the induction of vacuolation. In addition, VacA has an important role for colonization of H. pylori in vivo.",signatures:"Elnaz Saeidi, Amirhossein Sheikhshahrokh, Abbas Doosti and Reza Ranjbar",authors:[{id:"232083",title:"Mr.",name:"Amirhossein",surname:"Sheikhshahrokh",fullName:"Amirhossein Sheikhshahrokh",slug:"amirhossein-sheikhshahrokh",email:"amirhossein.sheikhshahrokh@yahoo.com"},{id:"258523",title:"Ms.",name:"Elnaz",surname:"Saeidi",fullName:"Elnaz Saeidi",slug:"elnaz-saeidi",email:"Elinaz.saeidi@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Helicobacter Pylori",slug:"helicobacter-pylori-new-approaches-of-an-old-human-microorganism",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"247025",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",surname:"Lapinski",slug:"tadeusz-lapinski",fullName:"Tadeusz Lapinski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"249433",title:"M.D.",name:"Leif Percival",surname:"Andersen",slug:"leif-percival-andersen",fullName:"Leif Percival Andersen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"250206",title:"BSc.",name:"Rie Louise Møller",surname:"Nordestgaard",slug:"rie-louise-moller-nordestgaard",fullName:"Rie Louise Møller Nordestgaard",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"250208",title:"MSc.",name:"Malene Roed",surname:"Spiegelhauer",slug:"malene-roed-spiegelhauer",fullName:"Malene Roed Spiegelhauer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"250220",title:"BSc.",name:"Agnes Tving",surname:"Stauning",slug:"agnes-tving-stauning",fullName:"Agnes Tving Stauning",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"250222",title:"MSc.",name:"Tove Havnhøj",surname:"Frandsen",slug:"tove-havnhoj-frandsen",fullName:"Tove Havnhøj Frandsen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"251403",title:"Ph.D.",name:"M. Cristina",surname:"L. Martins",slug:"m.-cristina-l.-martins",fullName:"M. Cristina L. Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"251404",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Parreira",slug:"paula-parreira",fullName:"Paula Parreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"258540",title:"Dr.",name:"Ida Caroline",surname:"Gren",slug:"ida-caroline-gren",fullName:"Ida Caroline Gren",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"259315",title:"Dr.",name:"Catarina",surname:"Seabra",slug:"catarina-seabra",fullName:"Catarina Seabra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding-funders-list",title:"List of Funders by Country",intro:"
If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
",metaTitle:"List of Funders by Country",metaDescription:"If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-funding-funders-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5228},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15790}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118192},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"98",title:"Astronomy and Astrophysics",slug:"astronomy-and-astrophysics",parent:{title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:89,numberOfWosCitations:91,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfDimensionsCitations:74,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"astronomy-and-astrophysics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7338",title:"Planetology",subtitle:"Future Explorations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d52566a2f61bb3d7021ed630a149e1e6",slug:"planetology-future-explorations",bookSignature:"Bryan Palaszewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7338.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8444",title:"Lunar Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f1dcf511a174e8ec89d97ca8c0c6146a",slug:"lunar-science",bookSignature:"Yann H. Chemin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8444.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"270578",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",middleName:"H.",surname:"Chemin",slug:"yann-chemin",fullName:"Yann Chemin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1629",title:"Astrophysics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"95209a68cff9bc045b51611c513b63bd",slug:"astrophysics",bookSignature:"Ibrahim Kucuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102957",title:"Prof.",name:"İbrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Küçük",slug:"ibrahim-kucuk",fullName:"İbrahim Küçük"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1617",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7695d3592f3bb8f5c0a52de901949a74",slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",bookSignature:"Marian Lazar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1617.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107684",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Lazar",slug:"marian-lazar",fullName:"Marian Lazar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"32544",doi:"10.5772/37359",title:"The Polar Cap PC Indices: Relations to Solar Wind and Global Disturbances",slug:"the-polar-cap-pc-indices-relations-to-solar-wind-and-global-disturbances",totalDownloads:2704,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Peter Stauning",authors:[{id:"112396",title:"MSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Stauning",slug:"peter-stauning",fullName:"Peter Stauning"}]},{id:"32539",doi:"10.5772/39281",title:"Suprathermal Particle Populations in the Solar Wind and Corona",slug:"suprathermal-particle-populations-in-the-solar-wind-and-corona",totalDownloads:2805,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"M. Lazar, R. Schlickeiser and S. Poedts",authors:[{id:"107684",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Lazar",slug:"marian-lazar",fullName:"Marian Lazar"}]},{id:"32533",doi:"10.5772/37908",title:"Measuring the Isotopic Composition of Solar Wind Noble Gases",slug:"measuring-the-isotopic-composition-of-solar-wind-noble-gases",totalDownloads:2268,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Alex Meshik, Charles Hohenberg, Olga Pravdivtseva and Donald Burnett",authors:[{id:"114740",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Meshik",slug:"alexander-meshik",fullName:"Alexander Meshik"},{id:"115300",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",middleName:null,surname:"Burnett",slug:"donald-burnett",fullName:"Donald Burnett"},{id:"115301",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Hohenberg",slug:"charles-hohenberg",fullName:"Charles Hohenberg"},{id:"115302",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Pravdivtseva",slug:"olga-pravdivtseva",fullName:"Olga Pravdivtseva"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"32544",title:"The Polar Cap PC Indices: Relations to Solar Wind and Global Disturbances",slug:"the-polar-cap-pc-indices-relations-to-solar-wind-and-global-disturbances",totalDownloads:2702,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Peter Stauning",authors:[{id:"112396",title:"MSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Stauning",slug:"peter-stauning",fullName:"Peter Stauning"}]},{id:"32539",title:"Suprathermal Particle Populations in the Solar Wind and Corona",slug:"suprathermal-particle-populations-in-the-solar-wind-and-corona",totalDownloads:2803,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"M. Lazar, R. Schlickeiser and S. Poedts",authors:[{id:"107684",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Lazar",slug:"marian-lazar",fullName:"Marian Lazar"}]},{id:"70129",title:"Introductory Chapter: Planetology",slug:"introductory-chapter-planetology",totalDownloads:208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"planetology-future-explorations",title:"Planetology",fullTitle:"Planetology - Future Explorations"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"34268",title:"Visualization Methods for Numerical Astrophysics",slug:"visualization-methods-for-numerical-astrophysics",totalDownloads:1946,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"astrophysics",title:"Astrophysics",fullTitle:"Astrophysics"},signatures:"Werner Benger, Markus Haider, Harald Höller, Dominik Steinhauser, Josef Stöckl, Biagio Cosenza and Marcel Ritter",authors:[{id:"90557",title:"Dr.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Benger",slug:"werner-benger",fullName:"Werner Benger"},{id:"112252",title:"MSc.",name:"Markus",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"markus-haider",fullName:"Markus Haider"},{id:"112253",title:"Dr.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Stoeckl",slug:"josef-stoeckl",fullName:"Josef Stoeckl"},{id:"112254",title:"Dr.",name:"Biagio",middleName:null,surname:"Cosenza",slug:"biagio-cosenza",fullName:"Biagio Cosenza"},{id:"112257",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Ritter",slug:"marcel-ritter",fullName:"Marcel Ritter"},{id:"112258",title:"MSc.",name:"Dominik",middleName:null,surname:"Steinhauser",slug:"dominik-steinhauser",fullName:"Dominik Steinhauser"},{id:"128849",title:"MSc.",name:"Harald",middleName:null,surname:"Hoeller",slug:"harald-hoeller",fullName:"Harald Hoeller"}]},{id:"32543",title:"Ground-Based Monitoring of the Solar Wind Geoefficiency",slug:"ground-based-monitoring-of-the-solar-wind-geoefficiency",totalDownloads:2019,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Oleg Troshichev",authors:[{id:"116123",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Troshichev",slug:"oleg-troshichev",fullName:"Oleg Troshichev"}]},{id:"34257",title:"Nuclear Excitation Processes in Astrophysical Plasmas",slug:"nuclear-excitation-processes-in-astrophysical-plasmas",totalDownloads:2016,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"astrophysics",title:"Astrophysics",fullTitle:"Astrophysics"},signatures:"G. Gosselin, P. Mohr, V. Méot and P. Morel",authors:[{id:"109302",title:"Mr.",name:"Gilbert",middleName:null,surname:"Gosselin",slug:"gilbert-gosselin",fullName:"Gilbert Gosselin"},{id:"109409",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",middleName:null,surname:"Meot",slug:"vincent-meot",fullName:"Vincent Meot"},{id:"109410",title:"Dr.",name:"Pascal",middleName:null,surname:"Morel",slug:"pascal-morel",fullName:"Pascal Morel"},{id:"112136",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Mohr",slug:"peter-mohr",fullName:"Peter Mohr"}]},{id:"32535",title:"Multifractal Turbulence in the Heliosphere",slug:"multifractal-turbulence-in-the-heliosphere",totalDownloads:2032,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Wiesław M. Macek",authors:[{id:"111245",title:"Prof.",name:"Wieslaw",middleName:null,surname:"Macek",slug:"wieslaw-macek",fullName:"Wieslaw Macek"}]},{id:"32546",title:"Turbulence in the Magnetosheath and the Problem of Plasma Penetration Inside the Magnetosphere",slug:"turbulence-in-the-magnetosheath-and-the-problem-of-plasma-penetration-inside-the-magnetosphere",totalDownloads:1921,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Elizaveta E. Antonova, Maria S. Pulinets, Maria O. Riazantseva, Svetlana S. Znatkova, Igor P. Kirpichev and Marina V. Stepanova",authors:[{id:"108722",title:"Prof.",name:"Elizaveta",middleName:null,surname:"Antonova",slug:"elizaveta-antonova",fullName:"Elizaveta Antonova"},{id:"108731",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Riazantseva",slug:"maria-riazantseva",fullName:"Maria Riazantseva"}]},{id:"34263",title:"The Lane-Emden-Fowler Equation and Its Generalizations - Lie Symmetry Analysis",slug:"the-lane-emden-equation-and-its-generalizations",totalDownloads:3486,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"astrophysics",title:"Astrophysics",fullTitle:"Astrophysics"},signatures:"Chaudry Masood Khalique",authors:[{id:"94177",title:"Dr.",name:"Chaudry",middleName:"Masood",surname:"Khalique",slug:"chaudry-khalique",fullName:"Chaudry Khalique"}]},{id:"65534",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: Lunar Base Issues",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-lunar-base-issues",totalDownloads:494,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"astronomy-and-astrophysics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/aflatoxins-recent-advances-and-future-prospects/review-of-the-biological-and-health-effects-of-aflatoxins-on-body-organs-and-body-systems",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"aflatoxins-recent-advances-and-future-prospects",chapter:"review-of-the-biological-and-health-effects-of-aflatoxins-on-body-organs-and-body-systems"},fullPath:"/books/aflatoxins-recent-advances-and-future-prospects/review-of-the-biological-and-health-effects-of-aflatoxins-on-body-organs-and-body-systems",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var t;(t=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(t)}()